Unit I - Fundamentals of CNC machine.

(12 marks)
1.1Introduction to CNC:
Definition: CNC stands for Computer Numerical Control, which is a manufacturing technique that uses pre-
programmed software to control machine tools. The machine follows instructions from a computer program,
which tells it what to do, how to move, and where to make cuts.

Advantages of CNC:

1. Reduced lead time

2. Elimination of operator error
3. Lower labour cost
4. High accuracy
5. Elimination of jigs and fixture
6. Flexibility
7. Reduced inspection
8. Greater accuracy of job is achieved
9. High Repeatability and improved product quality.
10. Less operator skill is required to run CNC machine.
11. Better machine utilization hence reduced idle time.
12. High production rate as speed, feed, depth of cut are optimum for best quality.
13. Lower tooling cost, per piece in mass production.
14. Jigs and fixtures cost can be reduced.
15. Reduced cycle time.
16. Better tool life and machinability.
17. Less scrap due to consistent accuracy, less error.
18. Excellent reliability as dimension are based on programs.
19. Reduced in-process inventory of parts in process.
20. Design changes are possible. Any change in design is feasible at lowest cost.
21. Productivity can be improved to great extent.
22. Tool setup time can be reduced.
23. Most suitable for continuous and better production.
24. Program can be stored and used again when required.
25. Optimum speed and feed for surface finish can used.

Applications of CNC:

1) Electronics Parts Manufacturing.

2) Engraving Machine Applications.
3) Machining Composites.
4) 5 Axis Machining.
5) Dental Milling Applications.
6) Micro hole Drilling.
7) Machining Aluminum.
8) Machining Plastics
9) Aerospace-CNC machines are used to create parts for aircraft, such as engine parts and landing gear, from
materials like aluminum and titanium.
10) Defense-CNC machines are used to prototype parts that need to withstand wear and tear.
11) Transportation-CNC technology is used in the aviation, railway, and automotive industries.
12) Metal fabrication-CNC machines are used for a variety of machining operations, such as plasma or flame
cutting, laser cutting, shearing, forming, and welding.
13) Research and development-CNC machines are used to create prototypes and test designs.
14) Signage-CNC machines can create precise designs on a variety of surfaces, including metal, wood, plastic,
stone, and glass.
15) Jewelry-CNC machines can create intricate shapes that would be difficult to make by hand.
1.2 Classification of CNC machines
1. As per feedback system:
a) Open loop Type b) Closed loop type
2. As per motion control:
a) Point to point path motion b) Continuous path motion
3. As per application:
a) CNC milling b) CNC Turning c) CNC drilling

Open loop Control System: -

-Any physical system which does not automatically correct the variation in its output is
called an open-loop system.
-The CNC machine tool of this type has no position detecting component in its control
system.
-The information flow of such CNC machine tools is one-way.
-The CNC machine tool of the open-loop control system has a simple structure and a
low cost.
- The system does not monitor the actual displacement of the moving parts, nor can it
perform error correction.
-Therefore, the accuracy of the parts being machined gets affected.
-The open-loop control system is only suitable for small and medium-sized CNC
machine tools with low machining accuracy requirements, especially simple and
economical CNC Machine tools.

Close loop Control System: -

In a closed-loop control system the actual output from the system i.e. actual
displacement of the machine slide, is compared with the input signal.
-The closed loop control systems are characterized by the presence of feed-back devices
in the system.
-In the closed loop control system the displacement can be achieved to a very high
degree of accuracy because a measuring or monitoring device is used to determine the
displacement of the slide.
-The feedback from monitoring device is then compared with the input signal and the
slide position is regulated by the servo system until it agrees with the desired position.
-Fig. below shows a closed loop control system with a provision for feedback for the
displacement of position of machining slide.
-In order to measure the speed of the motor and compare the actual speed with the
programmed speed, a velocity feedback system is added to the system.
 Straight path control system:
A straight-line control system in a Computer Numerical Control (CNC) machine moves a tool in
a straight line parallel to the X and Y axes. This motion is also known as linear interpolation.

Straight-line motion is used for many tasks, including:

 Drilling
 Milling straight surfaces
 Turning a straight diameter, face, or taper

Straight-line motion is programmed with a feed rate, which is the speed at which the tool
moves. The feed rate is usually set in inches or millimeters per minute, but it can also be set per
revolution. Straight-line motion is slower than rapid motions, but it's easy to program. After each
positioning, the control system recalibrates and starts the next linear movement.

