Edinburgh Napier University

School of Engineering and the Built Environment

MSc Timber Engineering

Module: Analysis and Timber Design 1 (BSV11116)

Lecture 5: Design of axially loaded members

Lecturer: Bernardino D’Amico

Table of Contents
Acknowledgments...................................................................................................................... 2
Learning outcome ...................................................................................................................... 2
Design of axially loaded members ............................................................................................. 2
Members subjected to axial compression .................................................................................. 2
Members subjected to axial tension ........................................................................................... 6
Members subjected to axial compression and combined (bi-axial) bending ............................. 8
Members acting primarily as column. ................................................................................... 8
Members acting primarily as a beam. ................................................................................... 9
Members subjected to axial tension and combined (bi-axial) bending.................................... 10
References & Further Reading................................................................................................. 10
Tutorial 5a ................................................................................................................................ 11
Tutorial 5b ................................................................................................................................ 11
Tutorial 5c ................................................................................................................................ 11
Analysis and Timber Design 1 Lecture 5

Acknowledgments
Dr Jack Porteous is the owner of all intellectual property rights of the present lecture notes.
You are permitted to print such notes for your own use, provided that you include an
acknowledgement alongside the copied material noting Dr Jack Porteous as the author.

Learning outcome
Once studied this lecture, you should be able to:

 Understand how to design members subject to compressive axial load.

 Understand how to design members subject to tensile axial load.

 Understand how to design members subject to a combination of axial compressive force

and bending moment functioning primarily as column.

 Understand how to design members subject to a combination of axial compressive force

and bending moment functioning primarily as beams.

 Understand how to design members subject to a combination of axial tensile force and
bending moment.

Design of axially loaded members

This lecture covers the design of straight solid section (i.e. not composite) timber members
whose grain runs essentially parallel to the length of the members and are subjected to
compressive or tensile axial forces parallel to the grain. The theory also applies to glulam, LVL
or wood-based structural products. The design of such members is undertaken at the ULS and
the design procedures for members of solid timber, glued laminated timber or wood based
structural products are given in Clauses 6.1.2, 6.1.4, and 6.3 of EC5.

Members subjected to axial compression

These are members that are subjected to a compressive action acting parallel to the grain and
through the centroid axis of the member. Such members function as columns, posts, stud
members in walls or struts in pin jointed trusses.

When a member is subjected to axial compression its failure strength is dependent on several
factors:

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Analysis and Timber Design 1 Lecture 5

 Strength/stiffness: compressive strength and modulus of elasticity of the timber.

 Geometry of the member: cross sectional sizes and length.

 Support condition: the amount of lateral support and fixity at its ends.

 Geometric imperfections: deviations from nominal sizes, initial curvature and

inclination.

 Material variations and imperfections: density, effect of knots, effect of compression

wood and moisture content.

The rules in EC5 take these factors into account. In order to derive the stress resultants (i.e.
axial force, bending moments etc.) of a member subjected to compression, it can be used a first
order linear elastic analysis. Then, the member is designed in isolation taking into account out
of alignment effects, using the effective column length method. This is the method normally
used in design practice and is the one covered in this lecture.

When subjected to an axial load: as the slenderness ratio “λ” of the member increases, the
failure mechanism will be by lateral buckling, as shown for the pin jointed column in Figure 1.
Conversely, for small values of slenderness (e.g. for a stocky column) the failure mode will
occur by stress failure rather that buckling.

Figure 1: Buckling of a column

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Analysis and Timber Design 1 Lecture 5

The slenderness ratio is defined as the effective length of the member (Le) divided by its radius
of gyration (i):

𝐿𝑒
𝜆=
𝑖

where the radius of gyration about an axis of the cross-section, e.g. about the y axis, is defined
as:

𝐼𝑦
𝑖𝑦 = √
𝐴

And A is the cross-sectional area. Accordingly, the slenderness ratios 𝜆𝑦 and 𝜆𝑧 are:

𝐿𝑒,𝑦 𝐿𝑒,𝑧
𝜆𝑦 = ; 𝜆𝑧 =
ℎ / √12 𝑏 / √12

Clearly, for any member there will be two slenderness ratios, one about the y axis and one
around the z axis. Buckling will occur about the axis with the higher slenderness ratio (lower
second moment of area). Guidance on the choice of the effective length are given in the UK
NCCI document PD6693-1 accompanying EC5 guidelines, hence reported in Table 1 below.

