Int J Adv Counselling (2015) 37:319–329

DOI 10.1007/s10447-015-9246-3

O R I G I N A L A RT I C L E

Coping Strategies for Managing Acculturative Stress

Among Asian International Students

Young-An Ra 1 & Jerry Trusty 2

Published online: 2 October 2015

# Springer Science+Business Media New York 2015

Abstract This article examines the effects of specific coping strategies on managing accul-
turative stress and acculturation of Asian international students, based on a sample of 220
Asian international students in the U.S. The data were analyzed with hierarchical multiple
regression using Baron and Kenny’s (1986) mediation procedure. The results supported the
notion of the mediating effects of task-oriented coping strategies, emotion-oriented coping
strategies, and avoidance-oriented coping strategies on the relationship between acculturation
and acculturative stress. Also, we found that emotion-oriented coping had a significant and
positive relationship with acculturative stress. The implications and limitations of the study and
recommendations for future research are discussed.

Keywords Coping strategies . Acculturation . Acculturative stress . Asian international students

Introduction

Empirical research (e.g., Connor-Smith and Compas 2002; Jose and Huntsinger 2005) has
indicated that coping strategies play a significant role in individuals' experiences of negative
life events and overall psychological well-being. Lazarus and Folkman (1984) have defined
coping as Bconstantly changing cognitive and behavioral efforts to manage specific external
and/or internal demands that are appraised as taxing or exceeding the resources of the person^
(p. 141). According to Lazarus (1990), the use of coping strategies serves as a mediating
procedure between the individual and his or her environment. Put more practically, coping has
been considered as the sum cognitive and behavioral responses to stressful life events that
ultimately enable an individual to control the stress induced by his or her environment

* Young-An Ra
yar4466@[Link]

1
BK21 Plus Institute of Future Education Design, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea
2
Department of Educational Psychology, Counseling, & Special Education, The Pennsylvania State
University, 327A CEDAR Building, University Park, State College, PA 16802, USA
320 Int J Adv Counselling (2015) 37:319–329

(Lazarus 1990). Studies on coping strategies, therefore, have the potential to identify possible
interventions and treatment plans for individuals suffering from different types of stress.
Endler and Parker (1990) have suggested that when people need to handle various types of
stress, they are likely to choose among different types of coping strategies, and that individuals
tend to use different coping strategies depending on their personalities and their surrounding
environments. Different types of coping strategies have been addressed by many researchers
(e.g., Endler and Parker 1990; Lazarus and Folkman 1984). Lazarus and Folkman (1984)
proposed two major types of coping in their Transactional Stress Coping Model: (a) problem-
focused coping, and (b) emotion-focused coping. Problem-focused coping is when an individ-
ual tries to manage or change the external environment that has triggered the stress. This
externally-oriented form of coping includes behaviors such as identifying the problem,
creating alternative solutions, and taking actions designed to solve the problem. Lazarus and
Folkman (1984) have reasoned that such problem-focused coping can also be inwardly-
focused; for example, altering one’s level of stress by changing one’s motivation, cognition,
and/or behavior. Typical examples of problem-focused coping include setting new behavioral
norms, changing one’s goals, and learning new skills (e.g., take corrective action, focusing on
the problem and seeing how to solve it).
According to Lazarus and Folkman (1984), rather than focusing on the external environ-
ment, emotion-focused coping is used when an individual focuses on managing his or her
internal emotional reaction to a given stressful situation. This coping process includes holding
onto and regulating internal emotional responses to a specific stressor. Common strategies for
emotion-focused coping involve wishful thinking, blaming oneself for having gotten into the
negative situation, striving to manage the emotional reactions, distancing, and trying to relax
(Lazarus and Folkman 1984). Whereas problem-focused coping pertains to the external
environment and situation, emotion-focused coping pertains specifically to the self.
Based on Lazarus and Folkman’s Transactional Stress Coping Model, Endler and Parker
(1990) identified a third type of coping strategy; what they termed avoidance-oriented coping.
According to Amirkhan (1990), researchers identified avoidance-oriented coping as a strategy
that is used when an individual tries to disengage from a stressful life event. Endler and Parker
(1990) developed the measurement tool ‘Coping Inventory for Stressful Situations' (CISS) in
order to assess these three coping strategies—task-oriented, emotion-oriented, and avoidance-
oriented. This instrument assists researchers in identifying individuals' coping styles, ultimate-
ly helping them to better understand the relationship between various types of stress experi-
enced and coping strategies utilized (Endler and Parker 1990).
Although research has emphasized individuals' different coping styles in relation to general
stress, little attention has been paid to the particular case of how international students cope
with stressful situations: particularly, those related to acculturative stress. Berry (1997) has
indicated in his stress and coping model of acculturation that individuals who have higher
levels of acculturation are more likely to cope with acculturative stress. In addition, he also
noted that coping plays an important mediating or moderating role in the relationship between
acculturation and acculturative stress. Some studies have investigated international students'
help-seeking behaviors (e.g., Tung 2011; Yang and Clum 1994), yet only a few (e.g., Hahn
2011; Ra 2014) have examined the different types of coping practiced among international
students.
Of the studies that have explored different coping styles of international students, even
fewer have specifically focused on the Asian international student population. Furukawa
(1997) conducted a study on Japanese international students in order to determine how those
Int J Adv Counselling (2015) 37:319–329 321

