Ch02

CH02

🌍 01: The True Shape of the Earth (Cartography & Geodesy)

🥔
The Concept: You might think the Earth is a perfect sphere, like a marble. But actually, it's
more like a "potato" because of mountains and ocean depths!

●​ The Geoid: This is the Earth's true, irregular shape based on gravity and sea level.
●​ The Ellipsoid: Since math is hard on a potato-shaped object, scientists use a smooth,
regular geometric shape (an ellipsoid) that fits the Earth best to make calculations easier.

Interactive Check: Imagine trying to wrap a flat sheet of paper around a ball—it wrinkles,
right? That’s the challenge of Cartography: finding the best mathematical model to flatten the
Earth onto a map

02:Ellipsoids
–>A regular geometric volume close to the geoid

Newton (17th century) ->Clarke 1880->Hayford 1924​

​
Each ellipsoid has:

●​ A major axis (big radius) “a”​

●​ A minor axis (small radius) “b”

Since the Earth spins, it bulges at the middle. So, a is always larger than b.

➡️
Interactive check:​
Do you think Algeria uses the same ellipsoid as the U.S.?​
(Answer: No, that’s why we need datums!)

🛰️ 03: Geodesy (Science of measuring the Earth)

Geodesy = locating any point on Earth as precisely as possible.

Satellites helped a lot because they can measure:

●​ Earth’s center of mass​

●​ Earth’s exact shape​

●​ Movements of continents

This led to the creation of modern datums.

 Geomatics is a scientific and technical field that deals with the management of spatially
referenced data . It involves sciences and technologies related to the acquisition, storage,
processing, and dissemination of this data. It was first used by a geographical engineer, Bernard
Dubuisson, in 1975.

04: Datum: What is it?

Datum = geodetic reference system to accurately locate a point on Earth

1- The shape of the ellipsoid (major axis, minor axis)

2- The position of the ellipsoid relative to the WGS84 geodetic system

●​ - Offset (in m) of the center of the X, Y, and Z coordinate system (Dx, Dy, Dz)
●​ - Rotation angle (in degrees) of the X, Y, and Z axes of the coordinate system (Rx, Ry, Rz)
●​ - Scale factor (in %) of the norm of the coordinate system vectors (E)

Most used today: WGS 84 (used by GPS).

👉
IMPORTANT rule:​
All data within a database must be expressed in a single system to be compared.

Datum = Ellipsoid + aplatissement par rapport WGS84

05: Parameters of a Geodetic System

Parameter Description

1. The Shape Major Axis (a): The "width" of the Earth at the equator.
(Ellipsoid)
Minor Axis (b): The "height" of the Earth from pole to pole.

Why it matters: Different datums use slightly different ellipsoid shapes to fit
different parts of the world better. For example, a datum designed for Australia
might use a different ellipsoid than one for North America.

Flattening (f) Flattening measures how much the Earth is flattened at the poles compared to the
equator. It is computed as (a − b) / a.

It gives the true shape of the ellipsoid and ensures accurate latitude and distance
 measurements.

2. The Shift Concept: Imagine two globes. If their centers don't line up perfectly, you need to
(Translation – Dx, Dy, slide one globe over to match the other.
Dz)
Dx, Dy, Dz: These numbers tell you how far to shift the center of the coordinate
system along the X, Y, and Z axes (in meters) to align with the new system.

3. The Tilt (Rotation – Concept: Even if the centers align, one globe might be tilted relative to the other.
Rx, Ry, Rz)
Rx, Ry, Rz: These are small rotation angles (usually in arc-seconds) needed to twist
the axes so that North aligns with North, East with East, etc.

4. The Zoom (Scale Concept: Sometimes, the measuring stick used in one system is slightly longer or
Factor) shorter than the other.

Scale: This parameter adjusts the size of the coordinates. It's usually a very small
number expressed in "parts per million" (ppm), meaning the difference is tiny but
adds up over long distances.

This adjusts the overall size of the coordinates to make sure 100 meters in one
system equals 100 meters in the other.
06: Geographic Coordinates:
Latitude (North/South)

Measures how far a point is from the equator​

From 0° (equator) to 90° (poles)

Northern / Positive (+):

●​ If point D is above the equator (Northern Hemisphere), we call the angle Positive.
●​ Example: Paris is at Latitude +48°.

Southern / Meridional (-):

●​ If point D is below the equator (Southern Hemisphere), we call the angle Negative (or
just "South")-> meridional latitude
●​ Example: Sydney is at Latitude -33° (or 33° South).

