CH APTER 2

Introducing the brain

CO NT EN T S

Structure and function of the neuron 19

The gross organization of the brain 24
The cerebral cortex 28
The subcortex 30
The midbrain and hindbrain 32
Summary and key points of the chapter 33
Example essay questions 33
Recommended further reading 34

It is hard to begin a chapter about the brain without waxing lyrical. The brain
is the physical organ that makes all our mental life possible. It enables us to
read these words, and to consider thoughts that we have never considered
before—or even to create thoughts that no human has considered before. This
book will scratch the surface of how this is all possible, but the purpose of
this chapter is more mundane. It offers a basic guide to the structure of the
brain, starting from a description of neurons and working up to a description
of how these are organized into different neuroanatomical systems. The
emphasis is on the human brain rather than the brain of other species.

ST RUC TU R E A ND F U NC T I O N O F THE N E URO N

All neurons have basically the same structure. They consist of three
components: a cell body (or soma), dendrites and an axon, as shown in
Figure 2.1. Although neurons have the same basic structure and function,
it is important to note that there are some signi!cant differences between
different types of neurons in terms of the spatial arrangements of
the dendrites and axon.
 20 THE STUDENT’S GUIDE TO COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE

FIGURE 2.1: Neurons consist

of three basic features: a
cell body, dendrites that
receive information and
axons that send information.
In this diagram the axon
is myelinated to speed the
conduction time.

K EY T ERM S
Neuron
A type of cell that makes
up the nervous system
and supports, among
other things, cognitive
function.
Cell body The cell body contains the nucleus and other organelles. The nucleus
Part of the neuron con- contains the genetic code, and this is involved in protein synthesis. Proteins
taining the nucleus and serve a wide variety of functions from providing scaffolding to chemical
other organelles. signaling (they can act as neurotransmitters and receptors in neurons).
Dendrites Neurons receive information from other neurons and they make a “decision”
Branching structures that about this information (by changing their own activity) that can then be passed
carry information from on to other neurons. From the cell body, a number of branching structures
other neurons. called dendrites enable communication with other neurons. Dendrites receive
Axon information from other neurons in close proximity. The number and structure
A branching structure of the dendritic branches can vary signi!cantly depending on the type of
that carries information neuron (i.e., where it is to be found in the brain). The axon, by contrast, sends
to other neurons and
information to other neurons. Each neuron consists of many dendrites but
transmits an action
potential.
only a single axon (although the axon may be divided into several branches
called collaterals).

TEN INTERESTING FACTS ABOUT THE HUMAN BRAIN

(1) There are 86 billion neurons in the human brain (Azevedo et al., 2009).
(2) Each neuron connects with around 10,000 other neurons. As such, there are over 3,000 times
as many synapses in one person’s brain than there are stars in our whole galaxy.
(3) If each neuron connected with every single other neuron, our brain would be 12.5 miles in diam-
eter (Nelson & Bower, 1990). This is the length of Manhattan Island. This leads to an important
conclusion—namely, that neurons only connect with a small subset of other neurons. Neurons
tend to communicate only with their neighbors in what has been termed a “small-world” archi-
tecture (Sporns & Zwi, 2004). Long-range connections are the exception rather than the rule.
(4) The idea that we only use 10 percent of the cells in our brain is generally considered a myth
(Beyerstein, 1999). It used to be thought that only around 10 percent of the cells in the brain
were neurons (the rest being cells called glia), hence a plausible origin for the myth. This
“fact” also turns out to be inaccurate, with the true ratio of neurons to glia being closer to 1:1
(Azevedo et al., 2009). Glia serve a number of essential support functions; for example, they
are involved in tissue repair and in the formation of myelin.
 INTRODUCING THE BRAIN 21

(5) The brain makes up only 2 percent of body weight.

(6) It is no longer believed that neurons in the brain are incapable of being regenerated. It was
once widely believed that we are born with our full complement of neurons and that new
neurons are not generated. This idea is now untenable, at least in a region called the dentate
gyrus (for a review, see Gross, 2000).
(7) On average, we lose a net amount of one cortical neuron per second. A study has shown that
around 10 percent of our cortical neurons perish between the ages of 20 and 90 years—
equivalent to 85,000 neurons per day (Pakkenberg & Gundersen, 1997).
(8) Identical twins do not have anatomically identical brains. A comparison of identical and
nonidentical twins suggests that the three-dimensional cortical gyral pattern is determined
primarily by non-genetic factors, although brain size is strongly heritable (Bartley et al., 1997).
(9) People with autism have larger brains in early life (Abell et al., 1999). They also have large
heads to accommodate them. There is unlikely to be a simple relationship between brain size
and intellect (most people with autism have low IQ), and brain ef!ciency may be unrelated to
size.
(10) Men have larger brains than women, but the female brain is more folded, implying an increase
in surface area that may offset any size difference (Luders et al., 2004). The total number
of cortical neurons is related to gender, but not overall height or weight (Pakkenberg &
Gundersen, 1997).

