Unit I

Water Treatment
Introduction
Water is nature’s most wonderful, abundant and useful compound. Water is not only essential
for the lives of animals and plants, but also occupies a unique position in industries. It is widely
used in drinking, bathing, sanitary, washing, irrigation, fire-fights, air-conditioning and also
production of industrial materials. The distribution of water on the Earth’s surface is extremely
uneven. Only 3% Of freshwater (69% resides in glaciers, 30% underground, and less than 1%
is located in lakes, rivers and swamps.) of water on the surface is fresh; the remaining 97%
resides in the ocean. Looked at another way, only one percent of the water on the Earth’s surface
is usable by humans, and 99% of the usable quantity is situated underground.

Sources of water
The main sources of water for a water treatment unit typically include:
1. Surface Water
These are the most common sources, especially for municipal and industrial water treatment.
• Rivers
• Lakes
• Streams
• Reservoirs
Characteristics:
• Generally, contains suspended solids, organic matter, and microorganisms.
• Requires coagulation, sedimentation, filtration, and disinfection.
2. Groundwater
Water drawn from below the earth’s surface through wells or boreholes.
• Shallow Wells
• Deep Wells
• Aquifers
Characteristics:
• Usually cleaner than surface water (less turbidity and organic material).
• May have high levels of dissolved minerals (like iron, manganese, hardness, or salts).
• Often treated with filtration and softening processes.
3. Rainwater
Collected from rooftops, land surfaces, or catchment areas.
Characteristics:
• Relatively pure but can pick up contaminants from collection surfaces.
• Requires filtration and disinfection.
Types of Impurities present in water:
The natural water is usually contaminated by different types of impurities.
They are mainly three types.
➢ Physical impurities
➢ Chemical impurities
➢ Biological impurities
1. Physical impurities:
➢ Colour: in water is caused by metallic substances like salts.
➢ Turbidity: is due to the colloidal, extremely fine suspensions such as insoluble substances
like clay, slit, and micro-organisms.
➢ Taste: presence of dissolved minerals in water produces taste. Bitter taste can be due to the
presence of Fe, Al, Mn, Sulphates and lime. Soap taste can be due to the presence of large
amount of sodium bicarbonate.
➢ Odour: In water is undesirable for domestic as well as industrial purpose.
2. Chemical impurities:
➢ Inorganic chemicals: Cations(Al+3, Ca+2, Mg+2, Fe+2, Zn+2, Cu+2 Na+, K+),
Anions(Cl−, SO4−2, NO3−, HCO3−, F−, NO2−)
➢ Organic chemicals: dyes, paints, petroleum products, pesticides, detergents, drugs textile
materials, other organic related materials.
3. Biological Impurities:
➢ Biological impurities are Algae, pathogenic bacteria, fungi, viruses, pathogens, parasite-
worms.

Hardness of water
• Hardness in water is that characteristics which prevents the lathering of soap.
• This is due to presence of certain salts like Ca+2, Mg+2 and other heavy metals dissolved in
water.
• Soaps (Sodium or Potassium salts of higher fatty acids) like Stearic acids
(C17H35COONa).
• Soft Water: The water which gives more lather with soap is called soft water.

• Hard Water: The water which does not give lather with soap is called hard water. This is
due to presence of certain salts like Ca+2, Mg+2 and other heavy metals dissolved in water.

Causes of Hardness
Hardness of water is due to the presence of Bicarbonates, Chlorides, Sulphates and Nitrates of
Calcium and Magnesium. These soluble salts get mixed with natural water due to the following
reasons:
1. When natural water containing CO2 flows over the rocks of the limestone (CaCO3) and
Dolamite (CaCO3 & MgCO3), they get converted into soluble bicarbonates. Thus, water gets
hardness.

