Industrial Electrical/Electronic

Control Technology
Level-III
Based on October, 2023 Curriculum Version 2

MODULE TITLE : Installing Instrumentation and Control Devices

MODULE CODE: EIS IEC3 M04 1023
Nominal Duration 100hrs
Prepared by: Ministry of Labor and Skill

October, 2023
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

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 Table of contents

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 Acknowledgment

Ministry of Labor and Skills wish to extend thanks and appreciation to the many
representatives of TVT instructors and respective industry experts who donated their time
and expertise to the development of this Teaching, Training and Learning Materials
(TTLM).

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 Acronym
OSH---------- Occupational safety and health
OHSR--------- Occupational Health and Safety Regulation
PFD ------------Process Flow Diagrams
PFD-------------Process flow diagram
LVDT---------- Linear Variable Differential Transformer)
LDR-------------- The Light Dependant Resistor

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 Introduction to the Module
Install instrumentation and control device , Install instrumentation and control device
modules is designed to meet the industry requirements under the Instrument and control
to performing maintenance, troubleshooting and repair works on instrument and control
device including diagnose and rectify fault in instrument and control device: Carry out
Install instrumentation and control device
This module covers the units:
 Installation work plan and preparation
 instrumentation and control devices installation
 Instrumentation and control devices installation test
Learning Objective of the Module
 Plan and prepare Installation work
 Install instrument and control devices
 Test install instrument and control devices
Module Instruction
For effective use this modules trainees are expected to follow the following module
instruction:
1. Read the information written in each unit
2. Accomplish the Self-checks at the end of each unit
3. Perform Operation Sheets which were provided at the end of units
4. Do the “LAP test” giver at the end of each unit and
5. Read the identified reference book for Examples and exercise

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 Unit one:- Installation work plan and preparation
This unit is developed to provide you the necessary information regarding the following
content coverage and topics.
 OH&S policies and procedure for installation
 Work instructions read and interpretation
 Tools, equipment ,material & testing devices
This unit will also assist to attain the learning outcomes stated in the cover page
.Specifically ,upon completion of this learning guide, you will be able to:-
 Plan, prepare and observe OH&S policies and procedure for installation
 Reade and interpret Work instructions
 Tools, Material, equipment and testing devices

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 1.1 OHS policies and procedure for installation
Planning is preparing a sequence of action steps to achieve some specific goal. If a
person does it effectively, they can reduce much the necessary time and effort of
achieving the goal.
An organization's occupational health and safety policy is a statement of principles and
general rules that serve as guides for action. The health and safety policy should have the
same importance as the other policies of the organization.
Occupational safety and health (OSH) is generally defined as the science of the
anticipation, recognition, evaluation and control of hazards arising in or from the
workplace that could impair the health and well-being of workers, taking into account the
possible impact on the surrounding communities and the general environment.
Occupational Health and Safety or workplace health and safety, is about preventing work
injury, illness and disease. It is the responsibility of all workers to identify potential
hazards in the workplace and prevent injury.

OHS guidelines
Regulatory Practices issues OHS Guidelines to help with the application and
interpretation of sections of the Occupational Health and Safety
Regulation ("OHSR") and with divisions of the Workers Compensation Acts that
relate to health and safety. Guideline is a statement by which to determine a course of
action. Guidelines may be issued by and used by any organization (governmental or
private) to make the actions of its employees or divisions more predictable, and
presumably of higher quality. A guideline is similar to a rule. Occupational Health and
Safety (OH&S) policy is a statement of principles and general rules that serve as guides
for action. Senior management must be committed to ensuring that the policy is carried
out with no exceptions. The health and safety policy should have the same importance as
the other policies of the organization.
The policy statement can be brief, but it should mention:
 Management's commitment to protect the safety and health of employees.
 The objectives of the program.
 The organization's basic health and safety philosophy.

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  Who is accountable for occupational health and safety programs?
 The general responsibilities of all employees.
 That health and safety shall not be sacrificed for expediency.
 That unacceptable performance of health and safety duties will not be tolerated.