The terminal of an axon flattens out into a disc-shaped structure. It KE Y T ER MS

is here that chemical signals enable communication between neurons via
a small gap termed a synapse. The two neurons forming the synapse are Synapse
The small gap between
referred to as presynaptic (before the synapse) and postsynaptic (after the
neurons in which
synapse), reflecting the direction of information flow (from axon to dendrite). neurotransmitters are
When a presynaptic neuron is active, an electrical current (termed an released, permitting
action potential) is propagated down the length of the axon. When the action signaling between
potential reaches the axon terminal, chemicals are released into the synaptic neurons.
cleft. These chemicals are termed neurotransmitters. (Note that a small Action potential
proportion of synapses, such as retinal gap junctions, signal electrically and A sudden change
not chemically.) Neurotransmitters bind to receptors on the dendrites or cell (depolarization and
body of the postsynaptic neuron and create a synaptic potential. The synaptic repolarization) in the
potential is conducted passively (i.e., without creating an action potential) electrical properties of
the neuron membrane in
through the dendrites and soma of the postsynaptic neuron. These passive
an axon, which forms the
currents form the basis of EEG. These different passive currents are summed basis for how neurons
together and if their summed activity exceeds a certain threshold when they code information (in
reach the beginning of the axon in the postsynaptic neuron, then an action the form of the rate
potential (an active electrical current) will be triggered in this neuron. In this and synchrony of action
way, different neurons can be said to be “communicating” with each other. potentials).
This is shown in Figure 2.2. It is important to note that each postsynaptic Neurotransmitters
neuron sums together many synaptic potentials, which are generated at many Chemical signals that are
different and distant dendritic sites (in contrast to a simple chain reaction released by one neuron
between one neuron and the next). Passive conduction tends to be short range and affect the properties
of other neurons.
because the electrical signal is impeded by the resistance of the surrounding
matter. Active conduction enables long-range signaling between neurons by
the propagation of action potentials.
 22 THE STUDENT’S GUIDE TO COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE

FIGURE 2.2: Electrical

currents are actively
transmitted through axons by
an action potential. Electrical
currents flow passively
through dendrites and soma
of neurons, but will initiate
an action potential if their
summed potential is strong
enough at the start of the
axon (called the hillock).

Electrical signaling and the action potential

Each neuron is surrounded by a cell membrane that acts as a barrier to the
passage of certain chemicals. Within the membrane, certain protein molecules
act as gatekeepers and allow particular chemicals in and out under certain
conditions. These chemicals consist, among others, of charged sodium (Na+)
and potassium (K+) ions. The balance between these ions on the inside and
outside of the membrane is such that there is normally a resting potential of
−70 mV across the membrane (the inside being negative relative to the outside).
Voltage-gated ion channels are of particular importance in the generation
of an action potential. They are found only in axons, which is why only the
axon is capable of producing action potentials. The sequence of events is as
follows (see also Figure 2.3):

1. If a passive current of suf!cient strength flows across the axon membrane,

this begins to open the voltage-gated Na+ channels.
2. When the channel is opened, then Na+ may enter the cell and the negative
potential normally found on the inside is reduced (the cell is said to
depolarize). At about −50 mV, the cell membrane becomes completely
permeable and the charge on the inside of the cell momentarily reverses.
This sudden depolarization and subsequent repolarization in electrical
charge across the membrane is the action potential.
3. The negative potential of the cell is restored via the outward flow of K+
through voltage-gated K+ channels and closing of the voltage-gated Na+
channels.
4. There is a brief period in which hyperpolarization occurs (the inside is
more negative than at rest). This makes it more dif!cult for the axon to
depolarize straight away and prevents the action potential from traveling
backwards.
 INTRODUCING THE BRAIN 23

FIGURE 2.3: The action

potential consists of a
number of phases.