Disadvantages of Hardness
1. In Domestic use:

➢ Washing: Hard water, when used for washing purposes, does not producing lather freely
with soap. As a result, cleaning quality of soap is decreased and a lot of it is wasted.
➢ Washing: Hard water, when used for washing purposes, does not producing lather freely
with soap. As a result, cleaning quality of soap is decreased and a lot of it is wasted.

➢ Bathing: Hard water does not lather freely with soap solution, but produces sticky scum on
the bath-tub and body. Thus, the cleaning quality of soap is depressed and a lot of it is wasted.

➢ Cooking: The boiling point of water is increased because of presence of salts. Hence more
fuel and time are required for cooking.

➢ Drinking: Hard water causes bad effects on our digestive system. Moreover, the possibility
of forming calcium oxalate crystals in urinary tracks is increased.

2. Industrial Use:

➢ Textile Industry: Hard water causes wastage of soap. Precipitates of calcium and
magnesium soaps adhere to the fabrics and cause problem.

➢ Sugar Industry: The water which containing sulphates, nitrates, alkali carbonates are used
in sugar refining, cause difficulties in the crystallization of sugar.

➢ Dyeing Industry: The dissolved salts in hard water may reacts with costly dyes forming
precipitates.

➢ Paper Industry: Calcium, magnesium, Iron salts in water may affect the quality of paper.

➢ Pharmaceutical Industry: Hard water may cause some undesirable products while
preparation of pharmaceutical products.

3. Steam generation in Boilers:

➢ For steam generation, boilers are almost invariably employed. If the hard water is fed
directly to the boilers, there arise many troubles such as: Scales & sludges formation,
Corrosion, Priming & Foaming and Caustic embrittlement.

Types of Hardness
Hardness of water is mainly two types:

1. Temporary Hardness 2. Permanent Hardness

1. Temporary Hardness: Temporary Hardness mainly caused by the presence of dissolved

bicarbonates of Calcium, Magnesium (Ca (HCO3)2, Mg (HCO3)2). Temporary Hardness can be
largely removed by boiling of water.
2. Permanent Hardness: It is due to the presence of dissolved Chlorides, Nitrates and
Sulphates of Calcium, Magnesium, Iron and other metals. Permanent hardness responsible salts
are CaCl2, MgCl2, CaSO4, MgSO4, FeSO4, Al2(SO4)3. Permanent Hardness cannot be
removed by boiling but it can be removed by the use of chemical agents.

Expression and units of Hardness

The expression of hardness producing salts usually expressed in terms of an equivalent amount
of CaCO3. Calcium Carbonate is chosen as a standard because:

i Its molecular weight (100) and equivalent weight (50) is a whole number, so the
calculations in water analysis can be simplified.

ii It is the most insoluble salt that can be precipitated in water treatment.

The conversion of the hardness causing salts into CaCO3 equivalents can be achieved by using
the following formula:

Units of Hardness:
Softening of Water:
The process of removing hardness – producing salts from water is known as softening of water.

There are three methods of water softening:

1) Lime soda process

2) Zeolite process

3) Ion exchange process

1) Lime soda process

In this method soluble calcium and magnesium salts in water are chemically converted into
insoluble compounds by adding calculated amounts of lime and soda.
There are two types of soda lime process :-

A) Cold lime-soda process :- In this method , calculated quantity of chemicals ( lime and soda
) are mixed at room temperature . At room temperature , the precipitates formed are finely
divide, so they do not settle down easily and cannot be filtered easily . So it is essential to add
aluminate , etc. Cold lime soda process provides water contanining a residual hardness of 50
to 60 ppm.

Method :- Raw water and calculated quantities of chemicals (lime + soda+coagulant) are fed
from the top into the inner vertical circular chamber, fitted with a vertical rotating shaft carrying
a number of paddles . As the raw water and chemicals flow down there is vigorous stirring and
continuous mixing , whereby softening of water takes place. The heavy sludge settles down in
the outer chamber by the time the softened water reaches up. The softened water then passes
through a filtering media to ensure complete removal of sludge .Sludge settling at the bottom
of the outer chamber is drawn off occasionally.