The objective of this issuance is to protect every workingman against the dangers of
injury, sickness or death through safe and healthful working conditions, thereby assuring
the conservation of valuable manpower resources and the prevention of loss or damage to
lives and properties, consistent with national development goals and with the State’s
commitment for the total development of every worker as a complete human being.
Occupational safety and health, including compliance with the OSH requirements
pursuant to national laws and regulations, are the responsibility and duty of the employer.
The employer should show strong leadership and commitment to OSH activities in the
organization, and make appropriate arrangements for the establishment of an OSH
management system. The system should contain the main elements of policy, organizing,
planning and implementation, evaluation and action for improvement, as shown in figure
bellow

Figure1.1. Planning and implementing policies

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 The Occupational Health and Safety Regulations (OHS Regulations) build on the OHS
Act. They set out how to fulfill duties and obligations, and particular processes that
support the OHS Act. For example, they include requirements for:

 safe operation of major hazard facilities and mines

 training for high risk work
 managing and removing asbestos
 licenses for specific activities

Your responsibilities
You must also comply with the legislation. You have responsibilities to:
 protect your own Health and Safety and that of your co-workers;
 not initiate or participate in the harassment of another worker; and
 Co-operate with your supervisor and anyone else with duties under the legislation.

Your rights
The legislation gives your three rights:
 The right to know the hazards at work and how to control them;
 The right to participate in Occupational Health and Safety; and the right to refuse
work which you believe to be unusually dangerous.
You may not be punished for using these rights. An employer can be required to legally
justify any action taken against a worker who is active in Health and Safety.
If you are inexperienced, you must receive an orientation which includes;
 What to do in a fire or other emergency;
 First aid facilities;
 Prohibited or restricted areas;
 Workplace hazards; and
 Any other information you should know.
You must also be supervised closely by a competent supervisor.

Committees Have Duties To:

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  Regularly inspect the workplace;
 Conduct accident investigations;
 Deal with the Health and Safety concerns of employees;
 Investigate refusals to work;Your right to refuse
You have the right to refuse to do work which you believe is unusually dangerous. The
unusual danger may be to you or to anyone else. An unusual danger could include such
things as:
 a danger which is not normal for your occupation or the job;
 a danger under which you would not normally carry out your job; and/or
 a situation for which you are not properly trained, equipped or experienced.

Preparing Installation
Engineering Diagrams are vital for an understanding of a process to chemical. engineers,
of equipment to mechanical engineers, of electrical circuits to electrical engineers, and so
on. These diagrams are prepared in many ways to suit the specific requirements. Block
Flow Diagrams (BFD), Process Flow Diagrams (PFD), Piping and Instrumentation
Diagrams (P&ID) are basic requirements of process engineering and are prepared before
attempting any detailing. When any chemical manufacturing project is conceived,
immediate information is sought on the requirements of raw materials and utilities. This
information can be calculated using the Laws of Conservation of Mass and Energy.
Process engineers are involved in the preparation of both these types of diagrams. Let us
look at P&ID in detail:

P&ID is a schematic illustration of the functional relationship of piping, instrumentation,

and system equipment components. It shows all the piping including the physical
sequence of branches, fittings, equipment, instrumentation and control interlocks. In
this type of diagram, the information is included .

1.2 Work instructions interpretation

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 What do work instructions for measuring instruments include?A work instruction for
measuring instruments typically starts with a brief description of the instrument and its
purpose. It then further specifies the technical calibration conditions. Calibration
conditions might include information about the environment the instrument should be in,
how the instrument is supposed to be set up and how to accurately perform the
measurement. Setting up the instrument includes cleaning it and calibrating it to zero
setting. The last parts outline the treatment of results and possible information on periodic
measurements or auditing.