An action potential in one part of the axon opens adjacent voltage-

sensitive Na+ channels, and so the action potential moves progressively
down the length of the axon, starting from the cell body and ending at the
axon terminal. The conduction of the action potential along the axon may
KE Y T ER M
be speeded up if the axon is myelinated. Myelin is a fatty substance that is
deposited around the axon of some cells (especially those that carry motor Myelin
signals). It blocks the normal Na+/K+ transfer and so the action potential A fatty substance that
is deposited around the
jumps, via passive conduction, down the length of the axon at the points at
axon of some neurons
which the myelin is absent (called nodes of Ranvier). Destruction of myelin is that speeds conduction.
found in a number of pathologies, notably multiple sclerosis.

Chemical signaling and the postsynaptic neuron

When the action potential reaches the axon terminal, the electrical signal
initiates a sequence of events leading to the release of neurotransmitters into
the synaptic cleft. Protein receptors in the membrane of the postsynaptic
neurons bind to the neurotransmitters. Many of the receptors are transmitter-
gated ion channels (not to be confused with voltage-gated ion channels
found in the axon). This sets up a localized flow of charged Na+, K+ or
chloride (Cl–), which creates the synaptic potential. Some neurotransmitters
(e.g., GABA) have an inhibitory effect on the postsynaptic neuron (i.e., by
making it less likely to !re). This can be achieved by making the inside of
the neuron more negative than normal and hence harder to depolarize (e.g.,
by opening transmitter-gated Cl– channels). Other neurotransmitters (e.g.,
glutamate) have excitatory effects on the postsynaptic neuron (i.e., by making
it more likely to !re). These synaptic potentials are then passively conducted
as already described.
Glutamate and GABA are the workhorse neurotransmitters of the
brain in that nearly every neuron produces one or other of these. Note
that it is not the chemicals themselves that make them excitatory and
inhibitory. Rather it is the effect that they have on ion channels in the
 24 THE STUDENT’S GUIDE TO COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE

membrane which either pump positive or negative ions, thus making an

action potential more or less likely. Other common neurotransmitters are
serotonin, dopamine, acetylcholine and noradrenaline. These are often
considered to have modulatory functions. Rather than being distributed
ONLINE RESOURCE throughout the brain, as is the case with GABA and glutamate, the
Do you need to get cell bodies of the neurons that release these neurotransmitters tend to
up to speed on your be localized to speci!c brain areas, but their axonal projections spread
neuroscience basics? diffusely throughout the brain.
Take a look at the
companion website
([Link]. How do neurons code information?
com/cw/ward) for
links to a YouTube The amplitude of an action potential does not vary, but the number of
neuroscience crash action potentials propagated per second varies along a continuum. This rate
course and a free of responding (also called the “spiking rate”) relates to the informational
online Fundamentals
of Neuroscience “code” carried by that neuron. For example, some neurons may have a high
module from Harvard spiking rate in some situations (e.g., during speech), but not others (e.g.,
University. during vision), whereas other neurons would have a complementary pro!le.
Neurons responding to similar types of information tend to be grouped
together. This gives rise to the functional specialization of brain regions that
was introduced in Chapter 1.
If information is carried in the response rate of a neuron, what determines
the type of information that the neuron responds to? The type of information
that a neuron carries is related to the input it receives and the output it sends
to other neurons. For example, the reason neurons in the primary auditory
cortex can be considered to carry information about sound is because they
receive input from a pathway originating in the cochlea and they send
information to other neurons involved in more advanced stages of auditory
processing (e.g., speech perception). However, imagine that one were to rewire
the brain such that the primary auditory cortex was to receive inputs from
the retinal pathway, originating in the eyes, rather than the auditory pathway
(Sur & Leamey, 2001). In this case, the function of the primary “auditory”
cortex would have changed (as would the type of information it carries) even
though the region itself was not directly modi!ed (only the inputs to it were
modi!ed). This general point is worth bearing in mind when one considers
K EY T ERMS what the function of a given region is. The function of a region is determined
Gray matter by its inputs and outputs. As such, the extent to which a function can be
Matter consisting primari- strictly localized is a moot point.
ly of neuronal cell bodies.
White matter
T H E G ROS S O R G A N I ZATI O N O F T HE BR AI N
Tissue of the nervous
system consisting primar-
ily of axons and support Gray matter, white matter and cerebrospinal fluid
cells. Neurons are organized within the brain to form white matter and gray matter.
Glia Gray matter consists of neuronal cell bodies. White matter consists of axons
Support cells of the and support cells (glia). The brain consists of a highly convoluted folded
nervous system involved sheet of gray matter (the cerebral cortex), beneath which lies the white matter.
in tissue repair and in
In the center of the brain, beneath the bulk of the white matter !bers, lies
the formation of myelin
(among other functions).
another collection of gray matter structures (the subcortex), which includes
the basal ganglia, the limbic system and the diencephalon.
INTRODUCING THE BRAIN 25