students handled the stress that arises from engaging with a foreign culture. The results of that
study showed that such international students typically experienced high levels of acculturative
stress while they were studying abroad and even when they returned to their home country.
Regarding types of coping, Furukawa (1997) found that task-oriented coping strategies had
a significant impact on Japanese students' adjustment to their adopted communities. In
addition, he also found that some students who tended to use emotion-oriented coping
strategies when adapting to a new culture, still seemed to experience acculturative stress and
psychological disturbance. Yang and Clum (1994) also examined the stress facing Asian
international students. Their study revealed that a lack of problem-solving skills, which are
part of task-oriented coping, served as a good indicator of high stress being experienced and
eventual depression and hopelessness among Asian international students. Moreover, Li and
Browne (2000) revealed that most Asian international students were more likely to avoid
addressing their difficulties and mental health concerns in a new culture. This avoidance might
lead to delays in seeking psychological treatment until moments of crisis or a worsening of
symptoms. As a result, when they eventually seek treatment, Asian international students tend
to have symptoms that are more severe than those of other students of different ethnicities.
Overall, the results of previous studies demonstrating the relationship between coping
strategies and acculturative stress have shown that for mental health and psychological well-
being, making use of different types of coping strategies is important. However, it is also clear
that different types of coping can influence the experience of acculturative stress and the
acculturation process differently, based on certain factors such as race/ethnicity and cultural
backgrounds (Ra 2014). More research is thus required regarding which types of coping
strategies are most commonly used by Asian international students in stressful situations and
the extent to which different coping styles impact the students' process of acculturation.
Therefore, based on the previous literature on acculturation, coping, and acculturative
stress, and drawing on Berry’s (1997) stress and coping model of acculturation, this study
focused on the impact of three types of coping strategies (task-oriented, emotion-oriented, and
avoidance-oriented) on the relationship between acculturation and acculturative stress of
international students, especially Asian international students.
The specific research question addressed in the study was the following: ‘to what extent
does a specific type of coping strategy (i.e., task-oriented, emotion-oriented, avoidance-
oriented) mediate the effects of acculturation on the acculturative stress of Asian international
students?’