Figure 2: Effective length Le according to the end conditions.

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Analysis and Timber Design 1 Lecture 5

Note: L is the actual length of the column. Where full control on positional and rotational end
conditions cannot be assured and the stiffness properties of the end connections are known,
approximate solutions for Le can be determined using the procedure given in Lecture B7 of the
Structural Timber Educational Programme (STEP 1).

In order to establish the failure mode of a member under compression (e.g. by lateral buckling
or by stress failure) EC5 require the knowing of the relative slenderness ratios 𝜆rel,𝑦 and 𝜆rel,𝑧 :

𝜆𝑦 𝑓𝑐,0,𝑘 𝜆𝑧 𝑓𝑐,0,𝑘
𝜆rel,𝑦 = √ ; 𝜆rel,𝑧 = √
𝜋 𝐸0.05 𝜋 𝐸0.05

where 𝑓𝑐,0,𝑘 is the characteristic compressive strength is parallel to the grain and 𝐸0.05 is the 5-
percentile elastic modulus parallel to the grain.

If the relative slenderness ratios so computed are both ≤ 0.3, then the member will not buckle
and the design requirement is to check the compressive design stress does not exceed the design
compressive strength:

𝜎c,0,d ≤ 𝑓c,0,d

Where:

𝑁d
𝜎c,0,d =
𝐴

with 𝑁d being the design axial load and A the cross-sectional area and:

𝑘mod ∙ 𝑘sys ∙ 𝑓c,0,k

𝑓c,0,d =
𝛾M

with 𝑓c,0,k being the characteristic compressive strength parallel to the grain; 𝑘mod the
modification factor for load duration and service class; 𝑘sys the factor for loading-sharing
systems and 𝛾M the partial coefficient for material properties.

If the relative slenderness ratio 𝜆rel,𝑦 or 𝜆rel,𝑧 (or both) are > 0.3, then the member can buckle
about the associated (y or z) axis and this is taken into account by multiplying the material
strength with a buckling strength reduction factor 𝑘c,y or 𝑘c,z hence, the following equations
need to be fulfilled:

𝜎c,0,d ≤ 𝑘c,y 𝑓c,0,d (If 𝜆rel,𝑦 > 0.3)

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Analysis and Timber Design 1 Lecture 5

𝜎c,0,d ≤ 𝑘c,z 𝑓c,0,d (If 𝜆rel,𝑧 > 0.3)

The strength reduction factors 𝑘c,y and 𝑘c,z are obtained as follows:

1 1
𝑘c,y = ; 𝑘c,z =
𝑘y + √𝑘y2 − 𝜆2rel,y 𝑘z + √𝑘z2 − 𝜆2rel,z

Where:

𝑘y = 0.5[1 + 𝛽𝑐 (𝜆rel,y − 0.3) + 𝜆2rel,y ]

𝑘z = 0.5[1 + 𝛽𝑐 (𝜆rel,z − 0.3) + 𝜆2rel,z ]

And 𝛽𝑐 is a parameter taking into account the out-of-straightness of the member (Eq. (6.29)
of EC5):

𝛽𝑐 = 0.2 For solid timber

𝛽𝑐 = 0.1 For glue laminated timber and laminated veneer lumber (LVL).

Noting that, for axially loaded members, the EC5 imposes straightness limits: i.e. the
deviation from straightness measured midway between supports should be less than (or equal
to) the member-length/300 for solid timber, and less than (or equal to) the member-
length/500 for glulam and LVL.

Members subjected to axial tension

These are members that are subjected to a tensile action acting parallel to the grain and through
the centroid of the member. Such members function as ties in pin jointed trusses and provide
tensile resistance to overturning forces in stud walls.

Although the tensile strength, ft,0,k, of clear wood samples is greater than the compression
strength, fc,0,k, because tension failure occurs in a brittle rather than a ductile mode and also
because of its sensitivity to the effects of grain slope, knots and other defects, the tensile
strength of structural timber is generally less than the compression strength, particularly at the
lower strength classes.

With tension members buckling will not arise and so slenderness considerations are only
relevant if there is a risk of a stress reversal condition, for example, due to the effect of wind
loading on members in truss frameworks or in wall studs.