FIGURE 2.4: There are three

different kinds of white
matter tract, depending on
the nature of the regions
that are connected.
Adapted from Diamond et al.,
1986. © 1986 by Coloring
Concepts, Inc. Reprinted by
permission of HarperCollins
Publishers.

FIGURE 2.5: The brain

consists of four ventricles
!lled with cerebrospinal
fluid (CSF): the lateral
ventricles are found in
each hemisphere, the third
ventricle lies centrally around
the subcortical structures
and the fourth ventricle lies
in the brainstem (hindbrain).
 26 THE STUDENT’S GUIDE TO COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE

K EY T ERMS White matter tracts may project between different cortical regions within
the same hemisphere (called association tracts), or project between different
Corpus callosum cortical regions in different hemispheres (called commissures; the most
A large white matter tract
important commissure being the corpus callosum) or may project between
that connects the two
hemispheres. cortical and subcortical structures (called projection tracts)—see Figure 2.4.
The brain also contains a number of hollow chambers termed ventricles,
Ventricles
shown in Figure 2.5. These were incorrectly revered for 1,500 years as being
The hollow chambers of
the brain that contain
the seat of mental life. The ventricles are !lled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF),
cerebrospinal fluid. which does serve some useful functions, albeit non-cognitive. The CSF carries
waste metabolites, transfers some messenger signals and provides a protective
Anterior
Toward the front.
cushion for the brain.
Posterior
Toward the back. A hierarchical view of the central nervous system
Superior Brain evolution can be thought of as adding additional structures onto older
Toward the top. ones, rather than replacing older structures with newer ones. For example, the
Inferior main visual pathway in humans travels from the retina to the occipital lobe,
Toward the bottom. but a number of older visual pathways also exist and contribute to vision (see
Dorsal Chapter 7). These older pathways constitute the dominant form of seeing
Toward the top. for other species such as birds and reptiles. Figure 2.6 illustrates the major
Ventral structures of the brain, showing a hierarchical arrangement (older structures
Toward the bottom. toward the bottom of the diagram).
Lateral
The outer part (cf. medial). Terms of reference and section
Medial
There are conventional directions for navigating around the brain, just as
In or toward the middle.
there is a north, south, east and west for navigating around maps. Anterior
and posterior refer to directions toward the front and back of the brain,
respectively. These are also called rostral and caudal, respectively, particularly
in other species that have a tail (caudal refers to the tail end). Directions toward
the top and bottom are referred to as superior and inferior, respectively;
they are also known as dorsal and ventral, respectively. The terms anterior,
posterior, superior and inferior (or rostral, caudal, dorsal and ventral) enable
navigation in two dimensions: front–back and top–bottom (see Figure 2.7).
Needless to say, the brain is three-dimensional and so a further dimension is
required. The terms lateral and medial are used to refer to directions toward
the outer surface and the center of the brain, respectively, although “medial”
is ambiguous, because it is also used in another context. Although it is used
to refer to the center of the brain, it is also used to refer to the middle of
structures more generally. For example, the medial temporal gyrus lies on
the lateral surface of the brain (not the medial surface). It is labeled medial
because it lies midway between the superior and inferior temporal gyri.
The brain can be sectioned into two-dimensional slices in a number
of ways, as shown in Figure 2.8. A coronal cross-section refers to a slice in
the vertical plane through both hemispheres (the brain appears roundish in
this section). A sagittal section refers to a slice in the vertical plane going
through one of the hemispheres. When the sagittal section lies between the
hemispheres it is called a midline or medial section. An axial (or horizontal)
section is taken in the horizontal plane.
INTRODUCING THE BRAIN 27

FIGURE 2.6: The central

nervous system (CNS) is
organized hierarchically. The
upper levels of the hierarchy,
corresponding to the upper
branches of this diagram,
are the newest structures
from an evolutionary
perspective.