Method

Participants and Procedure

The participants for this study were 220 Asian international students who were, at the time,
living in the U.S., holding F-1 visas (student visas), and attending U.S. universities for the
purpose of earning their undergraduate or graduate degrees. Participants were from 23 States
across the U.S. Among the participant sample, 66 % involved women (n = 145) and 34 % men
(n = 75). Sixty one percent were undergraduate students (n = 134) and 39 % were graduate
students (n = 86). The average age of the participants was 24.12 years (SD = 4.40), with ages
ranging from 18 to 39 years. The participants reported having lived in the U.S. for an average
of just under 4 years (46.04 months; SD = 37.17), with some having lived there for as little as
322 Int J Adv Counselling (2015) 37:319–329

1 month and others just over 12 years (152 months). They identified themselves as being South
Korean (67 %, n = 148), followed by Taiwanese (18 %, n = 39), Chinese (12 %, n = 26),
Japanese (2 %, n = 5), Malaysian (0.5 %, n = 1), and Kazakh (0.5 %, n = 1). Most of the
participants (96 %, n = 210) held F-1 student visas, and the remaining (4 %, n = 10) were on F-1
OPT (Optional Practical Training) visas.
To recruit the participants, we created a Web survey and posted the Web link on a
social network service ([Link]). The posting included information describing
the purpose and procedure of the survey. As soon as potential participants clicked on
the study’s Web site, read the informed consent form, and agreed to participate, they
were able to start the questionnaires. Response rate to the survey was unable to be
assessed as it was not possible to know how many Asian international students were
exposed to the option.

Instruments

Four measurements were used in the study. These involved a demographic questionnaire; the
Suinn-Lew Asian Self-Identity Acculturation Scale (SL-Asia; Suinn et al. 1987); the Index of
Life Stress (ILS; Yang and Clum, 1995) instrument; and the Coping Inventory of Stressful
Situations (CISS; Endler and Parker 1990).

Demographic Questionnaire

The demographic questionnaire was designed specifically for this study. The questionnaire
included descriptive information related to age, gender, degree sought, major, visa type,
country of origin, total length of stay in the U.S., and university location.

Suinn-Lew Asian Self-Identity Acculturation Scale (SL-Asia; Suinn et al. 1987)

Levels of acculturation were examined by using 21 items of the Suinn-Lew Asian Self-Identity
Acculturation Scale (SL-Asia). The instrument has a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (only
Asian) to 5 (only English/Western). Examples of the scale questions are BWhat language do
you prefer?^ and BHow do you identify yourself?^
In previous studies, the internal consistency of the SL-Asia has been shown to be quite
high, with Suinn et al. (1987) having indicated a reliability score of 0.88. In addition, reliability
was found to be 0.79 in a cross-cultural validation study of the SL-Asia between Asian
Americans and Asian Singaporeans (Suinn and Khoo 1995). In the present study, the
Cronbach’s alpha of the SL-Asia was 0.76.

Index of Life Stress (ILS; Yang and Clum 1995)

Levels of acculturative stress were examined using the Index of Life Stress (ILS) instrument.
The ILS is a 31-item self-report questionnaire that asks participants to rate their experiences of
stress via a series of statements. Examples of scale questions are BI worry about my academic
performance^ and BI do not like the ways people treat each other here^. All questions of the
ILS are rated on a 4-point Likert-type scale, ranging from 0 (never) to 3 (often). According to
Yang and Clum (1995), the ILS has been shown to have satisfactory reliability for Asian
international students. A Cronbach’s coefficient alpha was 0.86 in the original norming group
Int J Adv Counselling (2015) 37:319–329 323

of Asian international students, and the test-retest reliability after a month was 0.87. In the
present study, the internal consistency of the ILS was 0.88.

The Coping Inventory of Stressful Situations (CISS; Endler and Parker 1990)

Levels of engagement in specific types of coping were examined using the Coping Inventory
of Stressful Situations (CISS). The CISS is a 48-item self-report questionnaire that asks
respondents to rate their degree of engagement in particular coping behaviors. The instrument
involves a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (not at all) to 5 (very much). According to
Endler and Parker (1994), this measurement has been found to be reliable at an acceptable
level, showing Cronbach’s alphas from 0.83 to 0.90. Furukawa (1997) conducted a study to
explore acculturative stress and coping styles of Japanese international students, and in that
study the reliability of the CISS and its subscales were found to be from 0.72 to 0.82. In the
current study, the Cronbach’s alpha of the CISS total was 0.89. More specifically, the
reliabilities of task-oriented coping, emotion-oriented coping, and avoidance-oriented coping
were found to be 0.91, 0.89, and 0.83 respectively.