Longitude (East/West)

●​ an angular measurement on 360 ° compared to a reference meridian

●​ The reference meridian is the Greenwich meridian (which also serves as a reference for
time zones )
●​ From -180° (West) to +180° (East)
Altitude

●​ The height of a point on the relief compared to the geoid

Blue Dot: This is where a 2D map says you are (Latitude + Longitude). It puts you flat on the
globe.
Red Dot: This is where you actually are (Latitude + Longitude + Altitude).
Without Altitude, a plane would crash into the ground because the map says it's in the right
place, but doesn't say "how high" it needs to be!

🔢 09: Sexagesimal System (DMS, DM, DD)

The geographical coordinates are traditionally expressed in the sexagesimal system (Degrees
(°) Minutes (′) Seconds (″)).
The basic unit is the angle Degree (1 full tower = 360 °), then the Angle Minute (1 ° = 60 ′), then
the Second Angle (1 ′ = 60 ″)

Coordinates can be written in 3 formats:

1.​DMS: Degrees – Minutes – Seconds​

Example: 36°45'12"​

2.​DM: Degrees – Minutes with decimals​

Example: 36°45.20'​

3.​DD: Decimal Degrees​

Example: 36.75333°

Convert Formula Example

DMS → DD (D + M/60 + S/3600) 36°45'12" →

36.75333°

DMS → DM (M + S/60) 36°45'12" → 36°45.2'

DM → DMS decimal × 60 45.2' → 45'12"

DM → DD (D + DM/60) 45.2'/60 → 36.75333°

DD → DMS decimal × 60 twice 36.75333° →

36°45'12"

Useful equivalences:

●​ 1° ≈ 111,11 km​
●​ 1’ ≈ 1.85 km​
●​ 1” ≈ 30 m
Component Calculation Distance

36° (36 * 111.11) km 3999.96 km ≈ 4000 km

45′ (45 \* 1.85) km 83.34 km

12″ (12 30) m → 360 m 0.36 km

total = 4000+83.34+0.36=4083.70 km

⏱️ 08: Time Zones

👉
The Earth rotates 360° in 24 hours →​
360° ÷ 24 = 15° per hour

So every 15° of longitude = 1 hour difference.

If it’s 12:00 at your meridian:

●​ 15° east → 13:00 because the meridian facing you in the sun was there an hour ago​

●​ 15° west → 11:00 because this same meridian will be there in an hour

🗺️ 09: Map Scale

Scale = relationship between map distance and real distance.

Example:​
1/50 000 → 1 cm on map = 50 000 cm = 500 m in reality.

1mm on the map represents 50,000mm on the ground is 50 m

📚 10: Legend
The legend explains symbols on a map: lecture clip of the carte, which includes the indication of
the elements of the carte.

●​ Roads​

●​ Rivers​

●​ Schools​

●​ Forests​

●​ Boundaries
TOOLS
●​ Lightweight software for personal computers: statistical mapping, raster systems, basic
automated mapping
●​ More sophisticated systems dedicated to map editing (Intergraph, MicroStation,
AutoCAD, etc.)
●​ GIS tools (Mapinfo, ArcGIS, SavGIS, svSIG, qGIS, etc.)
●​ Specialized software in a specific field (geology, hydrology, oceanography, remote
sensing, etc.)
Ch03
1. The "Orange Peel" Problem (3D ➔ 2D)

●​ The Rule: You cannot flatten a ball (Earth) without breaking it.
●​ The Result: Every single map in the world lies to you. It either stretches the land
(distorts area) or squashes it (distorts shape).

🧭 2. The Compass (The 3 Norths)

Type of What is it? Symbol Does it Move? Usage
North

True North
(TN)
The Geographic
North Pole (Earth’s
⭐ Star
symbol or a
No. Fixed. Reference for
latitude/longitude
rotational axis). line with a (global coordinates).
star.

Magnetic
North
The direction a
compass needle
🧲
Half-arrow
Yes! It drifts over
time (magnetic
The north used by a
compass in the field.
(MN) points (Earth’s or line declination).
magnetic field). labeled MN.

Grid North
(GN)
The north of
vertical map grid
🗺️ Letters
GN or
No (but differs
from True North
Used for map
measurements
lines (e.g., UTM). Y-axis. due to map (protractor, plotting).
projection).

The map points to True North (Star), but your compass points to Magnetic North (Magnet).
They are NOT the same place!
The Fix: You must calculate the Magnetic Declination (the angle between them).

Formula: Compass Angle = Map Angle - Declination

→Since 1957, 6,842 satellites have been launched, of which 2,630 are active, most of which
belong to the United States, Russia, and China. To provide GPS data, 24 satellites currently
orbit the Earth in six different planes

→ 16 directions or cardinal points

If you are flying a drone and the controller says: "Head WNW", what is your approximate
angle?