FIGURE 2.7: Terms of

reference in the brain.
Note also the terms lateral
(referring to the outer
surface of the brain) and
medial (referring to the
central regions).
 28 THE STUDENT’S GUIDE TO COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE

K EY T ERMS
Gyri (gyrus = singular)
The raised folds of the
cortex.
Sulci (sulcus = singular)
The buried grooves of the
cortex.

FIGURE 2.9: The main

gyri of the lateral (top) and FIGURE 2.8: Terms of sections of the brain.
medial (bottom) surface Adapted from Diamond et al., 1986. © 1986 by Coloring Concepts Inc. Reprinted by permission of
of the brain. The cortical HarperCollins Publishers.
sulci tend to be labeled
according to terms of T H E C E RE B R AL C O R TE X
reference. For example, the
superior temporal sulcus lies The cerebral cortex consists of two folded sheets of gray matter organized
between the superior and
into two hemispheres (left and right). The surface of the cortex has
medial temporal gyri.
become increasingly more convoluted with
evolutionary development. Having a folded
structure permits a high surface area to volume
ratio and thereby permits ef!cient packaging.
The raised surfaces of the cortex are termed
gyri (or gyrus in the singular). The dips or folds
are called sulci (or sulcus in the singular).
The cortex is only around 3 mm thick and
is organized into different layers that can be seen
when viewed in cross-section. The different layers
reflect the grouping of different cell types. Different
parts of the cortex have different densities in each
of the layers. Most of the cortex contains six main
cortical layers, termed the neocortex (meaning
“new cortex”). Other cortical regions are the
mesocortex (including the cingulate gyrus and
insula) and the allocortex (including the primary
olfactory cortex and hippocampus).
The lateral surface of the cortex of each
hemisphere is divided into four lobes: the
frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital lobes
(Figure 2.9). The dividing line between the lobes
is sometimes prominent, as is the case between
the frontal and temporal lobes (divided by the
lateral or sylvian fissure), but in other cases,
the boundary cannot readily be observed (e.g.,
between temporal and occipital lobes). Other
regions of the cortex are observable only in a
 INTRODUCING THE BRAIN 29

medial section, for example the cingulate cortex. Finally, an island of cortex KE Y T ER M
lies buried underneath the temporal lobe; this is called the insula (which
literally means “island” in Latin). Brodmann’s areas
Regions of cortex de!ned
There are four different ways in which regions of cerebral cortex may be
by the relative distribu-
divided and, hence, labeled: tion of cell types across
cortical layers (cytoarchi-
1. Regions divided by the pattern of gyri and sulci. The same pattern of gyri tecture).
and sulci is found in everyone (although the precise shape and size vary
greatly). As such, it is possible to label different regions of the brain
accordingly.
2. Regions divided by cytoarchitecture. One of the most influential ways
of dividing up the cerebral cortex is in terms of Brodmann’s areas.

FIGURE 2.10: The Brodmann

areas of the brain on the
lateral (top) and medial
(bottom) surface.
 30 THE STUDENT’S GUIDE TO COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE

Brodmann divided the cortex up into approximately 52 areas (labeled

from BA1 to BA52), based on the relative distribution of cell types across
cortical layers. Areas are labeled in a circular spiral starting from the
middle, like the numbering system of Parisian suburbs. This is shown in
ONLINE RESOURCE Figure 2.10. Over the years, the map has been modi!ed.
Check out the 3. Regions divided by function. This method tends only to be used for
companion website primary sensory and motor areas. For example, Brodmann areas 17
([Link]/ and 6 are also termed the primary visual cortex and the primary motor
cw/ward) for a link
cortex, respectively. Higher cortical regions are harder (if not impossible)
to the 3D Brain App
from Google Play or to ascribe unique functions to.
Neuroanatomy Online. 4. Regions divided by connectivity. Different brain regions have a different
connectivity pro!le (i.e., they connect to some regions strongly and others
K EY T ERM weakly) and MRI techniques can be used to segment individual human
brains using this kind of information (Glasser et al., 2016).
Basal ganglia
Regions of subcortical
gray matter involved in T H E S U B C ORT E X
aspects of motor control,
skill learning and reward Beneath the cortical surface and the intervening white matter lies another
learning; they consist of collection of gray matter nuclei termed the subcortex. The subcortex is
structures such as the
typically divided into a number of different systems with different evolutionary
caudate nucleus, putamen
and globus pallidus.
and functional histories.