Data Analysis

To identify the mediating roles of the specific types of coping between acculturative stress and
acculturation of Asian international students, we used the mediation test procedure outlined by
Baron and Kenny (1986). Based on this approach, three regression analyses were employed.
First, acculturative stress was regressed on acculturation; second, each type of coping was
regressed on acculturation; and third, acculturative stress was regressed on both acculturation
and each specific type of coping.
To establish mediation, acculturation should be significantly associated with acculturative
stress in the first analysis; acculturation should be significantly related with the specific type of
coping in the second regression analysis; and the specific type of coping should be signifi-
cantly associated with acculturative stress in the third analysis. If the effect of acculturation on
acculturative stress drops to zero in the third step, it indicates perfect mediation; if it decreases,
but not to zero, it shows partial mediation (Baron and Kenny 1986). Additionally, we used the
Sobel test (Sobel 1982) to determine the mediational effects. If the Sobel test shows a p-value
under 0.05, mediation is deemed to be established.

Results

Descriptive Statistics and Correlations Among Variables

Prior to performing the multiple regression analyses, we examined the descriptive analyses
results to determine whether the assumptions of multivariate procedures—normality, linearity,
and homoscedasticity—were met. With the exception of acculturation, all other variables
(acculturative stress, task-oriented coping, emotion-oriented coping, and avoidance-oriented
coping) were normally distributed. Tabachnick and Fidell (2007) noted that it is possible to use
a square root transformation for variables with positively skewed distributions to generate
normal distributions. We, therefore, conducted the square root transformation for acculturation,
with this, then, providing a normal distribution. We then applied both residuals plots and
324 Int J Adv Counselling (2015) 37:319–329

bivariate scatterplots and confirmed that the data of the current study had no variables with
curvilinear relationships and no highly-correlated variables. Therefore, all the variables were
judged to be appropriate for further analysis.
According to the bivariate correlations for the variables, no demographic variables signif-
icantly related with the main variables in the study. Thus, demographic variables were not used
as control variables in the subsequent regression analyses. Acculturation was significantly and
negatively correlated with acculturative stress, showing a correlation of −0.37 (p < 0.0005).
Acculturation and the three mediator variables (task-oriented coping, emotion-oriented coping,
and avoidance-oriented coping) showed significant and positive relationships: acculturation
was significantly associated with task-oriented coping, showing a correlation of 0.17
(p = 0.013); with emotion-oriented coping, indicating a correlation of 0.20 (p = 0.003); and
with avoidance-oriented coping, with a correlation of 0.23 (p = 0.001). Moreover, the correla-
tions between acculturative stress and the three types of coping were all significant: -0.35
(p < 0.0005) for task-oriented coping, 0.14 (p = 0.044) for emotion-oriented coping, and −0.23
(p = 0.001) for avoidance-oriented coping. The results of the descriptive statistics and correla-
tions for the variables are presented in Table 1.

Mediation Analyses

We performed multiple regression analyses to examine the mediating role of the three types of
coping. Table 2 shows the results of these regression analyses.
To test the mediating effects of task-oriented coping strategies, acculturative stress was first
regressed on acculturation. Second, task-oriented coping was regressed on acculturation, and,
third, acculturative stress was regressed on both acculturation and task-oriented coping. In
these three steps, all relationships were found to be significant. Additionally, the effect of
acculturation on acculturative stress was shown to be weaker in the third step than in the first
step. The results of the Sobel test were also significant (Sobel statistic = −2.242, p = 0.024),
thus indicating a mediating role of task-oriented coping between the level of acculturation and
acculturative stress.
To test the mediating effects of emotion-oriented coping strategies, we repeated the same
procedures. First, acculturative stress was regressed on acculturation; second, emotion-oriented
coping was regressed on acculturation; and third, acculturative stress was regressed on both
acculturation and emotion-oriented coping. During the three steps, all of the relationships were

