Radiobiology Ionization causes molecular
changes.
It can break chemical bonds
Radiobiology - is the study of how in important molecules like
radiation affects living organisms — from DNA, proteins, or water.
cells and tissues to entire bodies. Indirect effects through water
o In simpler terms: molecules.
It explains what happens to the Radiation hits water (which
body when it is exposed to makes up most of the cell),
radiation, how cells respond, how forming free radicals — very
damage occurs and repairs, and reactive molecules that can
what the short-term and long- damage DNA and other cell
term effects are. parts.
o Key Points: Biological results.
It focuses on ionizing radiation If the damage is severe or not
(like X-rays, gamma rays, alpha repaired, it can lead to cell
and beta particles). death, mutation, or cancer.
Studies how radiation can cause In simple terms:
Radiation gives its energy to
cell death, DNA damage, or
the body’s atoms → atoms
mutations.
become unstable → these
Helps in understanding radiation
unstable atoms can harm cells
therapy for cancer treatment and
and DNA.
radiation protection for medical o Biological Reaction to Ionization:
workers and patients. Ionization event:
o Example: Radiation hits an atom or
When X-rays are used in molecule in the cell → an
radiology, radiobiology helps electron is ejected, and the
determine safe exposure levels so atom becomes ionized
that we get good diagnostic images (charged).
without harming tissues. Chemical reaction:
Energy Transfer from Radiation to Living These ions are highly
Tissue reactive and can cause
o When radiation enters the body, it chemical changes in nearby
transfers energy to the atoms and molecules — for example:
molecules inside our cells. This o Breaking chemical
process can change or damage them, bonds
leading to biological effects. o Forming new, abnormal
o Here’s how it happens step by step: molecules
Radiation interacts with atoms o Producing free radicals
in the tissue. (especially from water
It can knock out electrons, molecules)
creating charged particles Biological effect:
called ions. These chemical changes can
(This process is called lead to:
ionization.) o DNA damage
(mutations or breaks)
o Protein alteration — from things like radiation, toxins,
o Cell malfunction or lack of oxygen, or infection.
death o When this happens, cells can either
Example: adapt, get injured, or die, depending
When radiation ionizes a on how severe the stress is.
water molecule in a cell: o Cellular Adaptation
o H2O→H++OH− When stress is mild or gradual,
The hydroxyl radical (OH•) cells adjust to survive.
formed is extremely reactive
These changes are usually
and can attack DNA or cell
reversible.
membranes.
Types of Adaptation:
In short:
Atrophy
Ionization → Chemical
o Decrease in cell size
changes → Biological
reaction (cell damage or Muscle shrinkage
repair). from lack of use
Latent Period (in Radiobiology) Hypertrophy
o The latent period is the time between o Increase in cell size
exposure to radiation and the Heart muscles
appearance of observable effects in enlarge from high
the body blood pressure
o In simpler terms: Hyperplasia
o Increase in number of
It’s the “waiting time” before any
signs or symptoms of radiation cells
damage show up Thickened skin
o Examples: from constant
friction
after a high dose of radiation,
Metaplasia
symptoms like nausea or skin
o Change in cell type
redness might appear within
Lining of
hours or days — a short latent
respiratory tract in
period. smokers’ changes
After low or repeated exposure, type
effects like cancer or genetic Dysplasia
mutations might take years to o Abnormal cell growth
appear — a long latent period. (can lead to cancer)
o Summary: Cervical cells
High dose (acute) showing irregular
Radiation burn, nausea shapes
Short (hours to days) o Cellular Injury
Low dose (chronic) When the stress or radiation is too
Cancer, cataracts strong, cells can be injured.
Long (months to years) If damage continues, injury
Cellular Injury and Adaptation becomes irreversible, leading to
o Cells are the basic units of life, and cell death.
they constantly face stress or damage Causes of Cellular Injury:
Radiation exposure
Lack of oxygen (hypoxia) Sister chromatids (each half
Chemicals or toxins of a chromosome) are pulled
Infection apart to opposite sides.
Physical trauma Tug-of-war pulling apart.
Effects of Injury: Telophase
Damage to cell membrane Two new nuclei form;
DNA and enzyme alteration chromosomes start to uncoil
Formation of free radicals Two new "nuclei" appear.
Failure of energy (ATP) Cytokinesis
production The cell’s cytoplasm divides,
o Cell Death creating two identical
If the injury cannot be repaired, the daughter cells.
cell may die by: Final split into two cells.
