CHAPTER

Organic Chemistry-Some Basic

12 Principles and Techniques

Table: Enantiomers vs Diastereomers

Properties Enantiomers Diastereomers

(1) Molecular formula Same Same

(2) Structural formula Same Same

(3) Stereochemical formula Different Different
(structure formula with orientation)

(4) Dipole moment Same Different

(5) Physical properties (m.p., b.p., density, Same Different
solubility, refractive index etc.)

(6) Specific rotation Different sign but same magnitude Different

(7) Chemical properties

(1) with optically inactive compound Same Different

(2) with optically active compound Different Different

Table: Examples of Electrophiles

Positively charged Neutral molecules

SO3. BF3, AlCl3

H + (H 3O + ), Cl+ , Br + ,

I + , NO +2 , NO + , SO3 H + *
ZnCl2 , I Cl, PCl5

* *
R+, R3C+ and other BeCl2, FeCl3, SnCl4 R COCl, ( RCO) 2 O CO2, CS2, CX4

carbocations, CH3CO+, R MgX

CCl2 (Carbene)
NCOOC2H5 (Nitrene)
C== O
 Table: Examples of Nucleophiles

Negatively charged Neutral molecules

Cl–, Br–, I–, NH3, R—N—H,

—
H
R–, H–, S–, NO2–, H—O—H

NH2–, RNH–, R2N–, R—O—H, R—O—R,, R—S—H,

[CH(COOC2H5)2]–, R—S—R, H—S—H,

[CH3COCHCOOEt]–, R2—N , R3—N

—
H
R3C–, CH3COCH2–, OH–, LiAlH4, (C6H5)3 P , R3P
OR–, COO–, RCOO–, R—MgX, R—Li,
CN–, N3–, SH–, HSO3– PH3, RPH2, R2PH

Table: General Properties of Reaction Intermediate

Property Carbocation Carbon Free radical Carbanion

Formation C—X→C+ + X– C—X→C• + X• C—X→C– + X+
Formed by Heterolytic fission Homolytic fission Heterolytic fission
No. of e– in valence shell 6 7 8
Octet Incomplete Incomplete complete
e– rich/deficient Deficient Deficient rich
Stabilized by e– donating groups e– donating groups e– withdrawing groups
Unpaired e– 0 1 0
Represented by
C⊕ C• C

hybridisation sp2 sp2 sp3

shape Trigonal planar Trigonal planar Pyramidal

30 NEET (XI) Module-4 PW

 CHAPTER

12 IUPAC Nomenclature

Saturated Alkanes
R—X: Alkyl halide Open chain
compounds
R—OH: Alkanol Alkenes, Alkynes,
Unsaturated
Alkadienes
R—O—R: Alkoxy alkane
Classification
O Carbo cyclic Cycloalkane
R—C : Alkanal compounds
H Closed chain Aromatic compounds
compounds
O Hetero cyclic
R—C : Alkanone compounds Furan, Pyrrole, Pyridine
R
Functional ORGANIC
O group COMPOUNDS
R—C : Alkanoic acid Root word
OH Primary prefix
IUPAC Prefix
O Secondary prefix
R—C : Alkanoyl chloride
Cl Primary suffix
Naming Suffix
O : Alkanoic anhydride Secondary suffix
R—C
OCOR
Common
Source
name
O
R—C : Alkanmide
NH2
If the organic compound contains a functional group, multiple bonds, side chain or substituents, the following order of preference
must be followed,
Functional group > Double bond > Triple bond > Side chain
The following order of preference is used for selecting the principal functional group:
Carboxylic acids > sulphuric acids > acid anhydrides > esters > acid chlorides > amides > nitriles
> aldehydes > ketones > alcohols > amines > imines > ethers > alkenes > alkynes.
 CHAPTER

03 Isomerism

Definition CH3
Compounds having same molecular formula but differ in atleast
CH3 – N – CH3
one physical or chemical or biological properties are called N, N-dimethylmethanamine
isomers and this phenomena is known as isomerism. Metamerism: This type of isomerism occurs when the isomers
Types of Isomerism: (A) Structural isomerism (B) Stereo differ with respect to the nature of alkyl groups around the same
isomerism polyvalent functional group.
e.g. C4H10O: CH3 – O – CH2 – CH2 – CH3
(A) Structural isomerism n-propyl methylether
Structural isomerism is a form of isomerism in which molecules CH3 – CH2 – O – CH2 – CH3
with the same molecular formula have atoms bonded together in diethyl ether
different orders. Ring-Chain isomerism: In this type of isomerism, one isomer is
Types of Structural Isomerism open chain but another is cyclic.
CH2
Chain isomerism: This type of isomerism is due to difference in
the arrangement of carbon atoms constituting the chain. e.g. C3H6: CH3 – CH = CH2 H2C – CH2
Key points: Parent carbon chain or side chain should be different. propene cyclopropane
™ For chain, positional and metamerism, functional group must be
e.g. C5H12: CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – CH2 – CH3 same.
n-pentane ™ Metamerism may also show chain and position isomerism but

CH3 priority is given to metamerism.

