GLOBAL ACADEMY OF TECHNOLOGY

Autonomous Institution Affiliated to Visveswaraya Technological University

Approved by UGC, AICTE and Govt of Karnataka

APPLIED CHEMISTRY FOR EEE STREAM(BCHEE24102/202)

Module:3 Sensors and Display Systems
Display Systems
Introduction
Display Systems are used to share information in a digital format. A display consists of three primary
components namely display assembly, controller and backlight. The display systems are made with different
types of materials such as, cathode ray tubes (CRT), Liquid Crystal Display (LCDs), Light Emitting Diodes
(LEDs) etc.
Liquid Crystals
Definition: Liquid crystals (LC) that exhibit a phase of matter that has properties between those of a
conventional liquid, and those of a solid crystal. In liquid crystals, the molecules are ordered like in a crystal
but can still flow like a liquid.
Liquid crystals are commonly used in displays such as LCD screens. A liquid crystal (LC) may flow like a
ordinary liquid, but have the molecules in the liquid arranged and /or oriented in a crystal-like way or they
show anisotropy like crystalline solids. Both small molecules and polymers may exist in the liquid
crystalline state, but generally special spatial structures like rigid rod like or disc like molecules are required.

Here define a new term mesogen, is rigid rod like or disc like molecules which are components of liquid
crystalline materials. Liquid substances are more or less entirely disordered and crystalline materials are
ordered in all three dimensions, the LCs lie in-between in properties. Liquid crystals are ordered in one or
two dimensions only. Liquid crystals all exhibit some degree of fluidity. Crystalline materials demonstrate long
range periodic order in three dimensions. By definition, an isotropic liquid has no orientational order.

Discovery:
* In 1888 when an Austrian botanist named Friedrich Reinitzer observed that a material known as cholesteryl
benzoate had two distinct melting points.
*Cholesteryl benzonate exist in solid state and on heating at 179oC, it is converted to liquid. But Reinitzer
observed that at 145oC a turbid liquid is formed i.e. liquid crystals
*The name of this state as liquid crystals was first suggested by Otto Lehmann
Characterizing Liquid Crystals: The f o l l o w i n g p a r a m e t e r s d e s c r i b e t h e l i q u i d crystalline structure:
[Link] Order
[Link] Order.
Each of these parameters describes the extent to which the liquid crystal sample is ordered.
[Link] order: Measure of the tendency of the molecules to align along the director on a long-
range basis.

Department of Chemistry
 GLOBAL ACADEMY OF TECHNOLOGY
Autonomous Institution Affiliated to Visveswaraya Technological University
Approved by UGC, AICTE and Govt of Karnataka

[Link] order: The extent to which the position of an average molecule or group of molecules shows
translational symmetry. Most liquid crystal compounds exhibit where more than one phase.
Classification:

1. Thermotropic Liquid Crystals

Liquid c r y s t a l s a r e s a i d t o b e thermotropic if the liquid crystalline properties depend on temperature
a. Nematic liquid crystals
It is most common phases in which the molecules have no positional order, but they have long-range orientational
order. In Greek ‘nematic’ means thread hence, thread- like structure of nematic crystals. Nematics have fluidity
similar to that of ordinary (isotropic) liquids but they can be easily aligned by an external magnetic or electric
field. An aligned nematic has the optical properties of a uniaxial crystal and this makes them extremely
useful in liquid crystal displays (LCD).

Molecular Ordering in Nematic Liquid Crystals

The nematic phase is the simplest form of liquid crystal and is the phase in which the crystal molecules have no
arranged positions (no position order) and are free to move in any way they like. However, while they have long
range orientational order (they are all "facing" in about the same direction).
In nematic phase the molecules are arranged parallel to each other. Nematics have more like fluid in nature and
they can be easily aligned by an external magnetic or electric field. These have relatively low viscosity and have
less temperature sensitive.
The liquid crystal at this stage can be characterized by its thread-like appearance when viewed under a
microscope.
Properties:
1. Nematics have more like fluid in nature
2. They can be easily aligned by an external magnetic or electric field.
3. These have relatively low viscosity.
4. It is less temperature sensitive.
b. Smectic liquid crystals
In the case of Smectic type LC, the molecules have both positional order and orientational order. The smectic
phases, which are found at lower temperatures than the nematic, form well-defined layers can slide over one
another like soap.

Department of Chemistry
 GLOBAL ACADEMY OF TECHNOLOGY
Autonomous Institution Affiliated to Visveswaraya Technological University
Approved by UGC, AICTE and Govt of Karnataka

Molecular Ordering in Smectic Liquid Crystals

Smectic type liquid crystals, the molecules have both positional order and orientational order.
• The word ‘smectic’ originates from Latin word “smecticus”, meaning cleaning or having soap like properties.
• The smectic are thus positionally ordered along one direction.