Table 1 Descriptive statistics and correlations for variables (N = 220)

Variables 1 2 3 4 5

1. Acculturative stress – −0.370** −0.345** 0.136* −0.229**

2. Acculturation ª – 0.166* 0.197** 0.228**
3. Task-coping – 0.005 0.372**
4. Emotion-coping – 0.319**
5. Avoidance-coping –
M 2.28 1.46 3.59 2.94 3.20
SD 0.41 0.10 0.59 0.68 0.59

* p < 0.0.05, ** p < 0.0.01

ª Square Root Transformed
Int J Adv Counselling (2015) 37:319–329 325

Table 2 Multiple regression analyses for mediating effects of specific coping strategies on the relationship
between acculturation and acculturative stress (N = 220)

Analysis Step Dependent variable Independent variables R2 B SE β P

Analysis 1 1 Acculturative stress Acculturation 0.370 −1.523 0.259 −0.370 0.000

2 Task-coping Acculturation 0.166 0.028 0.011 0.166 0.013
3 Acculturative stress Acculturation 0.468 −1.324 0.251 −0.321 0.000
Task-coping −0.204 0.043 −0.291 0.000
Analysis 2 1 Acculturative stress Acculturation 0.370 −1.523 0.259 −0.370 0.000
2 Emotion-coping Acculturation 0.197 1.336 0.450 0.197 0.003
3 Acculturative stress Acculturation 0.426 −1.699 0.258 −0.412 0.000
Emotion-coping −0.132 0.038 0.217 0.001
Analysis 3 1 Acculturative stress Acculturation 0.370 −1.523 0.259 −0.370 0.000
2 Avoidance-coping Acculturation 0.228 1.332 0.385 0.228 0.001
3 Acculturative stress Acculturation 0.398 −1.380 0.264 −0.335 0.000
Avoidance-coping −0.108 0.045 −0.153 0.018

shown to be significant. However, the effect of acculturation on acculturative stress was not
weaker in the third step than it was in the first step. The Sobel test for this mediation was
significant (Sobel statistic = −2.256, p = 0.024), showing that emotion-oriented coping was a
mediator.
Finally, to test the mediating effect of avoidance-oriented coping strategies, again, accul-
turative stress was first regressed on acculturation; second, avoidance-oriented coping was
regressed on acculturation; and third, acculturative stress was regressed on both
acculturation and avoidance-oriented coping. Significant relationships were found in
all these three steps. In addition, the effect of acculturation on acculturative stress was
shown to be weaker in the third step than in the first step. The Sobel test for this mediation
was also significant (Sobel statistic = −1.971, p = 0.048), thus indicating the mediating role of
avoidance-oriented coping between the level of acculturation and acculturative stress.

Discussion

The results of this study showed the mediating effects of task-oriented coping strategies,
emotion-oriented coping strategies, and avoidance-oriented coping strategies on the relation-
ship between acculturation and acculturative stress of Asian international students. These
findings suggest that the Asian international students' coping strategies were linked to the
acculturation process in response to acculturative stress. In other words, Asian international
students' engagement in task-oriented coping strategies, emotion-oriented coping strategies,
and avoidance-oriented coping strategies related directly to the acculturation process in
response to acculturative stress. Asian international students' experiences with adjusting to
life in the U.S. challenge them to use effective coping behaviors, which then leads potentially
to reduced levels of acculturative stress (Ra 2014). If an international student in the U.S. has a
lower level of acculturative stress and better psychological well-being, this may well be a
consequence of utilizing such coping strategies better than those who have higher levels of
acculturative stress or less favorable psychological well-being.
326 Int J Adv Counselling (2015) 37:319–329