The work instruction content for measuring instruments would look something like this:

1. Description and purpose of the measuring instrument

2. Technical specifications
3. environment
4. setting up the instrument
5. measurement procedure
6. Interpretation of the results

Do not forget to include information about how to leave the instrument after usage. The
person after you will expect a clean and properly left tool, calibrated back to zero setting,
so he/she doesn’t spend extra minutes doing what is supposed to be your work. To sum
up, you need to think about three main things when preparing work instructions for
measuring instruments: how to prepare the instrument, how to use it and what to do with
it after you’re done measuring. For a better visual on how such work instructions should
look like, have a look at an example.

Work Instructions For Material Handling

Did you know that one of the most common injuries in the workplace are back and spine
injuries, with one of the main reasons for them being material handling? The improper
treatment and storing of materials or performing related operations often results in costly
injuries and should be specifically addressed in work instructions. Whether moving
materials manually or mechanically, your employees should be aware of potential risks

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 with the task at hand and know the strategies to minimize the danger. On the other side,
employers are responsible for ensuring safety and focus on creating effective work
instructions for material handling.

What is material handling?

Material handling includes any good moving within a storage area. These actions are
loading, unloading, palletizing, de-palletizing, etc. It is either manual, semi-automated or
manual, depending on the involvement of employees. The more manual the task, the
higher the risk.

Fig 1.2-Material handling

How to structure your work instructions for material handling?
The underlying theme throughout your material handling work instructions should be on
taking actions to prevent accidents. If you don’t know where to start, an idea is, to begin
with the basics and later narrow it down to specific operations.

In the introductory part, focus on providing an understanding of what the risks in

handling are and what precautions should employees take to prevent them. Address at
least the following topics:

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  What should your employees know before moving, handling, and storing
materials?
 What are the potential hazards?
 Which precautions should your employees follow?
 How to report an injury?

Here you can also add the topics of ergonomics as a study of how the work environment
should be adapted to the employees and the importance of training for material handling.

Important safety measures

Continue with listing important safety measures regarding material handling. Make sure
you list all operations that include goods handling and further specify the precautions for
each. You can divide this part into more sections, focusing on manual and automated
handling separately.

If you’re discussing manual material handlings, your work instructions should include
basic principles on what to do and what to avoid when moving materials manually.
Provide the rules for manual material handling (a full list can be found here):

 keep the correct posture; keep lifts close to your body and avoid bending over;
 avoid sudden lift movements;
 never lift from a sitting position or twist your spine while lifting;
 ask your coworkers to help you if you see lifting an object is a two-person job;
 don’t overestimate your capabilities.

If, on the other hand, handling requires the help of machinery (e.g. cranes, industrial
trucks, conveyors,…), you should provide instructions on how to operate the loaded
machines. Here is an example of safety measures employees should consider while using
cranes:

 always check what you’re lifting and how much it weighs;

 inspect the crane’s load chart to prevent it being overloaded;

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  plan lifts before the actual operation;
 daily inspect the critical parts of a crane.

It is difficult to fit all information your material handling work instructions should focus
on into a blog post, that’s why we provide you with two examples from OSHA and the
University of Saskatchewan. We’re sure they’ll give you a clear idea of how a good work
instruction for material handling should look like.

Write standardized work instructions for lean manufacturing in 5 easy steps

If you wish to succeed in your lean manufacturing documentation, consider 3 questions

before writing it: who performs the task? When do they perform the task? And how do
they perform it? Answers will provide you with inputs for further design of lean
standardized work instructions.

Do you already have the answers to the questions in mind? Great. Now follow the 5 steps
to create standardized work instructions in lean manufacturing:

Observe work

Start with an observation of a task you wish to standardize. You can design a process
study sheet in Excel and print it to help you with notes. When collecting details, be sure
to use correct real times, stay focused and don’t guess what the workers are doing.

Understand the throughput of the process

Understand cycle times, inputs and outputs and the capabilities of how many parts per
period can be delivered, so understand the throughput. Focus on takt time and line
balancing. You can do some simple calculations for the two, provided you have the
information on the length and number of products produced in a process.

Define the task steps

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 By using a standard work chart document, define the exact sequence of the steps, needed
to perform a certain task. You can add images, charts and tables to visualize it. Also,
don’t forget to include the information on whether the process succeeded or failed.