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Analysis and Timber Design 1 Lecture 5

A tension member should be checked at its weakest point and this will normally be at its
connections. As connection design will follow after the member size has been selected, the
design of tension members normally involves a trial and error process. Assumptions are made
on the type and size of connections to be used and the adequacy of the tension member is
confirmed at the connection location allowing for a loss of area due to the assumed connection.
After the connections have been designed, the member is rechecked taking into account the
actual net cross sectional area. It is to be noted that in EC5 Clause 5.2(3) the effect of loss of
cross sectional area may be ignored where nails and screws with a diameter of 6 mm or less,
driven without predrilling, are used. However, as required by Clause 5.2(4), all holes within a
distance of half the minimum fastener spacing measured parallel to the grain from a given cross
section, should be taken as occurring at that cross section.

The EC5 procedure for the design of axially loaded members is as follows: The design tensile
stress in the member must be less than the design tensile strength in accordance with the
requirements of equation (6.1) in Clause 6.1.2 of EC5:

𝜎t,0,d ≤ 𝑓t,0,d

where 𝜎t,0,d is the design tensile stress parallel to the grain:

𝑁d
𝜎t,0,d
𝐴net

and 𝐴net is the cross-sectional area reduced by the presence of fasteners at the connection.

The design tensile strength 𝑓t,0,d is obtained as:

𝑘mod ∙ 𝑘sys ∙ 𝑘h ∙ 𝑓t,0,k

𝑓t,0,d =
𝛾M

with 𝑓t,0,k being the characteristic tensile strength parallel to the grain; 𝑘mod the modification
factor for load duration and service class; 𝑘sys the factor for loading-sharing systems and 𝛾M
the partial coefficient for material properties. The size factor 𝑘h for members under tension is
defined in Clauses 3.2(3) and 3.3(3) of EC5 for solid timber and glulam. The largest cross
sectional dimension of the member should be used to evaluate the factor.

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Analysis and Timber Design 1 Lecture 5

Members subjected to axial compression and combined (bi-axial)

bending
For timber members subjected to axial compression and (combined or simple) bending, EC5
differentiates between:
 Members acting primarily as column.
 Members acting primarily as beams.

Members acting primarily as column.

These are members that are subjected to a combination of direct compressive stress and
bending stress, both stresses acting parallel to the grain. Members subjected to eccentric
compressive loading, as shown in Figure 3, also come into this category.

Figure 3: Eccentric axial loading.

As for members subjected to compressive load only, the possibility of buckling failure has to
be considered and this is done by taking the relative slenderness of the column (𝜆rel ) into
account. Accordingly, the following two cases can arise:

 Both 𝝀𝐫𝐞𝐥,𝒚 and 𝝀𝐫𝐞𝐥,𝒛 are ≤ 0.3: buckling behaviour is not relevant and failure will
occur by compressive stress overcoming the compressive strength of the material.
Under this condition, the EC5 takes advantage of the plastic behaviour of timber when
compressed. By applying plastic theory, the material yields when compressive strength
is reached, hence allowing to stress redistribution. The associated design equation for
this condition is given in Clause 6.2.4 of EC5 as follows (both Eqs. have to be fulfilled):

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Analysis and Timber Design 1 Lecture 5

2
𝜎c,0,d 𝜎m,y,d 𝜎m,z,d
( ) + + 𝑘m ≤1
𝑓c,0,d 𝑓m,y,d 𝑓m,z,d

2
𝜎c,0,d 𝜎m,y,d 𝜎m,z,d
( ) + 𝑘m + ≤1
𝑓c,0,d 𝑓m,y,d 𝑓m,z,d

As these equations do not include for the effects of lateral torsional instability when the
member is subjected to bending, they are only valid for cases where lateral buckling of
the member under the applied bending moment(s) is prevented or the member has a
cross-sectional geometry that prevents lateral torsional buckling to occur (e.g. square,
circular, etc.).