Types: Smectic A, B & C

• In the smectite A phase, the molecules oriented along the layer is normal and the molecules in the layers are
perpendicular.
• In smectic C phase, the molecules in the layers are parallel and they are titled away from the normal layer.
c. Cholestric liquid crystals
The cholestric phase can be defined as a special type of nematic LC in which the thin layers of parallel

mesogens have their longitudinal axes rotated in adjacent layers at certain angle. The molecules in cholesteric
liquid crystals are in a twisted and chiral arrangement.
The cholestric phase can be defined as a special type of nematic Liquid crystal in which the thin layers of parallel
mesogens have their longitudinal axes rotated in adjacent layers at certain angle. The molecules in cholesteric liquid
crystals are in a twisted and chiral arrangement.
• The cholesteric liquid crystals are also known as ‘Chiral nematic’
• This phase exhibits a twisting of the molecules perpendicular to the director, with the molecular axis parallel to
the director.
• In cholesteric phase, there is orientation order & no positional order, but shows helical structure.

2. Lyotropic Liquid Crystals

Liquid crystals which are prepared by mixing two or more substances, of which one is a polar molecule, are
known as lyotropic liquid crystals.
• Liquid crystals which are prepared by mixing two or more substances, of which one is a polar molecule, are
known as lyotropic liquid crystals.
Eg. Soap in water.
• In the lyotropic phases, solvent molecules fill the space around the compounds to provide fluidity to the
system.
• In contrast to thermotropic liquid crystals, these have another degree of freedom of concentration that enables
them to induce a variety of different phases

Department of Chemistry
 GLOBAL ACADEMY OF TECHNOLOGY
Autonomous Institution Affiliated to Visveswaraya Technological University
Approved by UGC, AICTE and Govt of Karnataka

• A compound that has two immiscible hydrophilic and hydrophobic parts within the same molecule is called
an amphibolic molecule.
• Many amphiphilic molecules show lyotropic liquid-crystalline phase sequences depending on the volume
balances between the hydrophilic part and hydrophobic part.
• These structures are formed through the micro-phase segregation of two incompatible components on a
nanometer scale. Soap is an everyday example of a lyotropic liquid crystal.
Eg. Soap in water. Discontinuous cubic phase (micellar cubic phase), Hexagonal phase (hexagonal
columnar phase) (middle phase), Lamellar phase.

Properties and Applications of Liquid Crystal Display (LCDs)

Properties of Liquid Crystal Display
• Exhibits electro-optical phenomenon
• Liquid crystals possess property of birefringent (double refraction) I e light that enters the liquid crystal
broken up into two oppositely polarized rays travels at different velocities.
• Undergoes thermal expansion, as temperature rises the average spacing between molecules increases.
• It has minimal moisture absorption.
• High strength and Excellent flex / fold characteristics
• High dielectric strength

Applications of Liquid Crystals:

[Link] crystal technology had a major effect many areas of science and engineering, as well as device
technology.
[Link] crystals consume very little electrical power. Hence, they find use in many electronic devices.
[Link] Crystal Displays: Used in display devices (LCDs) such as Laptops, watches, calculators,
clocks, analytical instruments (like PH, Potentiometer) etc.
[Link] Crystal Thermometers: Chiral nematic (cholesteric) liquid crystals reflect light and the colour
reflected also is dependent upon temperature.
[Link] Imaging: An application of liquid crystals that is only now being explored is optical imaging and
recording.
[Link] Crystals are also used in medical applications.
[Link] liquid crystals are used in thermography in the testing of radiations in those devices which
convert radiation energy into heat energy (tumor detection).

Photoactive and Electroactive Materials (Definition and Applications)

Photoactive and electroactive materials play an important role in modern display technology, enabling the
creation of high-quality, energy-efficient displays.
Definition:
Photoactive materials are substances that can absorb light and convert it into an electrical signal.
Application:
• Used in Photosensors and in solar cells to harvest sunlight and generate electricity.
• Used in photodetectors (PDs), which are used in optoelectronic devices.
• The photoactive materials are used in LCD panels as a backlight or to control pixels.
• Used in LEDs, which are used in displays.

Department of Chemistry
 GLOBAL ACADEMY OF TECHNOLOGY
Autonomous Institution Affiliated to Visveswaraya Technological University
Approved by UGC, AICTE and Govt of Karnataka

Definition:
Electroactive Materials are substances that can change their physical properties such as shape, size or refractive
index, when exposed to electric field.
Application:
• Used in electroluminescent displays, which are commonly found in watches, calculator, and other portable
electronic devices.
• Used in solar panels.
• Used in wearable devices such as surface-mounted sensors.
• Used in aircrafts to enhance proficiency in aircraft systems.

