M & S YEAR 2

MODULE CODE: CENG 216 GROUP A & B ACADEMIC YEAR: 2025/2026

MATERIALS AND STRUCTURES

(CENG 216)

FBC

FACULTY: ENGINEERING & ARCHITECTURE

DEPARTMENT: CIVIL ENGINEERING

LEVEL: YEAR 2
SEMESTER: FIRST
LECTURER IN CHARGE ING. ANTHONY ING. MARGAI

LECTURER CONTACT +23230370198 / +23273820423 +23278874146/+23277909136

EMAIL juniorezekielanthony@[Link] richardmargai52048@[Link]

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COURSE OUTLINE
1. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
 Concrete
 Timber
 Steel
 Bricks
 Cement
2. YOUNG MODULUS FROM BENDING TEST
 Stresses and strains
 Principle of superposition
 Bars of composite sections
3. SHEAR FORCES AND BENDING MOMENTS
[Link] HINGED ARCHES
5. FRAMES AND TRUSSES
6. TORSION
7. SPRINGS
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LECTURE 1: MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

1.0 Introduction to Engineering Material Behavior

Engineering materials form the essential building blocks of our physical infrastructure. Civil
engineering relies on materials like concrete, steel, and timber, each chosen for its specific
response to applied forces.

The mechanical properties define a material's capacity to withstand external loads, ensuring

that structural elements maintain their function (serviceability) and do not fail (safety) over their

intended lifespan.

Key Performance Characteristics of Materials

 Stiffness (Elastic Modulus): Resistance to elastic deformation under load.

 Strength: Maximum stress a material resists before yielding or breaking.

 Ductility: Ability to deform plastically under tension (e.g., steel).

 Brittleness: Tendency to fracture suddenly with minimal deformation (e.g., glass).

 Toughness: Ability to absorb energy before fracture.

 Fatigue Resistance: Resistance to failure under repeated/cyclic loading.

 Creep: Slow, time-dependent deformation under a constant load.

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These properties vary significantly between materials like

o concrete,
o steel,
o timber,
o bricks, and
o cement, influencing their applications in civil engineering works.

1. CONCRETE

Concrete is a heterogeneous composite created by mixing four principal components:

 Cement: The binder.

 Water: Initiates hydration and provides workability.
 Aggregates (Fine & Coarse): Provide bulk, stability, and reduce shrinkage.

The material gains its strength through hydration, a chemical reaction between cement and
water that forms a hardened, rock-like matrix.

Figure 1: Fresh Concrete in its Plastic State During Placement

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1.1 Fresh Concrete: Properties Before Hardening

These characteristics define how easy the mix is to handle and place effectively.

 Workability: The ease of mixing, transporting, and compacting the concrete without aggregate

separation.

 Consistency: The fluidity or wetness level of the mix; often measured by a slump test.

 Cohesiveness: The mix's internal ability to stay uniform and stable without falling apart.

 Segregation: The undesirable separation of heavy aggregates from the cement paste.

 Bleeding: The process where excess water rises to the surface after placement.

 Setting Time: The time required for the concrete mix to change from a liquid (plastic) state to a

solid state.

 Plasticity: The ability to be molded or shaped into the required form without immediately

cracking.

 Temperature: Directly influences the setting rate and early-age strength development.

 Density (Fresh): The mass per unit volume of the mix before it hardens.

1.2 Hardened Concrete: Structural Performance Properties

These properties are critical for the long-term safety and serviceability of the structure.

 Compressive Strength: The material's primary measure: its capacity to resist crushing forces.

 Tensile Strength: The material's weakness: its resistance to pulling or cracking forces.

 Flexural Strength: The ability to resist bending stresses (often called Modulus of Rupture).

 Elasticity: The capacity to deform and fully recover its shape once the load is removed.

 Durability: The overall resistance to weathering, chemical attack, and wear.

 Creep: Slow, non-recovering deformation under a load sustained over a long time.

 Shrinkage: The volume reduction that occurs due to moisture loss during curing and drying.

 Permeability: The measure of how easily water or fluids can penetrate the concrete mass.

 Density (Cured): The mass per unit volume of the solid, cured product.

 Hardness: The surface's resistance to abrasion or scratching.

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1.3 Influencing Factors

The mechanical properties of the final concrete product are acutely sensitive to the following:

 Water-to-Cement Ratio: The single most important factor. Lower w/c generally leads to
higher strength, provided the mix is workable.
 Curing: Maintaining proper temperature and moisture after placement is vital for
complete hydration and full strength development.
 Aggregate Quality: The strength, shape, and stiffness of the aggregate influence the
strength and modulus of the concrete.