Absolute and Incremental co-ordinate system:

Absolute System:-In this system, the positions are indicated from fixed zero point of reference point. As
shown in figure all tool positions are shown with reference to a fixed zero point.

Incremental System: - In this System, the tool positions are indicated with reference to a previously
known location. As shown in figure all tool positions are shown with reference to a previous dimension
point.
1.3 Constructional Elements of CNC: Machine Structure

The construction of a CNC (Computer Numerical Control) machine consists of several critical
structural elements that ensure its precision, rigidity, and stability during operation. Below is an
overview of the primary structural components:

1. Machine Bed

 Function: The bed is the foundation of the CNC machine and provides the necessary
support for all other components. It is designed to absorb vibrations, provide structural
stability, and withstand the forces generated during machining.
 Material: Typically made of cast iron or other high-density materials to minimize
vibrations and ensure rigidity.
 Design: The bed is often designed with a large footprint to ensure stability. It is usually
the heaviest part of the machine to maintain a low center of gravity.
 Importance: A robust machine bed is crucial for maintaining high-precision machining
operations by preventing distortions or deflections during cutting.

2. Slide ways (or Linear Guides)

 Function: slide ways or linear guides enable the precise movement of various machine
components (such as the table or tool head) along defined axes. They are responsible for
guiding the motion of moving parts with minimal friction.
 Types:
o Linear Guides: Often made of hardened steel with ball bearings or roller bearings
to ensure smooth movement.
o Slide ways: These can be dovetail slide ways or box ways that offer high rigidity
and support.
 Importance: The accuracy of a CNC machine depends heavily on the precision of the
slide ways. Any wear or misalignment in the guides can significantly affect the
machining quality.
 Lubrication: Proper lubrication is essential to reduce friction and wear, ensuring smooth
movement and prolonged service life.

3. Column

 Function: The column is the vertical structure of the CNC machine, typically connected
to the bed. It supports the machine’s spindle or tool head and holds it in place during
operations.
 Material: Like the bed, the column is made of a strong, rigid material (usually cast iron
or welded steel) to resist deformation under load.
 Design: The column often houses the motors and drives responsible for moving the
spindle along the Z-axis, which is typically the vertical axis of the machine.
 Importance: A stable column ensures that the spindle remains rigid and accurately
positioned, which is crucial for maintaining machining accuracy, especially when
performing tasks like drilling or vertical milling.
4. Tables (Work Table or Work piece Table)

 Function: The work table serves as the platform where the work piece is mounted and
positioned. It moves along one or more axes (typically the X and Y axes) to bring
different areas of the work piece into contact with the cutting tool.
 Material: Tables are typically made of cast iron or steel for strength, stability, and
vibration damping.
 Design: Work tables may be flat or feature T-slots, which allow for the secure mounting
of work pieces or fixtures. Some tables may also have the ability to rotate (as in the case
of rotary tables) or tilt.
 Importance: The table’s rigidity and accuracy are critical for precise machining. Any
distortion or misalignment of the table can lead to errors in the positioning of the work
piece, affecting the overall quality of the machined part.

Spindle Drives in CNC Machines

The spindle drive is a crucial component in a CNC machine, as it controls the rotational speed
and torque of the spindle, which holds and drives the cutting tool. The motor chosen for the
spindle drive affects the machine’s performance, including cutting speed, precision, and the
types of materials that can be processed. In CNC machines, stepper motors, servo motors, and
hydraulic motors are commonly used as spindle drives, each offering distinct advantages based
on the application.

1. Stepper Motor

 Function: A stepper motor is a type of DC motor that moves in discrete steps, providing
precise control over position. The motor’s rotor moves in fixed increments, which are
directly proportional to the number of steps per revolution.
 Working Principle:
o Stepper motors are driven by sending a sequence of electrical pulses to the motor
windings, which causes the motor’s rotor to rotate by a fixed angle with each
pulse.
o They are controlled by a stepper driver that interprets the pulses into mechanical
movement.
 Advantages:
o High Precision: Stepper motors are ideal for applications that require precise
positioning without the need for feedback systems.
o Cost-Effective: Stepper motors are generally less expensive than other motor
types.
o Simple Control: They do not require encoders or sophisticated feedback loops to
determine position.
 Disadvantages:
o Lower Torque at High Speeds: Stepper motors typically offer high torque at low
speeds, but their torque decreases as the speed increases. This limits their
application in high-speed, high-torque scenarios.
 o Vibration and Noise: Stepper motors can generate significant vibration and noise
during operation, especially at higher speeds.
 Use in CNC: Stepper motors are often used for positioning tasks and in low-to-medium
speed applications like 3D printers, light-duty CNC machines, or systems where cost is
a significant factor. However, for spindle drives, stepper motors are less common due to
their limitations in torque and speed stability.