Tautomerism: This type of isomerism is due to spontaneous
H3C – CH – CH2 – CH3, H3C – C – CH3 interconversion of two isomeric forms into each other with
different functional groups in dynamic equilibrium.
CH3 CH3 Conditions:
iso-pentane neo-pentane O O
Positional isomerism: It occurs when functional groups or (i) Presence of – C – or – N → O
multiple bonds or substituents are in different positions on the (ii) Presence of atleast one a-H atom which is attached to a
same carbon chain. saturated C-atom.
Key points: Parent carbon chain remain same and substituent, e.g. Acetoacetic ester.
multiple bond and functional group changes its position. O OH
CH3 CH3 CH3
CH3–C–CH2COOC2H5  CH3–C=CHCOOC2H5
CH3 keto form enol form

e.g. C6H4(CH3)2: , ,
Enol content enhance by:
™ Acidity of a-H of keto form.
CH3
o-xylene m-xylene ™ Intra molecular H-Bonding in enol form.
CH3
p-xylene ™ Resonance in enol form.
Functional isomerism: It occurs when compounds have the same ™ Aromatisation in enol form.
molecular formula but different functional groups.
(B) Stereoisomerism
e.g. C3H9N: CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – NH2,
Compounds with the same molecular formula and structural
1-propanamine
formula but having difference in the spatial arrangement of atoms
CH3 – CH2 – NH – CH3, of groups in 3D space are called steroisomers and the phenomenon
N-methylethanamine
is called stereoisomerism.
Types of Stereoisomerism ™ Configuration of optical isomer
Geometrical isomerism: It is due to restricted rotation and is (a) Absolute configuration (R/S system)
observed in following systems. (b) Relative configuration (D/L system)
a a a
C=C C = N–OH N=N ™ Determination of R/S configuration
b b , b , , a a Rule-1 Assign the priority to the four groups attached
a b
to the chiral carbon according to priority rule.
b b
(Ring greater than a Rule-2 If lowest priority 4 is bonded to vertical line
7 member with
double bond)
C
b then moving
CH3 Clockwise
1 → 2 → 3 R
™ Cis-trans isomerism: The cis compound is the one with the Anti clockwise
same groups on the same side of the bond, and the trans has S
the same groups on the opposite sides. Both isomers have Rule-3 If lowest priority 4 is bonded to horizontal
different physical and chemical properties. line then moving
e.g. Clockwise
H H H COOH 1 → 2 → 3 S
C=C C=C Anti clockwise
R
HOOC COOH HOOC H
cis trans
maleic acid fumaric acid
Determination of D/L system
™ General physical properties of geometrical isomer of but-2-ene
™ Reference molecule glyceraldehyde
(i) Stability trans > cis
™ It is used to assign configuration in carbohydrate amino acid
(ii) Dipole moment cis > trans
and similar compounds.
(iii) Boiling point cis > trans
(iv) Melting point trans > cis Rule: Arrange parent carbon chain the vertical line
™ Placed most oxidised carbon on the top or nearest to top.
Calculation of number of geometrical isomers:
™ On highest IUPAC numbered chiral carbon
Unsymmetrical 2n
If OH group on RHS → D
Symmetrical 2n–1 + 2m–1
If OH group on LHS → L
n
m= (If n is even) CHO CHO
2
n +1 H OH HO H
m= (If n is odd) HO H H OH
2 H OH HO H
™ Where n = number of sites where GI is possible. H OH HO H
Optical isomerism: Compounds having similar molecular and CH2–OH CH2–OH
structural formula but differing in the stereo chemical formula and
D-Glucose L-Glucose
behaviour towards plane polarised light are called optical isomers
and this phenomenon is called optical isomersim.
CIP Sequence Rule
Types of optical isomers
The following rules are followed for deciding the precedence
(1) Optically active order of the atoms or groups:-
™ Dextrorotatory (d)
(i) Highest priority is assigned to the atoms of higher atomic
™ Laevorotatory (l)
number attached to asymmetric carbon atom.
(2) Optically inactive
™ Meso (ii) In case of isotopes, isotopes having higher atomic mass is
™ Condition Molecule should be asymmetric or chiral i.e. given priority.
symmetry elements (POS & COS) should be absent. (iii) If the first atom of a group attached to asymmetric carbon
™ The carbon atom linked to four different groups is called atom is same then we consider the atomic number of 2nd
chiral carbon. atom or subsequent atoms in group.
™ Fischer projection An optical isomer can be represented (iv) If there is a double bond or triple bond, both atoms are
by Fischer projection which is planar representation of considered to the duplicated for triplicated.
three dimensional structure. ™ Non-superimposable mirror images are called
Fischer projection representation of lactic acid enantiomers which rotate the plane polarised light up
(2-hydroxypropanoic acid) to same extent but in opposite direction.
COOH COOH
3 2 1
™ Diastereomers are stereoisomers which are not mirror
CH3 – CH – COOH : HO H H OH
images of each other. They have different physical and
CH3 CH3
OH chemical properties.