Fig . Cold soda lime process

B) Hot lime-soda process :-It involves water treating with softening chemicals at the
temperature of 80-105°C. Since hot process is operated at a temperature close to the boiling
point of the solution so :
a)the reaction proceed faster.
b)the softening capacity of hot process is increased to many fold.
c)the precipitate and sludge formed settle down rapidly and hence no coagulants are needed
d)much of the dissolved gases driven out of the water.
hot lime soda process produces water of comparatively lower residual hardness of 15 to 30
ppm.
Hot lime-soda plant consists essentially of three parts :
a) A reaction tank in which raw water, chemicals and steam are thoroughly mixed.
b) Conical sedimentation vessel in which sludge settle down.
c) Sand filter which ensures complete removal of sludge from the softened water.
 Fig. Hot soda – lime process

Advantages of lime soda process:-

• It is very economical
• If the process is combined with sedimentation with coagulation , lesser amounts of
coagulants shall be needed
• The process increases the pH value of the treated water ,thereby corrosion of the
distribution pipes is reduced .
• To certain extent , iron and magnese are also removed from the water .
• Besides the removal of hardness the quantity of minerals in the water are reduced.
• Due to alkaline nature of treated water , amount of pathogenic bacterias in water is
considerably reduced .

Disadvantages of lime soda process:-

• For efficient and economical softening , careful operation and skilled supervision is
required .
• Disposal of large amounts of sludge poses a problem
• This can remove hardness only upto 15 ppm which is not good for boilers .
2) Zeolite process

▪ The zeolite process is one of the most widely used methods for softening hard water.

▪ Hard water contains high levels of calcium (Ca²⁺) and magnesium (Mg²⁺) ions, which
can cause scale buildup in pipes and boilers, reduce soap efficiency, and lead to other
problems in domestic and industrial applications.

▪ The zeolite process works by removing these hardness-causing ions through an ion-
exchange mechanism using natural or synthetic zeolite minerals.

▪ The name zeolite is derived from two Greek words (Zein + Lithos) which means
“Boiling Stone”.

▪ Some natural zeolites Includes:

▪ Zeolite is hydrated sodium alumino silicates capable of exchanging reversibly its

sodium ions for Ca2+ and Mg2+, having the general formula Na2O⋅Al2O3⋅xSiO2⋅yH2O.
X= 2-10 and Y=2-6.
▪ Two types of zeolites are in common use:
 a) Natural Zeolites: non-porous green sand derived from green sands by washing,
heating and treatment with NaOH.

b) Synthetic zeolites: porous and possess gel structure. Derived from solution of sodium
silicate and aluminum hydroxide. They are also prepared by heating together China
clay, felspar and soda ash.

▪ Zeolite are also known as permutits.

▪ Sodium zeolites are used in water softening. And are represented as Na2Z. Where Z
stands for the insoluble zeolite radical framework.
▪ Generally, they can exchange basic radicals, these are generally known as base
exchangers.
▪ Method of softening

Hard water is passed through a bed of zeolite at a specific rate at ordinary temperature; the
hardness causing cations i.e., Ca2+ and Mg2+ are exchanged for Na+ and it is converted to CaZ
and MgZ.

▪ The various reaction taking place may be indicated as follows:

Limitations:-

▪ If the supply of water is turbid, the suspended matter must be removed before the water is
admitted to the zeolite bed; otherwise, the turbidity will clog the pores of zeolite bed, thereby
making it inactive.
▪ If water contains large quantities of coloured ions such as Mn2+ and Fe2+, they must be
removed first, because these ions produce manganese and iron zeolites which cannot be
easily regenerated.
▪ Mineral acid if present in water destroy the zeolite bed therefore, they must be neutralized
with soda before admitting the water to the zeolite softening plant.