1.4 Typical Applications

Concrete is the global standard for infrastructure and building foundations, including large-
scale construction such as:

 Bridge decks and piers

 High-rise building cores and columns
 Dams and water retaining structures
 Roadways and airfield pavements
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2. STEEL
2.1 Composition and Role

Steel is a ferrous alloy—its main component is iron, scientifically combined with a controlled amount
of carbon. Minor alloying elements (like manganese or nickel) are added to refine its specific
properties.

It stands as the most critical structural material because it offers the perfect balance of high strength,
significant ductility, and reliability, making it indispensable across all areas of construction.

3.2 Essential Mechanical Properties of Structural Steel

Property Concise Description & Engineering Importance

Exceptional resistance to both tension and compression. This means steel

High Strength
can carry heavy loads efficiently in both pulling and pushing scenarios.

Very high stiffness. This ensures structural elements (like beams) remain
Modulus of Elasticity
stiff and don't deflect excessively under service loads.

Ability to undergo large, visible permanent deformation after the yield

Ductility (Plasticity)
point is reached, giving clear warning before final failure.

The capacity to absorb significant impact energy before fracture. This

Toughness prevents catastrophic, brittle failures in dynamic situations.

Ease with which sections can be fused together (joined) using heat without
Weldability
compromising the joint's original strength.

Ability to sustain repeated application of stress (cyclic loading), crucial for

Fatigue Resistance
bridges and machine parts.

Can be easily shaped, hammered, or rolled into various structural cross-

Malleability/Formability
sections (I-beams, channels, angles) during manufacturing.

Resistance to localized indentation and surface abrasion (wear). This

Hardness
property depends heavily on the carbon content.
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2 .2 Factors Governing Steel Performance

The precise behavior of steel can be manipulated by:

 Carbon Content: Directly controls strength and hardness (higher carbon = higher
strength/hardness, but lower ductility and weldability).

 Alloying Elements: Specific elements (e.g., Chromium, Molybdenum) are added to enhance
corrosion resistance, toughness, or high-temperature performance.

 Heat Treatment: Processes like quenching and tempering modify the internal crystal structure,
optimizing properties like hardness and ductility.

 Residual Stresses: Internal stresses locked into the material during manufacturing (rolling or
welding) can affect structural performance.

2.3 Structural Applications

Steel is vital in almost every aspect of civil and structural work:

 Reinforced Concrete: Used as rebar (reinforcement bars) to carry all the tensile stress where
concrete is weak.

 Structural Frameworks: Primary material for high-rise buildings, long-span bridges, and
industrial structures due to its lightweight strength.

 Prestressed/Post-tensioned Components: High-strength steel strands are used to introduce

compressive forces into concrete members.

 Pipes and Storage: Essential for tanks, silos, and water/gas transmission pipelines
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Figure 2:Steel Reinforcement Bars (Rebars) of Various Diameters”

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3. TIMBER
Timber is a natural organic material obtained from trees. It is mainly composed of cellulose, lignin, and
moisture, and is widely used in construction for its strength, light weight, and workability.

3.1 Mechanical Properties of Timber

Property Description

Strength Good strength in both tension and compression along the grain; weaker across the grain.

Elasticity Moderately elastic; returns to shape under small loads.

Toughness Can absorb shocks and impacts without fracture.

Hardness Varies with species; dense hardwoods resist wear better than softwoods.

Stiffness Offers resistance to bending and deflection under load.

Durability Varies with species and treatment; susceptible to decay and insects if untreated.

Creep Exhibits slow deformation under sustained loads, especially when wet.

Workability Easy to cut, shape, and join using hand or power tools.

Density Ranges from light (softwoods) to heavy (hardwoods); affects strength and durability.

3.2 Factors Affecting Mechanical Properties

 Moisture content

 Species of wood (hardwood or softwood)

 Age and growth conditions of the tree

 Direction of loading (along or across grain)

 Seasoning and preservation treatment

3.2 Applications

 Roof trusses and beams

 Doors, windows, and flooring

 Formwork for concrete

 Furniture and joinery work

 Temporary structures and scaffolding

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3.3 Common types of Timber

 Hardwoods → used for permanent and structural works (strong, durable, attractive).

 Softwoods → used for temporary and light works (cheap, easy to work).