32 JEE (XI) Module-4 PW

 ™ Meso compounds are those compounds whose Conformational Isomerism
molecules are superimposable on their mirror images
inspite of the presence of asymmetric carbon atom. Newman projection: Here two carbon atoms forming the σ bond
™ An equimolar mixture of the enantiomers (d & l) is
are represented one by circle and other by centre of the circle.
called racemic mixture. The process of converting d- Circle represents rear side C and its centre represents front side
or l- form of an optically active compound into racemic carbon. The C–H bonds of front carbon are depicted from the
form is called racemisation. centre of the circle while C–H bond of the back carbon are drawn
™ The process by which d/l mixture is separated into d from the circumference of the circle.
and l forms with the help of chiral reagents or chiral
catalyst is known as resolution.
™ Compound containing chiral carbon may or may not be
optically active but show optical isomerism.
™ For optical isomer chiral carbon is not the necessary
condition.
Calculation of number of optical isomers
Optically active Optically inactive forms
The compound 4 3 2 1
forms (meso) ™ Conformations of butane: CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – CH3
Unsymmetrical 2n Zero CH3 CH3 CH3 CH3
CH3 H CH3 H H H
Symmetrical n
2(n–1) –1
If n = even 2 2 60°
Rotation
60°
Rotation
60°
Rotation
H H CH3
Symmetrical H H H H H H H H H
2(n–1) – 2(n–1)/2 2(n–1)/2 H CH3
If n = odd Fully eclipsed Gauche Partially Anti Staggered-form
(less stable) (more stable) Eclipsed form (most stable)
* Where n = no. of chiral carbon
™ The order of stability of conformations of n-butane.
The different arrangement of atoms in space that results from the
carbon-carbon single bond free rotation by 0-360° are called Anti staggered > Gauche > Partially eclipsed > Fully eclipsed.
conformations or conformational isomers or rotational isomers ™ Relative stability of various conformation of cyclohexane is
and this phenomenon is called conformational isomers. Chair > twist boat > boat > half chair.

P
W Isomerism 33
 CHAPTER

14 G.0.C

Electrophiles are electron deficient species. (B) Stability of free radical

E.g. H⊕, R⊕, NO⊕2, X⊕, PCl3, PCl5 (Ph)3C > (Ph)2CH > CH2 = CH – CH2 > PhCH2 > (CH3)3C
⊕
(NH4 and H3O⊕ are not electrophile) > (CH3)2CH > CH3CH2 > CH3
Nucleophiles are electron rich species. (C) Stability of carbanion
$ $ $ .. ..
E.g. Cl$, C H3, OH, RO$,C N, NH3, RO .. H, CH2= CH2, (Ph)3 C > (Ph)2 CH > Ph – CH2 > CH2 = CH – CH2 >
CH≡CH
CH3 > CH3 CH2 > (CH3)2 CH > (CH3)3 C
Relative electron withdrawing order (–I order)
⊕ ⊕ ⊕ Reactivity towards nucleophile (NAR)
–NF3 > –NR3 > –NH3 > –NO2 > –CN > –COOH > –X > – (1) HCHO > CH3CHO > (CH3)2CO
OR > –OH > –C≡CH > –NH2 > –C6H5 > –CH = CH2 (2) CCl3CHO > CHCl2CHO > CH2ClCHO
Relative electron releasing order (+I order)
 ™ Reactivity order towards acyl nucleophilic substitution
–N H > –O > –COO > 3° alkyl > 2° alkyl > 1° alkyl > reaction
–CH3
Acid chloride > anhydride > ester > amide
Relative Stability Order ™ Order of electronic effect
(A) Stability of carbocation Mesomeric > Hyperconjugation > Inductive effect
⊕ ™ Stability of alkene ∝ no. of a-hydrogen
⊕ ⊕ ⊕ ⊕
> (Ph)3 C > (Ph)2 C H > Ph – C H2 > CH2 = CH – C H2 R 2 C=CR 2 > R 2 C=CHR > R 2 C=CH 2 > RCH=CHR >
trans form
⊕ ⊕ ⊕ ⊕ ⊕ RCH=CHR > RCH=CH 2 > CH 2 =CH 2
> (CH3)3 C > (CH3)2 C H > CH3 C H2 > C H3 > CH2 = C H cis form
1
⊕ ™ Heat of hydrogenation ∝
> CH ≡ C Stability of alkene
 CHAPTER

15 Hydrocarbon

Preparation of Alkane

or NH3 or R OH
Chemical Reactions of Alkane
Halogenation
R—X

O
Nitration
R—N
O
Sulphonation
H2S2O7

Reed reaction
SO2 + Cl2/h

SO2Cl2/h
R—Cl

R—H Isomerisation
Branched alkane
or
R—R
Pyrolysis or Cracking
500º–700ºC
Cr2O3 + Al2O3
Aromatic compound
500ºC

Higher alkane
step up reaction

O2
combustion
O2 / Cu

Catalytic Mo2O3
Oxidation (AcO)2 Mn

36 JEE (XI) Module-4 PW

Preparation of Alkene

Zn dust

P
W Hydrocarbon 37
Chemical Reactions of Alkene

OSO4 / H3O

38 JEE (XI) Module-4 PW

Preparation of Benzene

red hot Cu tube, 500°C

P
W Hydrocarbon 39
Chemical Reactions of Benzene

40 JEE (XI) Module-4 PW

CHAPTER

6 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes

PCl5 NaBr+H2SO4
H3C–CH2—OH H3C–CH2—OH

PCl3 HI
3H3C–CH2—OH H3C–CH2—OH
KI/H3PO4
Red P + Br2
3H3C–CH2—OH Cl2/hv
CH3–CH3
PREPARATION

SOCl2
H3C–CH2—OH
CH 3–CH 2–X HBr
CH2=CH2
H3C–CH2—OH SOCl2 (X=F,Cl,Br,I) CCl4
2
(SN )

N
H3C–CH2–COAg Br2 NaI H3C–CH2—Cl
O
(Hunsdiecker Reaction)
CCl4 Acetone (Finkelstein Reaction)