 Either 𝝀𝐫𝐞𝐥,𝒚 and/or 𝝀𝐫𝐞𝐥,𝒛 > 0.3: buckling failure can arise in this case and this is taken
into account by multiplying the compression strength of the material with the associated
instability factor 𝑘c,y (or 𝑘c,z ). To remove the risk of sudden failure due to instability,
no benefit is taken of plastic behaviour in the member (except for the use of the factor
𝑘m ). According to Clause 6.3.2(3) of EC5, the following equations have to be both
fulfilled:

𝜎c,0,d 𝜎m,y,d 𝜎m,z,d

+ + 𝑘m ≤1
𝑘c,y 𝑓c,0,d 𝑓m,y,d 𝑓m,z,d

𝜎c,0,d 𝜎m,y,d 𝜎m,z,d

+ 𝑘m + ≤1
𝑘c,z 𝑓c,0,d 𝑓m,y,d 𝑓m,z,d

Again, since these equations do not include for the effects of lateral torsional instability
when the member is subjected to bending, they are only valid for cases where lateral
buckling of the member under the applied bending moment(s) is prevented or the
member has a cross-sectional geometry that prevents lateral torsional buckling to occur
(e.g. square, circular, etc.).

Members acting primarily as a beam.

These are members functioning as beams, thus subjected to bending moment about the strong
axis of the cross-section and axial compression where the beam is free to move laterally.
Accordingly, the lateral instability effect is taken into account. No plastic behaviour is allowed
to occur under the effect of axial load but is permitted under the effect of moment. As already
mentioned, EC5 only considers the case of simple bending about the strong axis (y) of the

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Analysis and Timber Design 1 Lecture 5

cross-section and the requirement is stated in Clause 6.3.3(6) according to which the following
rule must be met:

2
𝜎m,d 𝜎c,0,d
( ) + ≤1
𝑘crit 𝑓m,d 𝑘c,z 𝑓c,0,d

where:

𝜎m,d is the design bending stress about the strong axis.

𝜎c,0,d is the design compressive stress

𝑘crit is the factor that takes into account the reduced bending strength due to lateral buckling
(as defined in Eq. (6.14) of EC5 and discussed in Lecture 2.

The remaining terms are as previously defined. It shall be noted that: if the relative slenderness
ratio 𝜆rel,𝑧 about the wicker axis (z) is less than 0.3, then a value of 𝑘c,z = 1.0 must be
considered when applying the equation above.

Members subjected to axial tension and combined (bi-axial) bending

Although an element of plastic behaviour due to bending is permitted, because members in
tension fail in a brittle mode, EC5 adopts the approach that the ultimate load will be achieved
when the material reaches its failure strength at the external fibre. Based on this approach, the
EC5 procedure for the design of members subjected to combined bending and axial tension is
that given in Clause 6.2.3(1) as follows:

𝜎t,0,d 𝜎m,y,d 𝜎m,z,d

+ + 𝑘m ≤1
𝑓t,0,d 𝑓m,y,d 𝑓m,z,d

𝜎t,0,d 𝜎m,y,d 𝜎m,z,d

+ 𝑘m + ≤1
𝑓t,0,d 𝑓m,y,d 𝑓m,z,d

References & Further Reading

The following further reading can be used to extend your knowledge and understanding of the
subject dealt with in this lecture note. It is not necessary for you to read all the references;
however, it would be useful for you to supplement your studies.

[1] Porteous J. and Kermani A. (2013) Structural Timber Design to Eurocode 5, Wiley-
Blackweel.

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Analysis and Timber Design 1 Lecture 5

[2] Theiler, M., Frangi, A., Steiger, R., Design of timber columns based on 2nd order
structural analysis. CIB-W18/45-2.1.

Tutorial 5a
The column shown in Figure 4 is made of C18 timber and functioning in service class 2
conditions; its height is 3.75 m. The column is pinned at both ends (free to rotate at its ends).
Check whether the cross section of the column is adequate to support the axial compressive
load.

 Permanent action = 30 kN
 Variable (medium term) action = 50 kN

Figure 4

Tutorial 5b
A 47mm×125mm sawn timber section of strength class C18 functioning under service class 2
conditions is subjected to a characteristic permanent tensile action of 2.5 kN and a characteristic
variable medium term tensile action of 3.0 kN. At one end the member loses 8% of its cross
sectional area and at the other 10% due to the end connection. Confirm the adequacy of the
member.

Tutorial 5c
For the design data given below check that a 100mm × 200mm sawn timber section of strength
class C22 is adequate as a column. The load is applied 30mm eccentric from the y axis and
10mm from the z axis as shown in Figure 5. The column is 3.75m high and is effectively held
in position but not in direction at both ends (pinning restrains).

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Analysis and Timber Design 1 Lecture 5

 Permanent action = 8 kN
 Variable (medium term) action = 15 kN

Figure 5

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