3.4 Sizes

 1”x 12”  2”x 3”  2”x 6”

 2”x 2”  2”x 4”

Figure 3: Local Sierra Leonean Structural Timber (Sawn & Log)

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4. BRICKS

4.1 Definition and Composition

A brick is a standardized, block-shaped ceramic unit produced by molding clay, shale, or calcium
silicate and then hardening it, typically by firing in a high-temperature kiln. They are the fundamental
components of masonry construction.

4.2 Key Mechanical Properties

Property Concise Description & Engineering Relevance

Compressive High resistance to crushing loads. This is the primary structural role of a brick
Strength wall.

Very low resistance to pulling forces; the tensile capacity of a wall is usually
Tensile Strength
provided by the mortar joint bond.

Excellent long-term resistance to weathering, fire, and biological attack when

Durability
properly manufactured.

Offers good resistance to surface abrasion and wear, depending on the firing
Hardness
temperature and clay type.

The amount of water a brick can absorb. This affects the bond with the mortar
Water Absorption
and resistance to freeze-thaw cycles.

Non-combustible material that provides excellent protection against fire,

Fire Resistance
enhancing building safety.

Generally uniform in composition and mechanical properties throughout the

Homogeneity
unit.

4.3 Factors Affecting Brick Performance

The final structural performance of a brick wall (masonry) depends not only on the brick but also on
the overall system:

 Firing Temperature: Higher temperatures generally lead to denser, stronger, and less porous
bricks.

 Mortar Strength: The cement-lime-sand mix used for joining bricks is critical, as it controls the
load distribution and overall wall strength.

 Manufacturing Process: Determines the brick type (e.g., solid, perforated, hollow) and its
dimensional accuracy.
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 Bond Pattern: The arrangement of bricks (e.g., Flemish, English) influences the wall's load
transfer and lateral stability.

4.4 Structural Applications

Bricks are an enduring and versatile building material, commonly used for:

 Load-Bearing Walls: Vertical structures designed to carry the weight of floors, roof, and other
loads above.

 Partition Walls: Non-load-bearing internal walls used to divide spaces.

 Cladding/Facing: Used as an aesthetic and protective exterior layer on concrete or steel-framed

buildings.

 Arches and Lintels: Shaped or constructed to span openings like doors and windows.

Figure 4:Local Masonry Applications: Bricks and Blocks from Foundation Walls to Partitions
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5. CEMENT

5.1 Definition and Core Function

Cement (specifically, Portland Cement) is a fine, grey powder that, when mixed with water, forms a
paste capable of binding aggregates together into a solid mass. It is known as a hydraulic binder
because it hardens through a chemical reaction called hydration and can set even when immersed in
water.

5.2 The Hydration Process

This is the critical chemical reaction that defines cement's structural role:

 Reaction: Cement minerals chemically react with water to form a gel (Calcium Silicate Hydrate
or C-S-H gel) and calcium hydroxide.

 Result: The C-S-H gel is the main component responsible for the strength and stiffness of the
hardened concrete.

 Heat: The hydration process is exothermic (releases heat), which must be managed, especially
in large concrete pours, to prevent thermal cracking.

5.3 Key Mechanical/Physical Properties

Property Concise Description & Engineering Relevance

The particle size of the cement. Finer cement leads to a faster hydration rate and
Fineness
quicker strength gain.

The density of the cement particles relative to water (typically around $3.15$).
Specific Gravity
Used for mix design calculations.

The ability to maintain volume stability after setting. Unsound cement can lead
Soundness
to cracking and disintegration.

The time required for the cement paste to transition from a workable state to a
Setting Time
solid state. Must be sufficient for transport and placement.

Strength The compressive strength developed over time (e.g., 7 days, 28 days). This is the
(Compressive) most crucial indicator of cement quality.

The percentage of water needed to achieve a standard paste fluidity. Used for
Consistency
standardized lab tests.
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5.4 Cement Types (A Brief Note)

The different classifications of cement exist to suit specific site conditions and performance needs:

 Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC): The most common type; used for general construction
where special properties are not required.

 Rapid Hardening Cement: Gains strength very quickly (e.g., for fast construction or cold
weather).

 Sulfate-Resisting Cement: Used in soil or water environments with high sulfate

concentrations (e.g., foundations near the coast or in certain industrial areas).

5.5 Structural Role

 Binding Agent: Provides the matrix that holds the aggregates (sand/gravel) together,
transforming loose components into strong concrete.

 Strength Contributor: The resulting C-S-H gel directly dictates the final compressive strength
and stiffness of the entire concrete element.