Channel Allocation

Channel allocation is the process of dividing and assigning the communication

channel (bandwidth or frequency) among different users or devices in a network, so
that everyone can send and receive data efficiently without interference.

Frequency (f): The number of times a signal (or wave) repeats in 1 second. Its Unit is
Hertz (Hz).

Simple idea: How fast the wave is repeating.

Bandwidth (BW): The range of frequencies that a signal or network uses to operate.
It’s measuerd in Hertz (Hz).

Simple idea: How much “space” the signal occupies in the frequency spectrum.

Channel Allocation Problem

The Channel Allocation Problem is an issue in computer networks that arises when
multiple users share a common communication channel. The concept of Channel
Allocation comes into play here, it determines who can use the channel and when,
so that communication remains efficient and free from collisions.

Why Channel Allocation is Needed:

1.​ Limited Resources: Network bandwidth is limited, it’s not possible to give
everyone access at the same time.
2.​ Avoid Collisions: When multiple devices share the same medium, their data
can collide, causing errors and retransmissions.
3.​ Fair Access: Every device should get an equal opportunity to use the channel.
4.​ Efficient Communication: It ensures the best use of time and bandwidth,
maximizing network performance.
5.​ Quality of Service (QoS): Proper allocation reduces data delays and packet
loss, improving overall network reliability.
 Types of Channel Allocation

Static Channel Allocation: In this method, the total number of channels is divided
into fixed parts, and each user is permanently assigned a dedicated channel.

Example: Suppose there are 10 channels and 10 users. Each user gets one channel.

User 1 → Channel 1, User 2 → Channel 2, and so on.

●​ Simple and easy to manage.

●​ No collisions, because each user has their own dedicated channel.

Real-life Example: Early telephone networks, where each user had a dedicated line.

Dynamic Channel Allocation: In dynamic channel allocation, there is no permanent

assignment. Channels are assigned on-demand, when a device wants to send data,
the system temporarily assigns a channel for it.

Example: In Wi-Fi networks, when a device wants to send a packet, it first checks if
the medium is free and then transmits.

●​ Efficient utilization of bandwidth.

●​ Works well in modern shared-medium systems like wireless networks and
LANs.

Random Access Protocols

Random Access Protocols are communication protocols that allow multiple devices
to send data over a shared communication channel (like Wi-Fi or Ethernet) without
any fixed order. Each device can transmit data whenever it wants, that’s why it’s
called “random.” However, if two or more devices transmit at the same time, a
collision occurs (data overlap or corruption).
Basic Working:

●​ Imagine a shared medium (like air or a cable) where all computers are
connected.
●​ When a computer wants to send data, it first checks whether the medium is
free.
●​ If it’s free → it sends the data.
●​ If another computer sends data at the same time → collision occurs, and
data gets corrupted.

To handle or reduce these collisions, different Random Access Techniques were

developed, such as:

●​ ALOHA
●​ Slotted ALOHA
●​ CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection)
●​ CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance)

ALOHA Protocol

ALOHA was the first random access protocol, developed at the University of Hawaii.
Its idea was simple, “Send whenever you want!”. It is easy to implement but suffers
from a high collision rate because multiple users may transmit at the same time.

Working:

1.​ Each node (computer) sends its data packet whenever it wants.
2.​ If two or more nodes transmit at the same time, a collision occurs.
3.​ The receiver (like a base station) sends an ACK (acknowledgment) when it
successfully receives a packet.
4.​ If the sender does not receive an ACK, it assumes a collision happened and
retransmits the packet after a random delay.

Example: Used in satellite communication systems, where signals travel long

distances and take time to reach their destination.
 Slotted ALOHA

Slotted ALOHA is an improved version of the original ALOHA protocol, where time is
divided into equal time slots. Each node is allowed to send data only at the
beginning of a time slot, which helps reduce collisions. Collision chances reduce.

Working:

1.​ Time is divided into equal slots (for example, one slot = one packet
transmission time).
2.​ A node can only transmit at the start of a slot.
3.​ If only one node transmits in that slot → transmission is successful.
4.​ If two or more nodes transmit in the same slot → collision occurs.
5.​ The collided nodes wait for a random delay and try again in a future slot.

This method improves efficiency compared to Pure ALOHA, because collisions can
only happen at the beginning of slots, not at any random time.

Example: Used in some satellite and wireless LAN systems where time slots can be
synchronized.

CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection)

This protocol is mainly used in wired Ethernet networks. Its main idea is: “Listen
before you talk!”. It automatically detects and handles collisions. It has less
collisions as compared to ALOHA and is efficient for wired networks.

Working:

1.​ Each node listens to the medium before sending data.