Necrosis – uncontrolled cell Radiation Effects on the Cell
death due to severe injury o Three Things That Can Happen to a
Apoptosis – natural or Cell After Being Irradiated
programmed cell death When a cell is exposed to radiation
(normal in body processes) (irradiated), three possible
Mitosis outcomes can occur depending on
o Mitosis is the process by which a cell the dose, cell type, and cell’s
divides to form two identical ability to repair damage.
daughter cells. Cell Damage Is Repaired
It’s how our body grows, repairs (Recovery)
damaged tissues, and replaces old The cell successfully repairs
cells. the radiation damage.
o Purpose of Mitosis It continues to function
To produce new cells for growth normally and divide as usual.
and repair This happens when the
to maintain the same number of radiation dose is low or the
chromosomes (46 in humans) in cell’s repair system is
each new cell effective.
To ensure genetic consistency Example: A skin cell repairs
between cells minor DNA breaks after X-
o Stages of Mitosis ray exposure.
Prophase Cell Damage Is Not Repaired
Chromosomes become (Mutation or Abnormal Function)
visible; nuclear membrane The cell survives, but the
disappears; spindle fibers DNA damage remains.
form. It may function abnormally
Chromosomes start to appear. or mutate.
Metaphase Mutations can lead to cancer
Chromosomes line up in the or genetic effects if passed to
middle (equator) of the cell. future generations of cells.
Like lining up in the center. Example: A cell with
Anaphase damaged DNA continues
dividing and later forms a
tumor.
Cell Dies (Cell Death) Bond breaking or denaturation
The damage is too severe for Enzyme malfunction
the cell to repair. o Enzymes
The cell loses its ability to Inactivation due to structural
divide (reproductive death) change
or dies immediately. Slower or stopped metabolic
Common in high radiation reactions
doses. Consequences
Example: Blood-forming cells o Reversible damage if repaired by the
in bone marrow die after cell
high-dose radiation exposure. o Permanent mutation if errors remain
Irradiation of Macromolecules in DNA
o Macromolecules are large, complex o Cell death if vital macromolecules are
molecules found inside the cell — like destroyed
DNA, RNA, proteins, and enzymes. there are three principal observable effects
When these are irradiated (exposed resulting from irradiation of DNA
to radiation), their structure and o Cell Death
function can be altered, which may Radiation causes severe damage
lead to cell damage or death. to DNA, such as double-strand
o Direct and Indirect Effects breaks or chromosome
Direct Effect fragmentation.
Radiation hits the The cell cannot divide or repair
macromolecule itself, causing itself, leading to cell death (also
ionization and damage called reproductive death).
directly. This is a deterministic effect,
A DNA strand breaks apart. meaning it depends on the dose —
Indirect Effect higher dose → higher chance of
Radiation hits water death.
molecules, forming free Example: Bone marrow cells die
radicals that then damage the after high radiation exposure,
macromolecule. reducing blood cell production.
OH• (hydroxyl radical) o Malignant Disease
attacks DNA or proteins. If the DNA damage is not
Most cellular damage happens repaired correctly, it may result
indirectly because the cell is about in mutation.
80% water. Mutated cells can divide
Effects on Different Macromolecules uncontrollably, forming tumors
o DNA or cancers (malignant diseases).
Breaks or cross-links form This is a stochastic effect,
between strands meaning even small doses can
Mutation, chromosomal damage, increase cancer risk over time.
or cell death Example: Radiation exposure
o RNA leading to leukemia or thyroid
Disruption of transcription (protein cancer years later.
synthesis) o Genetic Damage
Faulty protein production If the DNA damage occurs in
o Proteins reproductive cells (sperm or
egg), it can be passed on to
offspring.
This leads to hereditary effects,
such as birth defects or genetic
disorders in the next generation.
Example: Mutations in germ cells
causing congenital abnormalities
in children.
Radiolysis of Water
o Radiolysis of water is the process
where radiation breaks down water
molecules (H₂O) into ions and free
radicals.
o Since our body is about 80% water,
this process is the main way radiation
causes cell damage — especially
through indirect effects.
o The Process
When ionizing radiation passes
through water inside a cell:
H2O radiation H2O+ + e−
The water molecule becomes
ionized, producing:
o positive water ion
(H₂O⁺)
o Free electron (e⁻)
these quickly react to form
unstable molecules called
free radicals
o The Products
Hydrogen free radical
H•
Very reactive, can attack
molecules
Hydroxyl free radical
OH•
Most damaging radical to
cells
Hydrogen peroxide
H₂O₂
Toxic compound that can
destroy cell components