2. Servo Motor

 Function: A servo motor is a closed-loop motor system that uses feedback (usually from
an encoder) to maintain a precise position, speed, and torque. The motor continuously
adjusts its operation to match the commanded position or speed.
 Working Principle:
o A servo motor is powered by an AC or DC motor, and it is coupled with a
feedback device (typically an encoder) to provide real-time position data to the
controller.
o The controller adjusts the input signal to ensure the motor operates at the desired
position, speed, and torque.
 Advantages:
o High Torque and Speed Control: Servo motors can provide consistent high
torque across a wide range of speeds, making them ideal for applications
requiring dynamic changes in speed and torque.
o Precision: The closed-loop feedback system allows for accurate positioning and
smooth motion, ensuring high precision in CNC operations.
o Efficient: Servo motors are more energy-efficient than stepper motors because
they only draw the necessary power to meet the required load.
 Disadvantages:
o Complex Control System: Servo motors require sophisticated controllers and
feedback systems (such as encoders), which can increase the system's complexity
and cost.
o Cost: Servo motors are generally more expensive than stepper motors.
 Use in CNC: Servo motors are the most common choice for spindle drives in CNC
machines due to their ability to maintain constant speed and torque, even under varying
load conditions. They are typically used in high-precision and high-performance CNC
applications, such as milling, turning, and high-speed machining.

3. Hydraulic Motor

 Function: A hydraulic motor is powered by hydraulic pressure to create rotational

motion. Hydraulic motors are typically used in situations where very high torque is
required, but they are less common for precise spindle applications in CNC machines.
 Working Principle:
 o Hydraulic motors are powered by hydraulic fluid that is pressurized and directed
into chambers within the motor, causing it to rotate. The flow rate of the fluid and
the pressure determine the motor’s speed and torque output.
o Hydraulic motors can vary in design, such as gear motors, piston motors, or
vane motors, depending on the application.
 Advantages:
o High Torque: Hydraulic motors can provide very high torque at low speeds,
making them suitable for heavy-duty applications or where high power is needed.
o Smooth Operation: Hydraulic systems offer smooth motion with minimal
backlash.
o Compact Design: Hydraulic motors can be smaller and more compact compared
to electric motors of equivalent power.
 Disadvantages:
o Complex Maintenance: Hydraulic systems require regular maintenance,
including monitoring fluid levels, cleanliness, and checking for leaks.
o Less Precision: Hydraulic motors generally have lower precision than electric
motors due to the potential for fluid-related issues like pressure fluctuations or
leakage.
o Energy Efficiency: Hydraulic systems can be less efficient than electric motors,
as they often require additional energy for pumping and fluid circulation.
 Use in CNC: Hydraulic motors are rarely used for spindle drives in CNC machines but
are sometimes used in specialized machinery where very high torque is needed, such as
heavy-duty industrial applications or large-scale CNC machines (e.g., those for
working with heavy materials like metals and composites). They are more common in
machine tool drives, such as for rotating tables or large, complex systems requiring high
force output.

Movement Actuators:

1. Re-circulating Ball Screw:

o This is a type of mechanical actuator used to convert rotary motion into linear
motion. It utilizes ball bearings that roll in a closed loop, reducing friction and
wear, leading to high efficiency and accuracy.
o Common in CNC machines, robotics, and automation systems where precise
linear movement is needed.
 2. Linear Motion Bearings:
o These bearings support motion along a single axis, allowing for smooth, precise
movement in one direction. They are commonly used in CNC machines, 3D
printers, and other precision equipment.
o They reduce friction and provide high load-bearing capacity, improving accuracy
and durability.

Feedback Elements:

1. Positional Feedback:
o This involves sensors or encoders that provide data about the position of an
actuator (such as a motor or ball screw) in real time. Common positional feedback
elements are rotary encoders or linear encoders.
o Essential for maintaining accuracy and ensuring that the machine is performing
the right movement in space.
2. Velocity Feedback:
o This feedback monitors the speed of movement and ensures that motors or
actuators are running at the correct speed. Velocity feedback is critical for
controlling acceleration and deceleration to avoid overshooting or mechanical
damage.
o Tachometers or velocity encoders are often used for this purpose.