HCl/ZnCl2 AgF or Hg2F2 H3C–CH2—Cl

H3C–CH2—OH (Swart reaction)
Lucas Reagent

NBS
H3C–CH=CH2 BrH2C–CH=CH2
(allylic substitution) CCl4

CH3–CH2–CH2–Br
 or

PHYSCIAL PROPERTIES
(1) Dipole moment: CH3–Cl > CH3–F > CH3–Br > CH3–I
(2) Bond enthalpies: CH3–F > CH3–Cl > CH3–Br > CH3–I
(3) Boiling point: R–I > R–Br > R–Cl > R–F

> >
Br
Br Br

(4) Density: n–C3H7Cl < n–C3H7Br < n–C3H7I

(5) Solubility → slightly soluble in water

+
CHO
, KOH

14 JEE (XII) Module-2 PW

 Wurtz-Fitting Reaction

(A) Reactivity toward Nucleophile (B) Boiling point

F Cl Br I
F Cl Br I
(i) > > >
(i) > > >
Cl Cl Cl
NO2 NO2 NO2 NO2 Cl
(ii) > >
Cl
Cl Cl Cl Cl
NO2 NO2 O2N NO2 (C) Melting point
(ii) > > Cl Cl Cl
Cl
NO2 NO2 (i) > >
Cl
Cl

P
W Haloalkanes and Haloarenes 15
CHAPTER

7 Alcohol, Phenol and Ether

HCl + SO2+ CH3—CH2—Cl

CH3
— —

dil. H2SO4
CH3—C—CH—CH3
H2O
—

CH3
OH CH3
— —

B2H6/THF
(CH3)3C—CH—CH2 CH3—C—CH=CH2
H2O2/NaOH
—

H OH CH3 CH3
— —

Hg (OAc)2/H2O
CH3—C—CH—CH3
NaBH4
—

CH3OH
 W

– +
PHENOL CH3
SO3 Na

—
GMP H3C —C—H
(i) NaOH (i) O2
(ii) H (ii) H/ H2O
– (CH3COCH3)
N2+Cl

H2O/ OH
Cl
O3/Air Oxidation
MgBr H2O
Industrial method

O2/60ºC/ PHENOL

H
COOH
OH
NaOH+CaO/ [O] V2O5
300º

P
W Alcohols, Phenols and Ether 17
18 JEE (XII) Module-2 PW
 ’

P
W Alcohols, Phenols and Ether 19
20 JEE (XII) Module-2 PW
P
W Alcohols, Phenols and Ether 21
 CHAPTER

Aldehydes, Ketones and

8 Carboxylic Acids

REDUCTION
Group Product LAH inEther NaBH4in H2O B2H6in THF H2/Catalyst∆
1°RX RH + – – +
–C≡C– –CH=CH– – – + +
>C=C< >CH–CH< – – + +
–CHO –CH2OH + + + +
>C=O >CH–OH + + + +
–CO2H –CH2OH + – + +
–CO2R –CH2OH + – + +
–COCl –CH2OH + + – +
–CONH2 –CH2NH2 + – + +
(RCO)2O RCH2OH + – + +
–CN –CH2NH2 + – + +
>C=NOH –CH2NH2 + – – +

Note:

1. B2H6 in THF not able to reduce cyclic ester.

2. NaBH4 can also reduce imine group ( ).

3. Reactivity order towards H2/Ni, ∆ ⇒ —CºN > —C—O—R

Name Reagent Function

Wolf Kishner Reduction (i) N2H4/ (ii) KOH, ∆

Clemmenson Reduction Zn–Hg/HCl

Mozingo Reduction
Stephen’s Reduction SnCl2/HCl followed by H3O+ R–C≡N R–CH=O

Rosenmund Reduction H2, Pd–BaSO4 O O

R—C—Cl R—C—H

*—CºC— —C=C—

}
H H
DIBAL-H (–78°C) —COOR
—CºN
—COOCl
—CHO
O O

—C—O—C

MPV Reduction CH3 CH3

Al —O—CH HO—CH
CH3 3 CH3
Red phosphorus in presence of HI Red P + HI

Hydroboration Reduction B2H6/AcOH, H2O

Bouvoult Blank Reduction Na/EtOH R–COO–R RCH2OH + ROH

Transfer Hydrogenation N2H4/H2O2

P
W Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids 23
CHAPTER

9 Amines

NH3(Excess) H+/H2O
H3C—CH2—X R—N=C=O
—HX HO–/H2O
[Ammonolysis]
O
O
Gabriel C (i) NH3 Hoffmann
Br2,KOH
Phthalimide O H3C—C—NH2 Bromamide
(ii) KOH,CH3—I H2O,HO– degradation
Synthesis C
(iii) H2O,H+
O
O
CH3NH2 Schimdt
Na(Hg)/EtOH HN3,H2SO4
R—CN RCH2NH2 R—C—OH Reaction
H2/Ni or LiAlH4/Et2O H3O+
R–NH2

H3O Fe/HCl or H2/Pd

R—NC R—NO2
or Sn/HCl
or SnCl2+HCl

LiAlH4/Et2O or Na/EtOH Cl—NH2

R—CH=N—OH R—MgX
H2/Ni

HCl CHCl3,KOH
R—NH3+Cl– R—NC
(Carbylamine test)

CH3Br CH3NH2 HNO2/H+

R—NHCH3 RCH2NH2 R—OH
Alkylation [But CH3—NH2CH3—O—CH3]
R—NH2
O
CH3COCl
R—NHCOCH3 N—R
Base (Acylation)
 NO2