FIGURE 2.11: The basal The basal ganglia

ganglia are involved in motor
programming, skill learning The basal ganglia are large rounded masses
and reward learning. that lie in each hemisphere, and are illustrated
in Figure 2.11. They surround and overhang
the thalamus in the center of the brain. They
are involved in regulating motor activity, and
the programming and termination of action
(see Chapter 10). Disorders of the basal
ganglia can be characterized as hypokinetic
(poverty of movement) or hyperkinetic
(excess of movement). Examples of these
include Parkinson’s and Huntington’s disease,
respectively (see Chapter 10). The basal
ganglia are also implicated in the learning
of rewards, skills and habits (see Chapters
11 and 16). The main structures comprising
the basal ganglia are: the caudate nucleus (an
elongated tail-like structure), the putamen
(lying more laterally) and the globus pallidus
(lying more medially). The caudate and
putamen funnel cortical inputs into the globus
pallidus, from which !bers reach into the
thalamus. Different circuits passing through
these regions either increase or decrease the
probability and intensity of certain behaviors
(e.g., voluntary movements).
 INTRODUCING THE BRAIN 31

FIGURE 2.12: The limbic system. FIGURE 2.13: The ventral surface of the brain shows
the limbic structures of the olfactory bulbs and
mamillary bodies. Other visible structures include the
hypothalamus, optic nerves, pons and medulla.

The limbic system KE Y T ER MS

The structures of the limbic system are shown in Figure 2.12. The limbic Limbic system
system is important for relating the organism to its environment based on A region of subcortex
current needs and the present situation, and based on previous experience. involved in relating the
It is involved in the detection and expression of emotional responses. For organism to its present
and past environment;
example, the amygdala has been implicated in the detection of fearful or
limbic structures include
threatening stimuli (see Chapter 16), and parts of the cingulate gyrus have the amygdala, hippocam-
been implicated in the detection of emotional and cognitive conflicts (see pus, cingulate cortex and
Chapter 15). The hippocampus is particularly important for learning and mamillary bodies.
memory (see Chapter 11). Both the amygdala and hippocampus lie buried Thalamus
in the temporal lobes of each hemisphere. Other limbic structures are A major subcortical relay
clearly visible on the underside (ventral surface) of the brain, as shown center; for instance, it is
in Figure 2.13. The mamillary bodies are two small round protrusions a processing station be-
that have traditionally been implicated in memory (Dusoir et al., 1990). tween all sensory organs
The olfactory bulbs lie on the under-surface of the frontal lobes. Their (except smell) and the
cortex.
connections to the limbic system underscore the importance of smell for
detecting environmentally salient stimuli (e.g., food, other animals) and its
influence on mood and memory.

The diencephalon
The two main structures that make up the diencephalon are the thalamus and
the hypothalamus. Their locations are shown in Figure 2.14.
The thalamus consists of two interconnected egg-shaped masses that lie
in the center of the brain and appear prominent in a medial section. The
thalamus is the main sensory relay for all senses (except smell) between the
sense organs (eyes, ears, etc.) and the cortex. It also contains projections to
almost all parts of the cortex and the basal ganglia. At the posterior end
 32 THE STUDENT’S GUIDE TO COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE

FIGURE 2.14: A coronal

section through the of the thalamus lie the lateral geniculate nucleus and the medial geniculate
amygdala and basal ganglia
nucleus. These are the main sensory relays to the primary visual and primary
shows the thalamus and
hypothalamus as prominent
auditory cortices, respectively.
in the midline. The hypothalamus lies beneath the thalamus and consists of a variety
of nuclei that are specialized for different functions primarily concerned with
the body. These include body temperature, hunger and thirst, sexual activity,
K EY T ERMS
and regulation of endocrine functions (e.g., regulating body growth). Tumors
Hypothalamus in this region can lead to eating and drinking disorders, precocious puberty,
Consists of a variety of dwar!sm and gigantism.
nuclei that are special-
ized for different func-
tions that are primarily T H E MI D B RA I N A N D H I N D B R A I N
concerned with the body
and its regulation. The midbrain region consists of a number of structures (see Figure 2.15),
Superior colliculi only a few of which will be considered here. The superior colliculi and
A midbrain nucleus that inferior colliculi (or colliculus in singular) are gray matter nuclei. The
forms part of a subcor- superior colliculi integrate information from several senses (vision, hearing
tical sensory pathway and touch), whereas the inferior colliculi are specialized for auditory
involved in programming processing. These pathways are different from the main cortical sensory
fast eye movements.
pathways and are evolutionarily older. They may provide a fast route that
Inferior colliculi enables rapid orienting to sensory stimuli (flashes or bangs) before the
A midbrain nucleus that stimulus is consciously seen or heard (Sparks, 1999). The midbrain also
forms part of a subcorti-
contains a region called the substantia nigra, which is connected to the
cal auditory pathway.
basal ganglia. Cell loss in this region is associated with the symptoms of
Cerebellum Parkinson’s disease.
Structure attached to
The cerebellum (literally “little brain”) is attached to the posterior of the
the hindbrain; important
for dexterity and smooth
hindbrain via the cerebellar peduncles. It consists of highly convoluted folds
execution of movement. of gray matter. It is organized into two interconnected lobes. The cerebellum is
important for dexterity and smooth execution of movement. This function may
 INTRODUCING THE BRAIN 33