Examples of task-oriented coping strategies include Buse my time better^ and Bfocus on the
problem and see how I can solve it.^ Using such strategies, Asian international students might
well handle effectively the acculturative stress that arises from acculturation demands.
According to Hahn (2011), this is likely to happen because when an international student
focuses on identifying his or her situation and finding a solution to stressors, he or she may
strive to resolve the problem and thereby work to eliminate the catalyst of the acculturation
stress. An Asian international student who uses task-oriented coping strategies may thus
minimize his or her acculturative stress by using task-oriented coping strategies.
According to Endler and Parker (1990), the purpose of using emotion-oriented coping
strategies is to recognize and monitor individuals' emotional distress in response to a stressful
situation, because monitoring those negative feelings can give an opportunity to regulate the
distress. The examples of emotion-oriented coping strategies include Bbecome tense,^ Bfeel
anxious about not being able to cope,^ or Btake it out on other people when I feel angry or
depressed.^ The results of the current study, however, showed that emotion-oriented coping
strategies had a significant and positive relationship to acculturative stress, in contrast to task-
oriented and avoidance-oriented coping strategies which were negatively related to accultur-
ative stress. This means that if an international student relies on using emotion-oriented coping
strategies, he or she may have a greater level of acculturative stress.
There may be reasons why emotion-oriented coping strategies have a different effect from
other types of coping strategies. First, many researchers (e.g., Furukawa 1997; Shikai et al.
2009) suggest that emotion-oriented coping is a maladaptive coping strategy. Although Endler
and Parker (1990) noted that emotion-oriented coping can manage emotional reactions to the
problem and regulate the distress, researchers (e.g., Furukawa 1997; Shikai et al. 2009) have
found that this type of coping strategy contributes to stress. Seo (2013) indicated that it is likely
to be because the features of emotion-oriented coping strategies typically are related to self-
depreciative sentences (e.g., blame myself for not knowing what to do). Therefore, the results
of the current study support the findings of those studies (cf., Furukawa 1997; Shikai et al.
2009), which have shown that emotion-oriented coping efforts are largely maladaptive.
Additionally, we need to consider Asians' attitudes toward emotions. Although recognizing
the emotional distress may be assistive to have an opportunity to regulate the negative feelings
for some people (Endler and Parker 1990), it may be unhelpful for Asian international students
because Asians tend to be reserved and reluctant to express their emotions (Kim et al. 1999). In
Asia, emotional self-control can be an important cultural value and a symbol of maturity (cf.,
Kim et al. 1999; Kim et al. 2005). However, the items related to emotion-oriented coping
strategies in the CISS (e.g., feel anxious about not being able to cope; take it out on other
people when I feel angry or depressed) ask respondents to express their negative feelings, thus
these may not be comfortable to assess the strategy or not be positive towards minimizing
stress for Asian international students. In summary, although emotion-oriented coping efforts
have mediating effects in the present study, this strategy has shown different characteristics
compared with other types of coping (task-oriented coping, avoidance-oriented coping), and
this supports the idea that engagement in emotion-focused coping strategies tends to contribute
to acculturative stress among Asian international students (Hahn 2011).
Lastly, examples of avoidance-oriented coping strategies include Bvisit a friend,^ Bwatch
TV,^ and Bgo for a walk.^ The results of the study suggest that Asian international students
who engage in purposefully-distracting activities rather than directly confronting their stressors
may actually experience less acculturative stress. Although focusing on finding solutions to the
stressors (e.g., using task-oriented strategies) may be considered a better overall strategy,
Int J Adv Counselling (2015) 37:319–329 327

purposefully-distracting activities may result in momentary relaxation, because such activities

may temporarily relieve extremely stressful feelings, thereby improving psychological well-
being (Hahn 2011). If an international student has a lower level of acculturative stress, it may
be that he or she may be engaging more commonly in avoidance strategies than those who
experience higher levels of acculturative stress.
In conclusion, the results of this study show partial mediating effects of task-oriented
coping strategies, emotion-oriented coping strategies, and avoidance-oriented coping strategies
between acculturation and the acculturative stress for Asian international students.