—
Preparation O
Sn/HCl or Fe/HCl NaN3
Cl—C—
Reduction H3O+

OH
—
NH2

—
NH3/ZnCl2/300ºC Cl–NH2 – +
BrMg—

O=C—NH2
—

Br2/KOH
O=C=N—
Hoffmann Bromoamide H3O+
Degradation

NH2

—
Br— Br
Br2/H2O —
+
—NH3 Cl– H—Cl

—
Br
NHCOCH3 NHCOCH3 NH2

—
O
—

(CH3—C)2O HNO3,H2SO4 OH or
- Na 
—NHNa+ 288 K H
Pyridine

—
(Group Protection)
NO2 NO2

O NH2 NH2 NH2

—

—
O NH2 NO2
—

—C—Cl
—
Conc.HNO3
—NH—C— + +
Base Conc.H2SO4 —
NO2
—

Schotten Baumann Reactions [51%] [47%] [2%]

NO2
O 
NH2 NH3
—
—

O Cl—C—Cl
(1) Conc. H2SO4
—NH—C—NH—
Diphenyl Urea (2) 453-473K
—
—

SO3H SO3H
CHCl3
—N+C– No reaction
KOH Fridel Craft reaction
Carbylamine Test

P
W Amines 25
 Benzene Diazonium Chloride
Reaction Cl

—
—OH
HO— —N=N— Cu/HCl

Gatterman
reaction
—NH2 NH2 Br
—
Cu/HBr
H2N— —N=N—
Coupling reaction

C2H5OH/
H —NH—CH3
or H3PO2/
—

H3C—N— —N=N—

NaNO2/HCl[0º–5ºC]
OH
— OH

—
OH
+
H2O/H
—N=N— —NH2 283K
Cl
—

I
—
CuCl/HCl KI
Sandmeyer reaction

F
Br + HBF4 —
— CuBr/HBr NNCl –


– –
CN N2BF4

—
—

NO2
CuCN/KCN HBF4 —
NaNO2
Cu/

26 JEE (XII) Module-2 PW

 CHAPTER

14 Biomolecules

Biomolecules are the organic compounds which form the basis of life. ™ Maltose or Malt sugar: It is named because of its occurrence
in malted grain of Barley. It is a reducing sugar.
Carbohydrates
™ Starch (C6H10O5)n: It is a polymer of α-glucose and a major
Optically active polyhydroxy aldehydes (aldoses) or ketones
reserve food in plants. It turns blue with iodine. It is a mixture
(ketoses) or the compounds which produce these units on
of two components:
hydrolysis are known as carbohydrates.
(i) Amylose (20%), an unbranched water soluble polymer.
™ All monosaccharides and disaccharides (except sucrose) are
reducing carbohydrates. Polysaccharides are non-reducing (ii) Amylopectin (80%), a branched water insoluble polymer.
carbohydrates. Sources of starch are potatoes, wheat, rice, maize, etc.
™ The monosaccharides and oligosaccharides having sweet ™ Cellulose (C6H10O5)n: It is the most abundant and structural
taste are collectively known as sugars. Polysaccharides polysaccharide of plants. It is important food source of some
which are insoluble in water and not sweet in taste, are known animals. It is a polymer of β-D-(+) -glucose.
as non-sugars. ™ Glycogen: It is found in animal body (mainly in liver and
™ All naturally occurring monosaccharides belong to D-series. muscles) as reserve food and is called animals starch. Like
™ Kiliani synthesis is used to convert an aldose into next higher aldose. starch, it is a polymer of α-D-glucose.
™ Glucose: It is also known as Dextrose. It is present in grape Test for Carbohydrates
sugar, corn sugar and blood sugar (C6H12O6). ™ Molisch’s test, it is positive for all carbohydrates.
™ Anomers: Anomers are cyclic monosaccharides differing
™ Iodine test, it is specific for starch and glycogen.
from each other in the configuration at C–1 if they are aldoses
or in the configuration at C–2 if they are ketoses. ™ Benedict’s test, it is positive for reducing sugars.

™ Mutarotation: The change in optical rotation on standing is ™ Barfoed’s test, it differentiates between monosaccharides and
called mutarotation. disaccharides.
α-D-(+) Glucose  Open chair form  β-D-(+) Glucose ™ Seliwanoff’s test, it is positive for monosaccharides with
+111.5° +52.5° +19.5° ketonic group.
™ Epimers: Monosaccharides differing in configuration at a carbon ™ Osazone test, it is the confirmatory test in which shape of
other than anomeric carbon are called epimers, e.g. glucose and crystals tell the type of sugar present in the solution.
galactose differ in configuration at C4, hence called epimers.
™ Osazones: Monosaccharides and reducing disaccharides Amino Acids
react with excess of phenyl hydrazine to form crystalline The compounds containing amino group (–NH2) and carboxylic
substances of the structure. group (–COOH) are called amino acids.
CH=NNHC6H5 (a) Neutral amino acids: Having one –NH2 and one
—

C=NNHC6H5 –COOH group. E.g. glycine.

(b) Acidic amino acids: Having one –NH2 and two
—

(CHOH)3 –COOH groups. E.g. aspartic acid.