Advantages:-
(1) Hardness of water is removed and it is about 10ppm in the soft water obtained by this
process.

(2) It is easy to operate.

(3) It occupies less space.

(4) sludge or Scale in not formed

(5)The process can be made automatic & continuous.

(6) This process is very cheap since regenerated permutit is used again.

Disadvantages:-
1) In zeolite process 2Na+ ions replaces by Ca2+/Mg2+ icons. The soft water

obtained by this process has excess of Na+ ions.

2) If the hard water containing acid destroys the zeolite bed.

3) The turbidity (or) suspended particles present in water will block the pores of zeolite.

4) Bicarbonate & carbonate ions present in water are converted as sodium salts resulting the

alkalinity of water.
(5) The coloured ions like Mn2+ &Fe2+ cannot be removed by this process.
3) Ion exchange or Demineralization

Ion exchanges are of two types. Anionic & Cationic. These are co-polymers of styrene
& divinyl benzene i.e. long chain organic polymers with a micro porous structure.

cation exchange resins:- The resins containing acidic functional groups such as -COOH,-
SO3H etc. can exchange their H+ ions with other cations are cation exchange resins, represented
as RH+

Anion exchange resins:- The resins containing amino or quaternary ammonium or quaternary

phosphonium(or) Tertiary sulphonium groups, treated with “NaOH solution becomes capable
of exchanging their OH- ions with other anions. These are called as Anion exchanging resins

represented as ROH-.

Process:-
Boiler troubles
• Boiler troubles" refers to problems or malfunctions that occur in a boiler system — which
is a device used to heat water or generate steam for heating buildings, producing hot water,
or powering equipment.

• Boiler troubles can happen in domestic, commercial, or industrial systems, and they
typically fall into mechanical, electrical, or water-related issues.

• A boiler feed water should correspond with the following composition:

➢ Its hardness should be below 0.2ppm.

➢ Its caustic alkalinity (due to OH-) should lie between 0.15ppm to 0.45ppm.

➢ It’s should be free from dissolved gases like O2, CO2, in order to prevent boiler corrosion.

There are four types of boiler troubles :

1. Scale and sludge formation
2. Caustic Embrittlement
3. Boiler Corrosion
4. Priming and Foaming
1. Scale and sludge formation :-

❖ In boilers water evaporates continuously and the concentrations of the dissolved salts
after reaching to saturation point become precipitate.

❖ Sludge

• It is a soft, loosy and slimy precipitate formed within the boiler. It is formed at
comparatively colder portions of the boiler and collects in the area where flow rate is
slow.

• Ex: MgCO3, MgCl2, CaCl2, MgSO4.

• Reasons for formation of sludges:

The dissolved salts whose solubility is more in hot water and less in cold water produce
sludge.

• Disadvantages of sludges:
1. Sludges are bad conductors of heat and results in the wastage of heat and fuel.

2. Excessive sludge formation leads to the settling of sludge in slow circulation areas such as
pipe connections, plug openings, gauge–glass connections leading to the choking of the pipes.
▪ Prevention of sludge formation:

a. By using soft water which is free from dissolved salts like MgCO3, MgCl2, CaCl2 and
MgSO4 can be prevent sludge formation.

b. By blow down operation carried out frequently can prevent sludge formation.

Scale

• Scales are hard, adhering precipitates formed on the inner walls of the boilers. Scales
are stick very firmly on to the inner walls of the boiler. It is removed with chisel and
hammer. Scales are formed by decomposition of calcium bicarbonate in low pressure
boilers.
 • Reasons for formation of scale:

Prevention of scale formation:

a. If the scale formation is soft, it can be removed by a scrapper, wire brush.

b. By giving thermal shocks, by sudden heating and sudden cooling which makes scale brittle
and removed by scrubbing with wire brush.
c. If scale is very hard that is formed by CaCO3 can be removed by washing with 5-10% HCl
and CaSO4 can be removed with EDTA solution.
d. Blow down operation also removes Scale.