Implications

For counseling professionals, increasing awareness about diverse coping strategies of interna-
tional students may be the first step in discussions of coping when working with international
students. Additionally, counselors need to be aware of students' cultural backgrounds in order
to better assist them and to understand why they experience stress and respond to it in certain
ways. With the findings of this study, counselors would be more able to understand and better
identify Asian international students' major styles of coping efforts in response to stress so that
they may be able to help those students address acculturative stress by effectively using more
positive coping strategies.
In this study, all three types of coping strategies (task-oriented, emotion-oriented, and
avoidance- oriented) were shown to be partial mediators between acculturation and the
acculturative stress of Asian international students. However, emotion-oriented coping strate-
gies had a positive association with acculturative stress, while task-oriented coping and
avoidance-oriented coping strategies were found to be negatively associated with acculturative
stress. Based on these findings, counselors would be better able to evaluate students' coping
strategies, identifying risk and protective factors of the various strategies used, and to
recommend and help work towards more effective ways for students to overcome stressful
circumstances. Recognizing the role of emotion-oriented coping strategies would be essential
for both counselors and students.
When working with international students, counseling professionals may discuss the
consequences of adopting maladaptive coping strategies as well as the benefits of using more
adaptive coping strategies; they may also promote and teach such adaptive coping strategies,
including task-oriented coping and avoidance-oriented coping, or even more constructive
emotion-oriented coping strategies. For example, counselor can encourage students to seek
support from international student centers or student organizations to increase the task-oriented
copings by receiving host national supports. They also can help the students reduce the
negative emotional responses associated with stress by suggesting interventions such as
meditation or emotional cognitive reappraisal. In addition, they can recommend creating social
networks to promote the students' avoidance-coping strategies, so the students can have more
leisure time with people around them.
Counselors can discuss these three forms of coping strategies with students and encourage
them to use more useful strategies when faced with the inevitable stress that goes with
acculturation demands. Counselors also need to make sure to warn international students of
any negative aspect of these coping strategies; in the case of emotion oriented-coping efforts,
these consequences may include emotional maladjustment and harmful self-criticism (Hahn
2011; Seo 2013). If an Asian international student uses mostly emotion-oriented coping
328 Int J Adv Counselling (2015) 37:319–329

strategies to handle his or her life stress in the U.S., he or she might manage the problem and
regulate the distress, but there might still be serious difficulties in adjusting to the new culture.
They may also discuss during counseling sessions the degree to which the students most
commonly use each of the coping strategies. In this way, Asian international students will be
able to identify their primary coping strategies that they mostly use, evaluate if these are most
appropriate, manage their difficult situations more effectively, and eventually reduce their
acculturative stress.

Limitations and Recommendations

This study has a number of limitations, including the small number of respondents from Asian
countries other than South Korea, as well as its reliance on self-reported data. Because the final
sample included a majority of South Korean international students, the results might be limited
in regard to any extrapolation to international students from other countries. Another important
limitation to be considered in interpreting the results of the study is that the findings are based
on self-reported responses. It is possible that respondents might have offered answers that they
believed a majority of people would accept, instead of basing their answers on their actual
coping practices.
Such limitations can help guide and structure future studies. Using qualitative methodologies
may help examine in greater depth international students' actual experiences of acculturative
stress in the U.S. A qualitative approach would allow a more detailed exploration of the
international students' acculturation process, such as similarities and differences of personal
experiences. Additionally, to better understand the stress and coping model, positive psycholog-
ical outcomes of acculturation, other negative psychological outcomes of acculturation (e.g.,
depression or anxiety), and other protective factors of acculturative stress, also need to be studied.
These further investigations would allow researchers to better understand the resilience of
international students and ultimately to design more effective studies to understand and develop
interventions to help deal most effectively with the issues faced by international students.

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