—

(c) Basic amino acids: Having two or more –NH2 and one
CH2OH
–COOH group. E.g. lysine.
It is known as osazone. Glucose, fructose and mannose give same ™ Essential and Non-essential amino acids: Amino acids
osazone. synthesised by body are called non-essential amino acids and
™ Sucrose (C12H22O11): Sucrose is most abundant in plants and that are not synthesised by body are called essential amino acids.
known as cane sugar or table sugar or invert sugar. ™ Nomenclature: They are known by their common names
™ Lactose or milk sugar: It is present in milk of mammals and abbreviated by first three letters of their common names
and made up of one glucose and one galactose units. It is a e.g. glycine as ‘gly’ and alanine as ‘ala’. Naturally occurring
reducing sugar. α-amino acids are L-amino acids.
P
W Biomolecules 43
Peptides (iv) Xanthoproteic test: Protein solution + conc. HNO3 →
NaOH
Peptides are condensation products of two or more amino yellow colour → orange colour.
O Enzymes: Serve as biological catalyst e.g., pepsin, trypsin etc.
acids, —C—NH— is known as peptide linkage. A polypeptide Vitamins: Vitamins are required by body to maintain normal
made up of n-amino acids has (n –1) peptide bonds. health, growth and nutrition.
™ Fibrous proteins: Polypeptide chains are held together by ™ Vitamins A, D, E and K are fat soluble whereas vitamins B
hydrogen and disulphide bonds. Such proteins are insoluble and C are water soluble.
in water. E.g. Keratin (present in hair, wool) etc. ™ Vitamin H is neither fat soluble nor water soluble.
™ Globular proteins: These are usually soluble in water. E.g.
Insulin, albumins. Nucleic Acid: DNA and RNA
™ Simple proteins: These yield only α-amino acids upon (i) DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid).
hydrolysis. E.g. Albumin. DNA + H 2O → Phosphoric acid + deoxyribose + A,
™ Conjugated proteins: These yield α-amino acids and non- G, C, T
protein part, called prosthetic group. (ii) RNA (Ribonucleic acid).
™ Derived proteins: These are obtained by partial
RNA + H2O → Phosphoric acid + Ribose + A, G, C, U
hydrolysis of simple or conjugated proteins.
™ In both DNA and RNA, heterocyclic base and phosphate
Denaturation of Proteins: The process that changes the three
ester linkages are at C1 and C5 respectively of the sugar
dimensional structure of native proteins is called denaturation of proteins.
molecule.
Tests of Proteins
(i) Biuret Test: Protein solution + NaOH + dil. CuSO4 → Hormones
pink or violet colour. These are the chemical substances which are produced by
(ii) Millon’s Test: Protein solution + Millon’s reagent → red endocrine (ductless) glands in the body. Hormones acts as
colour. chemical messengers.
Millon’s reagent is a solution of mercuric nitrate and Insulin is a protein hormone. Its deficiency leads to diabetes
traces of sodium nitrate solution. mellitus.
(iii) Iodine reaction: Protein solution + iodine in potassium
iodide solution → yellow colour.

44 JEE (XII) Module-4 PW

 CHAPTER

15 Polymer

™ Polymers: Polymers are high molecular mass macro molecules. ™ Plasticizers are high boiling esters or haloalkanes. These are
™ Polymerisation: The process by which the monomers added to plastics to make them soft like rubber.
(simple molecules) combine with each other and transform ™ Thermosetting plastics: These are normally semifluid
into polymers, is known as polymerisation. substances with low molecular masses. e.g., Bakelite,
™ Natural polymers: Those polymers which occur in nature, melamine-formaldehyde resin and urea-formaldehyde resin.
i.e., in plants or animals, are called natural polymers, e.g.
starch, cellulose, proteins, natural rubber. ™ Free radical addition polymerisation: The monomers used
are generally monosubstituted alkenes.
™ Synthetic polymers: The polymers which are prepared
in the laboratory are known as synthetic polymers or ™ Cationic polymerisation: It involves formation of
man-made polymers, e.g. polythene, synthetic rubber, PVC, carbocation
nylon 6,6, teflon, orlon etc. ™ Anionic polymerisation: It involves formation of a
™ Semi-synthetic polymers: Polymers obtained by making carbanion.
some modification in natural polymers by artificial means,
™ Polyamides: The polymers which contain an amide linkage
are known as semisynthetic polymers, e.g. cellulose acetate
(rayon), vulcanised rubber etc. in chain are known as polyamide, e.g. nylon 6,6.
™ Linear polymers: These are the polymers in which the ™ Natural Rubber: Natural rubber is a coiled linear of
monomer units are linked to one another to form long linear 1,4-polymer of isoprene.
chains, e.g., high density polyethene, nylon and polyesters are ™ The process of introducing –S–S– crosslinks in the structure
linear polymers. of rubber by heating with sulphur at 110°C is called
™ Branched chain polymers: In such polymers, the monomer vulcanisation of rubber.
units are linked to form long chains with some branched
™ Polyesters: The polymers which contain an ester linkage are
chains of different lengths attached to the main linear chain.
Some common examples of such polymers are low density known as polyester, e.g. dacron.
polyethene, starch, glycogen etc. ™ Biopolymers and Biodegradable Polymers: Synthetic
™ Cross-linked polymers or network polymers: These are polymers are mostly non-biodegradable. Natural polymers
formed from bi-functional and tri-functional monomers. are called biopolymers, e.g. polysaccharides, proteins, nucleic
Examples of cross linked polymers are bakelite, glyptal, acids, etc. Biodegradable polymers can be easily degraded
melamine-formaldehyde polymer etc. by microorganism with in a reasonable period. Aliphatic
™ Addition polymers: The polymers formed by the polyesters are the common examples of biodegradable
polymerisation of monomers containing double or triple polymers.
bonds (unsaturated compounds) are called addition polymers.
e.g. polythene, orlon, PVC, Buna-S, etc. Important Polymers
™ Condensation polymers: The polymers which are formed ™ Saran is a copolymer of vinyldene chloride and Vinyl chloride
by the combination of monomers with the elimination of and is used for wrapping food materials.
small molecules such as water, alcohol, hydrogen chloride
etc., are known as condensation polymers, e.g. nylon 6,6, ™ ABS rubber is a copolymer of acrylonitrile, buta-1,3-
Dacron, Bakelite etc. diene and styrene.
™ Elastomers: These are rubber like solid polymers in which the ™ Bubble gum contains styrene butadiene (Buna-S) rubber.
polymer chains are held together by weakest intermolecular ™ Dynel is a copolymer of vinyl chloride and acrylonitrile and
forces, e.g. natural rubber, Buna-S, Buna-N etc. is used for making human hair wigs.
™ Fibres: Fibres belong to a class of polymers which are
™ Silk is a thread like natural polymer which is obtained
thread-like and can be woven into fabrics. A few examples of
this class are nylon 6,6, terylene and polyacrylonitrile (PAN). from cocoons of silk worms. It is a natural polyamide
fibre.
™ Thermoplastics: These are linear polymers and have weak
van der Waals’ forces acting in the various chains, e.g. ™ Thermocol is a foamed plastic obtained by blowing air
polyethene and polystyrene. through molten polystyrene or polyurethane.
 CHAPTER