2. Priming: - The carrying out of water droplets with steam in called “priming” Because of
rapid
and high velocities of steam, the water droplets moves out with steam from the boiler. This
process of wet steam generation is caused by (i) The presence of large amount of dissolved

solids.(ii)High stream velocities (iii) sudden boiling (iv) improper designing of boilers (v)

sudden increase in stream production rate and (vi) The high levels of water in boilers.

Prevention of priming: - The priming is avoided by

(i)Fitting mechanical steam purifiers

(ii)Avoiding rapid change in steaming rate

(iii) Maintaining low water levels in boilers and

(iv)Efficient softening and filtration of boiler feed water.

3. Foaming: - Formation of stable bubbles at the surface of water in the boiler is calling

foaming. More foaming will cause more priming. It results with the formation of wet steam
that

harms the boiler cylinder and turbine blades. Foaming is due to the presence of oil drops, grease

and some suspended solids.

Prevention of Foaming:- Foaming can be avoided by

(1)Adding antifoaming chemicals like castor oil. The excess of castor oil addition can cause

foaming.

(2) Oil can be removed by adding sodium aluminates or alum.

(3) Replacing the water concentrated with impurities with fresh water.

4. Caustic Embrittlement :-It is type of boiler corrosion caused by using highly alkaline water
in the boiler . It causes cracks in boiler .
Internal treatment of Water
Suitable chemicals are added to the boiler water either to precipitate or to convert the scale into
compounds is called internal treatment of the boiler feed water. Internal treatment can be
done following types.
Drinking water or municipal water treatment:-

Purification water for domestic use can be done in two steps:

A) Removal of suspended impurities

B) Removal of micro-organisms
A) Removal of suspended impurities :-

Screening :- The raw water is passed through screens , having large number of holes , when
floating matters are retained by them.
2) Sedimentation :- It is a process of allowing water to stand undisturbed in big tanks , about
5m deep when most of the suspended particles settle down at the bottom due to force of gravity.
3) Filtration :- It is the process of removing colloidal matter and most of the bacteria , micro -
organisms, etc by passing water through a bed of fine sand and other proper -sized granular
materials. Filtration is carried out by using sand filter.

B) Removal of micro-organism.

1) By boiling :- boiling water for 10-15 min all the disease producing bacterias are killed and
water becomes safe for use .

2) By adding bleaching powder :- By adding it germs are killed

3) By chlorination :- By adding chlorine bacterias are killed .

4) Coagulation process-
Coagulation consists of adding a floc forming chemical reagent to a water to combine with
non-settleable colloidal solids so they can stick together. Colloids are negatively charged
particles. The addition of a coagulant, which has positively charged particles, would neutralize
the negative charge on the colloids. Slow settling suspended solids to produce a rapid settling
floc. The floc is subsequently removed in most cases by sedimentation. Flocculation is the slow
stirring or gentle agitation to aggregate the destabilized particles and form a rapid settling floc.
Mixing of the coagulated suspension to promote colloid contact forming larger solids called
flocs that can be removed by gravity settling. Colloidal Particles  particulates in water source
that contribute to colour and turbidity  mainly clays, silts, viruses, bacteria, fulvic and humic
acids and organic particulates  at pH levels above 4.0, particles or molecules are generally
negatively charged  have a very large ratio of surface area to volume,

Uses of Coagulation The primary purpose of the coagulation process is the removal of turbidity
from the water. Turbidity is a cloudy appearance of water.
caused by small particles suspended therein. Water with little or no turbidity will be clear.
Methods of Coagulation Process mixing water with coagulant chemicals such as
alum or ferric chloride the purpose of rapid mixing is to provide a uniform dispersion
of coagulant chemical throughout the influent water coagulant chemicals can be
mixed by several methods, including: – Mechanical method: flume mixer – Hydraulic
method: flash mixer