Light Emitting Electrochemical Cells (LEC)

A light-emitting electrochemical cell (LEC or LEEC) is a solid-state device that generates light from an electric
current(electroluminescence).
Construction:

A light-emitting electrochemical cell (LECs) are usually composed of two metal electrodes connected by
an organic semiconductor containing mobile ions.
Working:
Works on Principle of Electroluminescence, since light is produced from electric current
• A voltage is applied across anode and cathode.
• Current flows from cathode to anode through organic layer.
• Electron enters cathode, due to presence of electrons, create negative charge.
• Anode removes electrons and create positively charge accumulated holes.
• Electron and hole combine in organic layer and emits light.
Advantages of Light Emitting Electrochemical Cells
• Light-emitting electrochemical cells (LECs) are the simplest and less expensive thin-film lighting devices.
• Simple device structure, low operational voltage and high-power efficiency
• LECs can be printed with relatively inexpensive printing processes
• In a planar device configuration, internal device operation can be observed directly.
• Carbon based materials such as graphene or a blend of carbon nanotubes and polymers can be used as
electrode.
Quantum Dots Light Emitting Diodes (QLEDs) - Nanomaterials
Quantum Dots are tiny particles or nanocrystals of a semiconducting material with diameters in the range of 2-10
nanometers (10-50 atoms).
A quantum dot display is a display device that uses quantum dots (QD), semiconductor nanocrystals which can
produce pure monochromatic light.

Department of Chemistry
 GLOBAL ACADEMY OF TECHNOLOGY
Autonomous Institution Affiliated to Visveswaraya Technological University
Approved by UGC, AICTE and Govt of Karnataka

Construction of QLEDs:

• A classical QD-LED is composed of three layers: one inner layer of QDs as an emissive layer (EML) and two
outer layers (ETL and HTL).
• QLEDs is multilayer structure consist Nano structure quantum dot (QD)placed between p & n junction.
• Hole transfer layer (HTL) is placed above anode.
• Electron transfer layer (ETL) is placed below cathode.
• In this LED, the Indium tin oxide is used as anode
• Aluminum is used as cathode electrode.
• Bottom layer is ultra clear glass sheet for perfect emission.
Working of QLEDs
• A voltage is applied across anode and cathode.
• Current flows from cathode to anode through HTL and ETL
• HTL & ETL helps for effective injection of electrons and holes to quantum dot.
• After applying electric field, HTL & ETL transfer holes & electrons to quantum dot.
• Direct recombination of electrons and holes takes place at Quantum dot (QD) and emission of light takes
place.
Applications of QLEDs
• Quantum dot-LEDs are used in phototherapy
• Quantum dot-LEDs are used display and lighting systems
• Quantum dot-based light-emitting diodes for near-field scanning optical microscopy
• As lighting systems in digital cameras.

Organic Light Emitting Diodes (OLED)

OLED is a solid-state device consisting of a thin, carbon-based semiconductor layer that emits light when
electricity is applied by adjacent electrodes. An OLED is light emitting diode (OLED) which has emissive
electroluminescent layer composed of film made of organic compounds. An OLED is a solid-state device
consisting of a thin, carbon-based semiconductor layer that emits light when electricity is applied by adjacent
electrodes.
Construction of OLED

Department of Chemistry
 GLOBAL ACADEMY OF TECHNOLOGY
Autonomous Institution Affiliated to Visveswaraya Technological University
Approved by UGC, AICTE and Govt of Karnataka

Basically, the structure consists of six layers like cathode seal present above cathode & substrate present below
anode, Organic layers (light-Emissive Layer and conductive Layer)
1. Substrate layer- It supports OLED and is made up of transparent plastic or glass film
2. Anode layer – It is a transparent layer that removes electrons. Indium tin oxide is commonly used as the
anode material.
Organic layer – Layer formed of organic polymers, consist of two layers
3. Conductive layer – Transports holes from anode. Made up of organic polymers namely poly (p-phenylene
vinylene) and polyfluorene.
4. Emissive layer – Transports electrons from the cathode layer. It is made up of organic polymers
5. Cathode layer – Injects electrons. It may be transparent or not. Metals such as Aluminum and calcium are
often used in the cathode.
6. Seal-Made up of transparent plastic or glass film.
Working of OLEDs
• Current flows from cathode to anode through the organic layer, the cathode receives electrons and the anode
loses them.
• Light comes out when electrons and holes are injected into the light emitting layer from the two electrodes
and recombined.
• The electrons are making the emissive layer negatively charged while the conductive layer is becoming
positively charged.
• Positive holes are much more mobile than negative electrons, so they jump across the boundary from the
conductive layer to the emissive layer.
• When a hole meets an electron, release of energy in the form of a particle of light—a photon is formed.
This process is called recombination. Recombination produces continuous light as long as the current keeps
flowing.
Applications of OLEDs
• OLEDS are widely used in display systems such as TV, Computer screens.
• OLEDs are used in smart phones and tablet displays.
• OLEDs are used to make super-thin pages for electronic books and magazines.
• OLEDs are used in optical communication.

Department of Chemistry