16 Environmental Chemistry

Pollutant Particulate Pollutant

Substance which cause pollution is known as pollutant. Particulate pollutant
Tropospheric pollution (minute solid particle)
Atomospheric pollution
Stratospheric pollution
Troposheric pollution occurs due to presence of undesirable solid
or gaseous particles in air. Viable particulates Non-viable
(bacteria, fungi etc.) (smoke, dust, mists, fumes)
Gaseous Pollutant
SO2: Cause resipiratory diseases of asthma, bronchitis emphysema Smoke: Solid/mixture of solid and liquid particles formed from
etc & irrataling to eyes. burning of fossil fuel, oil smoke etc.
NO2: Form by fossil fuel burn, Damage lungs. Dust: Find solid particle over 1µm diameter, produced by
Higer concentration of NO2 damage the leaves of plant and retard crushing, grinding etc.
rate of photoshynthesis. Mist: Mist are produced by particle of spray liquid condensation
of vapours, eg. herbicides, mist etc.
Hydrocarbon: Form by incomplete combustion of fuel of
Note: Pb is major air pollutant.
automobile, Carcinogenic.
Smog (Smoke + Fog)
Oxide of Carbon
Classical smog: (Smoke + fog + CO2) also called reducing smog
CO: Blocks the delivery of oxygen to organs and tissues.
Photochemical smog:
Carboxy hemoglobin is 300 times more stable then oxy hemoglobin hv
about 3-4% of carboxy hemoglobin the oxygen carrying capacity hydrocarbon : NO →
hv
is highly reduced. NO2 → NO + O
hv
CO2: Main source is respiration, burning of fossil fuels, O + O2 → O3
demposition of lime stone in cement industry.
NO + O3 → NO2 + O2
Increase of CO2 cause global warming.
contribute of Haze
Global Warming and Green House Effect
(NO2 + O2) + hydrocarbon
Some of the gases such as CO2, CH4,O3 CFC(s) and water vapour
tapped the heat and does not radiates back to the atmosphere. This CH2O
cause global warming. formaldelyde
or
Acid Rain CH2 = CHCHO
Acrolein
™ Normally the pH of rain water is 5.6 due to the reaction or
between rain water and CO2. CH3COONO2
™ When pH less then 5.6 then it is called acid rain. peroxy acetyl nitrate (PAN)
™ Source: Burning of fuel (contain N & S) form SO2 & NO2. Stratospheric Pollution
™ Harmful to agriculture, tree and plants. Formation & decomposition of ozone.
UV
™ Taj Mahal is affected by acid rain. O2(g)  → O(g) + O(g)
 UV

(BOD). Clean water would have BOD value of less than
O2(g) + O(g)  O3
5 ppm where as highly polluted water could have a BOD
Ozone is thermodynimcally unstable and thus dynamic value of 17 ppm or more.
equilibrium exist between production.
Fluoride: Soluble fluoride is often added to drinking water
Ozone Hole to bring its concentration upto 1 ppm or 1 mg dm–3.
The main reason of ozone layer depletion the release of However, F– ion concentration above 2 ppm causes brown
CFC(s) (also called as freons). mottling of teeth. At the same time, excess fluoride (over
Reaction of Ozone Depletion 10 ppm) causes harmful effect to bones and teeth.
UV
. . Lead: The prescribed upper limit concentration of lead in
CF2Cl2(g)  → Cl(g) + CF2Cl(g) drinking water is about 50 ppm. Lead can damage kidney,
. .
Cl(g) + O3(g) ClO(g) + O2(g) liver, reproductive system etc.
. . Sulphate: Excessive sulphate (>500 ppm) in drinking
ClO(g) + NO2(g) ClONO2(g)
water causes laxative effect, otherwise at moderate levels
. . it is harmless.
Cl(g) + CH4(g) CH3(g) + HCl(g)
Nitrate: The maximum limit of nitrate in drinking water is
ClONO2(g) + H2O(g) HOCl(g) + HNO3(g) 50 ppm. Excess nitrate in drinking water can cause disease
such as methemoglobinemia (‘blue baby’ syndrome).
ClONO2(g) + HCl(g) Cl(g) + HNO3(g)
. . Table: Maximum Prescribed Concentration of
hv
HOCl → OH(g) + Cl(g) Some Metals in Drinking Water
. Metal Maximum concentration
Cl2(g) 2Cl(g)
(ppm or mg dm–3)
Water pollution Fe 0.2
Cause of Water Pollution Mn 0.05
(i) Pathogen
Al 0.2
(ii) Organic waste
Cu 3.0
(iii) Organic waster
BOD: The amount of oxygen required by bacteria to break Zn 5.0
down the organic matter present in a certain volume of a Cd 0.005
sample of water, is called Biochemical Oxygen Demand