1.​ Look at West (270°).

2.​ Look at North-West (315°).
3.​ Go halfway between them.
○​ Calculation: 270 + 22.5 = 292.5

[Link]:
Without information on the geodetic system (Datum) and the projection from which the
geographic coordinates are expressed, it is possible to obtain differences of several tens of
kilometers between different layers of the GIS, once these have been projected.
🔵 1. The "Arc" Mode (Geographic Coordinates)
●​ Where: On the Globe (Left side of image).
●​ Units: Degrees (°), Minutes ('), Seconds ('').
●​ Variables: Longitude (lambda) and Latitude (phi).
●​ What it represents: This is measuring an Angle or an Arc.
○​ Think: "I am rotating around the center of the Earth."

🔴 2. The "Red Line" Mode (Cartesian Coordinates)

●​ Where: On the Flat Map (Right side of image).
●​ Units: Meters (m) or Kilometers (km).
●​ Variables: X (Easting) and Y (Northing).
●​ What it represents: This is measuring a Distance in a straight line.
○​ Think: "I am walking on a flat grid."

[Link] maps = Planispheres

It's a process designed to represent the Earth, which is a sphere, flat. There are more than 200
of them, each named after its creator, and none of them is completely accurate. It is impossible
to represent the Earth without distorting it. The choice of projection will therefore depend on
what we want to represent ( distorts area / shape )

→The idea is to cut the Earth into several spindles and spread them out flat. Then
the gaps are filled.
 Name of Projection Description (Simple & Key Characteristics
Clear)

Mercator Projection (1569) The classic world map we all • Conformal (preserves angles & shapes)
know. Areas near the equator
look normal, but regions near • Huge distortion in high latitudes
the poles appear much bigger.
• Greenland looks as big as Africa though
it’s much smaller

Africa area = 15 * Greenland area Projection

used by Third World countrie

Australia-centered / A world map rotated upside • Same geography only rotated

Inverted World Map down and centered on Australia.
South is at the top, North is at • Highlights Australia, China, Indonesia
the bottom. Changes the usual
“mental image” of the world. • Pacific Ocean centered, Atlantic on edges

• Shows relativity of “north = up”

Mollweide/Babinet A projection that preserves areas • Equal-area

Projection (1805) perfectly, so continents look
proportional to reality. However • Shapes stretched, especially at edges
shapes are distorted, and
Antarctica is cut. • More realistic surfaces but less readable

• Good for global statistical maps

 [Link] surfaces

Name What it What it Best Used For Example

Preserves Distorts

Azimuthal true only at their are greatest at the • Polar regions Stereographic (
Projections point of tangency map boundaries. • Maps centered on conforme),
a specific point Gnomonic(ni conf ni
• Air route maps equiva)
(great circles)

Cylindrical true at the equator Distortions • Equatorial & Mercator, Peters

Projections (normal increase toward tropical regions
cylindrical). the poles. • World maps
• Navigation

Conic Projections true along certain Distortions • Mid-latitude Lambert Conformal

parallels between increase on either regions (temperate Conic
the equator and a side away from zones) Algeria used the
pole. these parallels. • Countries with Lambert conic
wide east–west projection until 1980.
extent (Algeria, In order to minimize
USA, Europe) distortions (linear
alterations), Algeria
was divided into two
zones northen /
southern lambert
polar projection : ( 3 plans : equator plan , plan tangent polar , plan tangent
)
1- Longitude and Latitude, which give the orientation of the normal to the projection plane
passing through the center of the Earth.
2- The scale of the representation. The projection surface is a plane tangent or secant to the
sphere. The orientation of the plane's normal can be arbitrary. These projections are generally
chosen to represent polar regions.

[Link] of projections :
●​ Conformal projections: preserve angles and shapes, distort areas .
●​ Equal-area projections: preserve areas, modify angles.
●​ Equidistant projections: (Google Map ): When it faithfully reproduces the
distances between the projection center and any other point on the map.
Longitude = X and Latitude = Y.
Remember that no projection is equidistant from one point to another for all
points on the map.
●​ Alphylactic projections: do not preserve surfaces or angles ->more aesthetic

-> The Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) projection is a type of conformal

projection of the Earth's surface. This projection is a cylindrical projection where the axis of the
cylinder crosses the pole axis of the Earth's ellipsoid perpendicularly at the center of the
ellipsoid

-> The conic projection is one of the most used because it is conformal and therefore does
not distort, especially for territories located at mid latitudes such as Algeria.
->the Peters cylindrical projection distorts surfaces at high latitudes; it is often used in
atlases of so-called "Southern" countries. ( equivalent)

->globe sphérique : conforme + equivalent + equidistant

Ch04