be achieved by integrating motor commands

with online sensory feedback about the current
state of the action (see Chapter 10). Unilateral
lesions to the cerebellum result in poor
coordination on the same side of the body
as the lesion (i.e., ipsilesional side). Bilateral
lesions result in a wide and staggering gait,
slurred speech (dysarthria) and eyes moving
in a to-and-fro motion (nystagmus). The pons
is a key link between the cerebellum and the
cerebrum. It receives information from visual
areas to control eye and body movements. The
medulla oblongata protrudes from the pons
and merges with the spinal cord. It regulates
vital functions such as breathing, swallowing,
heart rate and the wake–sleep cycle.
FIGURE 2.15: A posterior
view of the midbrain and
SUMMARY AND KEY POINTS OF THE CHAPTER hindbrain. Visible structures
include the thalamus (the
• The neuron is the basic cell type that supports cognition. two egg-shaped masses
Neurons form a densely interconnected network of connections. at the top), pineal gland,
superior colliculi, inferior
Axons send signals to other cells and dendrites receive signals.
colliculi, cerebellum,
• Neurons code information in terms of a response rate. They cerebellar peduncle and
only respond in certain situations (determined by the input they medulla oblongata (the
receive from elsewhere). pons is not visible but lies
on the other side of the
• Neurons are grouped together to form gray matter (cell bodies)
cerebellum).
and white matter (axons and other cells). The cortical surface
consists of a folded sheet of gray matter organized into two
hemispheres.
• There is another set of gray matter in the subcortex that includes
the basal ganglia (important in regulating movement), the limbic
system (important for emotion and memory functions) and the
diencephalon (the thalamus is a sensory relay center and the
hypothalamus is concerned with hemostatic functions). KE Y T ER MS
Pons
Part of the hindbrain;
a key link between the
EXAMPLE ESSAY QUESTIONS
cerebellum and the
cerebrum.
• How do neurons communicate with each other?
Medulla oblongata
• Describe how electrical and chemical signals are generated by Part of the hindbrain; it
neurons. regulates vital functions
• Compare and contrast the different functions of the forebrain, such as breathing, swal-
lowing, heart rate and the
midbrain and hindbrain.
wake–sleep cycle.
 34 THE STUDENT’S GUIDE TO COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE

RECOMMENDED FURTHER READING

• Bear, M. F., Connors, B. W., & Paradiso, M. A. (2015).

Neuroscience: Exploring the brain (4th edition). Baltimore, MD:
ONLINE RESOURCE Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. A detailed book that covers all
Visit the companion aspects of neuroscience. It is recommended for students whose
website at www. degree contains signi!cant neuroscience components. The book
[Link]/cw/ward may be beyond the need of many psychology students.
for:
• Crossman, A. R., & Neary, D. (2014). Neuroanatomy: An illustrated
• References to key colour text (5th edition). Edinburgh: Harcourt Publishers. A good
papers and readings and clear guide that is not too detailed.
• Video interviews on
• Pinel, J. P. J., & Edwards, M. (2007). A colorful introduction to the
key topics
• Links to the Interactive anatomy of the human brain: A brain and psychology coloring book
Neuroanatomy website (2nd edition). New York: Pearson. An active way of learning your
and Harvard’s MRI way around the brain.
Brain Atlas
• Multiple-choice
questions and
interactive flashcards
to test your
knowledge
• Downloadable
glossary