2.​ If the medium is free → it sends data.
3.​ If the medium is busy → it waits.
4.​ If two nodes send at the same time → a collision occurs.
5.​ When a collision is detected:
○​ Nodes stop transmitting.
○​ A jam signal is sent to inform everyone about the collision.
○​ Nodes wait for a random backoff time and try sending again.
 CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance)

CSMA/CA is used mainly in wireless networks (Wi-Fi). Since detecting collisions is

hard in wireless, it focuses on avoiding collisions. It is suitable for wireless
communication and collision chances are very low in it.

Working:

1.​ The node listens to the medium (carrier sense).

2.​ If the medium is free, it waits for a random backoff time to give others a
chance to send.
3.​ Then it sends the data.
4.​ The receiver sends an ACK when data is received.
5.​ If no ACK is received → the node assumes a collision occurred and resends
after a random delay.

In Simple Words:

●​ ALOHA: Send anytime (care-free).

●​ Slotted ALOHA: Send only at slot start (disciplined ALOHA).
●​ CSMA/CD: Listen, then send, and if you collide — detect and retry.
●​ CSMA/CA: Listen, wait, and avoid collision before sending.

Controlled Access Protocols

Controlled Access Protocols are protocols where network access is strictly

controlled. No device can send data randomly. Every device gets a turn in an
ordered manner, so collisions are almost zero.

Basic Working:

●​ In a shared medium, each node’s turn is either fixed or dynamically assigned.

●​ A node sends data only when its turn comes.
●​ Since the order is followed, collision chances are very low.

Main Types: ​​ ​ 1- Polling​ ​ 2- Token Passing

Polling:​
Polling is a method where a central controller (master) decides which node can
send data and when. Collisions are almost zero in it. It is easy to implement in small
networks.

Working:

1.​ There is a master node and multiple slave nodes.

2.​ The master polls each node sequentially, asking: “It’s your turn, do you want
to send data?”
3.​ If a slave has data, it sends it.
4.​ If a slave has no data, the master moves on to the next node.

Token Passing:

In Token Passing, a special control packet (token) circulates in the network. Only the
node holding the token can send data. There is no collision as it is perfectly ordered.

Working:

1.​ The token circulates in a fixed order among all nodes.

2.​ When a node receives the token:
○​ If it has data → it sends the data.
○​ If it has no data → it passes the token to the next node.
3.​ No node can send data without the token.

LAN Standards

LAN (Local Area Network) standards define how network devices communicate,
including the protocols, speeds, and topologies used. The IEEE (Institute of Electrical
and Electronics Engineers) created the 802 series standards to provide common
rules for LANs and WANs.

IEEE 802.3 (Ethernet):​

The IEEE 802.3 standard is for Ethernet LANs. It is common for wired networks and
uses CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection) for
managing access.
Working (Simple Example):

●​ PCs are connected via a Hub or Switch.

●​ If a Hub is used → CSMA/CD handles collisions.
●​ If a Switch is used → network is practically collision-free, as the switch
manages traffic efficiently.

Example: Office LAN with computers connected via Ethernet cables and Switches.

IEEE 802.5 (Token Ring):

The IEEE 802.5 standard is for Token Ring LANs. It uses a controlled access protocol,
specifically Token Passing, to manage network communication.

Working (Simple Example):

●​ A single token circulates in the network.

●​ The node holding the token sends its data.
●​ After sending, the token is passed to the next node.
●​ Collisions are almost impossible in this setup.

Example: Used in older IBM office networks and some industrial networks where
reliable controlled access was needed.

MAC Address (Media Access Control Address)

A MAC Address is a hardware-level unique address assigned to every Network

Interface Card (NIC), like a Wi-Fi card or LAN card. It is burned into the device at the
factory and is permanent, acting as the device’s network identity.

Format:

●​ 48-bit address (6 bytes)

●​ Written in hexadecimal (0–9, A–F)
●​ Usually written as: 00:1A:2B:3C:4D:5E or 00-1A-2B-3C-4D-5E
Structure:​ ​ 00:1A:2B | 3C:4D:5E

↑ ↑

Manufacturer Device ID

●​ First 3 bytes (OUI - Organizationally Unique Identifier): Company code (e.g.,

Intel, HP, Dell)
●​ Last 3 bytes: NIC-specific unique number

Example (Real world):

●​ Laptop: AA-BB-CC-11-22-33
●​ Mobile: AA-BB-CC-44-55-66

Significance of MAC Address (Enhanced Version):

1.​Unique Device Identification: Every device has a worldwide unique MAC

address, regardless of IP changes. This allows each device to be easily
identified on the network.​

2.​Efficient LAN Communication: Switches and hubs use MAC addresses to

deliver frames. Only the intended device receives the data, keeping network
traffic efficient and collision-free.​

3.​ Network Security: MAC filtering can block unauthorized devices and Network
admins can track MAC addresses to detect suspicious activity.​

4.​ Reliable Network Management: MAC addresses make it easy to locate

devices during troubleshooting.​

5.​ Permanent Identity in Changing Networks: While IP addresses can change,

the MAC address provides a hardware-level identity. It forms the foundation
for LAN internal communication and controlled access protocols.