42 JEE (XI) Module-4 PW

 CHAPTER

Purification, Quantitative and

17 Qualitative Analysis of
Organic Compounds

Filtration: Only one of the compounds is soluble in the given (ii) Fractional distillation: Difference in boiling points of
solvent e.g. compounds is very less (5°C to 10°C). e.g. - acetone
(i) Urea and Naphthalene (b. p. 329K) and methyl alcohol (b. p. 338K).
(ii) Benzoic acid and anthracene

Crystallisation: It is based on the difference in the solubilities of

the compound and the impurities in a suitable solvent.
Fractional Crystallization: Difference in solubilities of organic (iii) Vacuum distillation: Used for organic compounds which
compounds and impurities are very less. decompose at or below their boiling points. e.g. Glycerol.
eg. urea and copper sulphate.

Distillation
(i) Simple distillation: Difference in boiling points of
compounds is more than 40°C. e.g. chloroform (b. p. 334K)
and aniline.(B.P. 458K)

(iv) Steam distillation: Used for organic compounds which are

immiscible with water and are steam volatile. e.g. Aniline.

P
W Purification, Quantitative and Qualitative Analysis of Organic Compounds 43
Differential extraction: Used to extract pure organic compounds
from their aqueous solution by shaking with organic solvent in
which they are highly soluble.
e.g. Benzoic acid from its aqueous solution using benzene.

™ Paper Chromatography- based on partition and used for

quantitative and qualitative analysis.

QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS
Detection of C, H, N, halogens P, S, and oxygen.

Detection of Carbon and Hydrogen

Chromatography
™ Used to purify small samples.

™ Based on selective adsorption or partition between stationary

and mobile phase.
™ Column Chromatography based on adsorption, used for bulk
quantities.
™ Thin layer Chromatography based on adsorption, used for
quantitative analysis.

44 JEE (XI) Module-4 PW

 i

Detection of Nitrogen

Detection of Phosphorus
phosphate
Lassaigne’s Extract
Lassaigne’s extract is prepared to convert covalency of organic
compound into electrovalency by fusing with Na.

Detection of Sulphur
(
colouration

Detection of Halogen
Beilstein’s test
Heated over
Organic compound 
Copper wire
→ Green flame confirms the

presence of halogen’s in the organic compound

P
W Purification, Quantitative and Qualitative Analysis of Organic Compounds 45
 Quantitative Analysis
12 wt. of CO 2
%C
= ×
44 [Link] org. compound

2 wt. of H 2 O
%H = × × 100
18 [Link] org. compound

28 Vol. of N 2 at STP
%N = × × 100
22400 Wt. of org. comp.
or
Volume of N 2 at STP
%N = (Duma’s method)
8 × Wt. of org. compound
1.4 × N × V
(%N) = (Kjeldhal’s method)
wt. of org. compound
At. wt. of X Wt. of AgX
=%X ×
[Link]. AgX wt. of org. compound

32 Wt. BaSO 4
Detection of Oxygen %S = × × 100
233 wt. of org. compound
Presence of oxygen in organic compound is detected by
testing for functional group containing oxygen e.g. alcohol 62 Mass of Mg 2 P2 O7
(–OH), aldehyde (–CHO), ketone (RCOR), carboxylic acid %P = × × 100
222 Wt. of org. compound
(–COOH), ester (–COOR) and nitro (–NO2).

46 JEE (XI) Module-4 PW

 CHAPTER

17 Chemistry in Everyday Life

™ Medicine which promotes secretion of urine in order to ™ Paracetamol is antipyretic as well as analgesic.
get rid of your body of sodium salt and water is called ™ Chloroqunie is required for malaria.
diuretic. ™ Glycogenolysis occurs primarily in liver and is stimulated by
™ Antibiotic with broad spectrum acts on different types to the hormone adrenaline.
antigen. ™ Cocaine in early days of USA was used as antidepressant.
™ Streptomycin → Antibiotic
™ Chloromycetin can be used for treatment of typhoid.
Novalgin → Analgesic ™ Ampicillin is beta-lactum antibiotic. It is not a natural
Chloromycetin → Antibiotic antibiotic.
Penicillin → Antibiotic ™ Tranquilizer is used for calmness and reduces anxiety.
™ Morphine belongs to a class of drugs known as opioid ™ 2-acetoxybenzoic acid also called apirin is used to treat pain,
analgesics. fever and inflammation. It is a class of antipyretic drug.
™ Antiseptic action to dettol is due to chloroxylenol. ™ Aspartame is only artificial sweetener that is stable at low
™ Diclofenac sodium is not a narcotic. temperatrure.