Automatic Tool Changer (ATC):

1. Tool Magazine:
o A device used to hold multiple tools that can be automatically swapped in and out
of a CNC machine's spindle. This system helps improve machining efficiency by
reducing the time needed to manually change tools during a production process.
2. Turret Head:
o A rotary device that holds multiple tools on a turret (spindle) and allows for the
automatic rotation to the desired tool. Often found in CNC lathes or machining
centers to improve the speed and flexibility of tool

Pallet Changer:

1. Linear Pallet Changer:

o A system that allows for the automated swapping of pallets in a machine tool
setup. It typically uses a linear motion system to move pallets from one station to
another, reducing downtime between operations and increasing throughput.
2. Rotary Pallet Changer:
o A pallet changer that rotates to bring different pallets into the work area. It may
offer advantages in terms of space and machine access, allowing for continuous
machining without manual intervention.
o This can be useful in high-production environments where multiple workpieces
are machined in succession.
1.4 Tooling:

In the context of CNC (Computer Numerical Control) machining, tooling refers to the cutting
tools used to shape and cut materials. Below is an explanation of indexable inserts and the ISO
code and nomenclature related to CNC tooling:

1. Indexable Inserts:

Indexable inserts are cutting tools with replaceable, insertable carbide or ceramic tips that can
be rotated or replaced once the cutting edges wear out. This is a cost-effective and efficient way
to maintain tools, as only the insert needs to be changed, not the entire tool body.

 Material Composition: These inserts are usually made of carbide, cermet, ceramic, or
high-speed steel, chosen based on the type of material being machined.
 Types of Inserts: Inserts come in various shapes, such as square, triangular, round, or
other geometric profiles, depending on the type of cut or machining operation.
 Advantages:
o Cost Efficiency: Only the worn-out insert is replaced, reducing the need for
buying entire new tools.
o Flexibility: Inserts can be indexed (rotated) multiple times to use all edges before
replacement.
o Consistency: Provides high consistency in cuts, as the geometry of the insert is
precisely manufactured.
2. ISO Code and Nomenclature in CNC Tooling:

ISO (International Organization for Standardization) has developed a standardized system for
naming and coding tools, which makes it easier for operators to identify tools and ensure
compatibility across different manufacturers and machines. This nomenclature covers things like
insert shape, size, material, and specific cutting characteristics.

The ISO tool nomenclature is often used to describe cutting tools and inserts. It typically
follows a standardized code to specify the geometry, dimensions, and features of the cutting
insert. A common system used is ISO 1832 for indexable inserts.

Key Components of ISO Nomenclature for Inserts:

The ISO code for indexable inserts generally follows a format like:

**ISO Code: (e.g., CNMG 120408-MM)

1. Insert Shape:
o C: General-purpose insert (square, rectangle, etc.)
o N: Diamond-shaped insert
o T: Triangular insert
o S: Square insert
o L: Round insert
o P: Special inserts, such as for high cutting forces.

For example, CNMG refers to a diamond-shaped (N) insert, with C indicating the type
of holder.

2. Insert Size: The next number or series of numbers indicates the size of the insert:
o 1204 in CNMG 120408 refers to the size of the insert, typically given in
millimeters.
o The first two digits (12) denote the length of the insert, while the last two digits
(04) denote the width.
3. Insert Thickness: The last two digits or number (if present) often indicate the thickness
of the insert.
o For example, in CNMG 120408, the insert thickness is 08, typically denoting
8mm.
4. Insert Material:
o M: Typically denotes carbide material.
o H: High-speed steel or cermet.
o C: Ceramic material.
o Other material codes can specify special coatings or hard materials used for
cutting specific materials like stainless steel, aluminum, or titanium.
5. Chip breaker (optional): Inserts can be designed with built-in chipbreakers to help
control the size and shape of the chips being removed during cutting.
 o
The "MM" in CNMG 120408-MM refers to a specific chip breaker design that
helps improve the chip flow and machining stability.
6. Edge Type: Inserts may have different edge configurations, such as:
o Uncoated inserts: Plain cutting edges.
o Coated inserts: Inserts with a layer of material (like titanium nitride or ceramic)
to extend tool life and improve performance in difficult materials.

Example:

 ISO Code: CNMG 120408-MM

o C: Indicates the insert is a general-purpose insert (could be square or similar
shape).
o N: Diamond-shaped insert.
o MG: Geometry style of the insert (commonly used in turning operations).
o 1204: Dimensions of the insert (length = 12mm, width = 4mm).
o 08: Thickness of the insert, typically 8mm.
o MM: Designates a chip breaker type.