Document the standard in-process inventory

Keep in mind that lean manufacturing’s goal is to minimize it. Think about the
requirements for the inventory at the beginning and end of the process and how much
stock will the semi-products create in between the steps.

Create a combination table

Join the steps and create a comprehensive image of the process. The most common
combination table is a Gantt chart. It allows you to see how much time does each step
take, who is responsible for it and which steps need to be completed to move on to the
next ones. This is usually done by the project office and includes real-time dates of the
tasks. SWI tasks following the lean manufacturing Kaizen approach need to be updated
regularly, to ensure the best quality and consistency. Designing standardized work
instructions in lean manufacturing by following the 5 steps will result in the work will be
done faster, problems solved quicker, waste reduced and costs lowered

1.3 Tools, equipment, material and testing devices

 Material
1 Wires and Cables
2 Pipes/tubes & Fittings
3 Sealing materials
 Necessary tools
You will need the following tools:
 Cutter- Calipers and gauges
 Shaper- Screw drivers( assorted)
 Drill- Soldering iron/gun
 Threading tools( assorted- Wrenches hexagonal or Allen key

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  Tapper- Water level tri-square
 File- Measuring tap

 Equipment/testing devices
 Communication equipment (e.g., 2-way radio, cell phone)
 Fastening equipment
 Multi-meters
 Insulation tester or (Megger)
 Calibrators

Self-Check 1 Written Test

1.2 Self check

Part I. say true or false
[Link] is a science that control hazards in a work place
[Link] is a statement of principle and a general rule that serve as a guide for action
[Link] of the standard work instruction is obserb work
4. Define the task steps is not a step of work instruction
5. Work instruction tasks not following the lean manufacturing Kaizen
Part II. Choose the best answer.
1. Which one of the following safety equipment?
A. Measuring instrument B. Hand tool
C. Glave D. All of the above
2. Which one is true for material handling procedure.
A. Manual B. semi automated [Link] automated D.A& B
3. From the following which is important safety for Material handling.
A. Avoid sudden lift movements;
B. Never lift from a sitting position or twist your spine while lifting;
C. Ask your coworkers to help you if you see lifting an object is a two-person job
D. All
4. Which one is used to prepare installation for instrument

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 [Link] [Link] C.P & ID D. None

5. work instruction content for measuring instruments include

A. Description and purpose of the measuring instrument
B. B. Technical specifications C. setting up the instrument
C. D. measurement procedure E. All

Unit Two: Instrumentation and control devices Installation

This unit is developed to provide you the necessary information regarding the following
content coverage and topics
 Instrumentation and process control devices
 instrumentation and control standards
 Instrumentation and control device installation
This unit will also assist to attain the learning outcomes stated in the cover page
.Specifically ,upon completion of this learning guide, you will be able to:-
 Understand instrumentation and process control devices
 Follow instrumentation and control standards
 Install instrumentation and control device

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 2.1 Instrumentation and process control devices
 Basic concept of instrumentation and control devices
 Instrumentation definition
Instrumentation is the art of measuring, monitoring and controlling of the value of some
plant parameter, pressure, flow, level, temperature etc… and supplying a signal that is
proportional to the measured parameter.
Instrumentation is the design and use of an electrical system to collect and process
physically meaningful data
Industrial control and automation are meaningless without a proper instrumentation
scheme. Therefore, technological advancement requires advancement in both
instrumentation and control.
Industrial processes to be handled by measurement and instrumentation can vary widely
from simple to complex processes
Elements of instrumentation
Measuring device (to get information about the system and to control that system); to get
information the following processes are must,
 Introduction: A basic instrument system consists of three elements:
 Sensor Or Input Device
 Signal Processor

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  Receiver Or Output Device
Input devices but you can never separate it from the rest of the system as in many cases
they are all integral (e.g. a mechanical pressure gauge incorporates all of these elements.
All instrumentation systems can be generally described by the block diagram of figure
below. Here the system consists of three different parts: the sensor, the processes, and the
display/storage. Signal Conditioning

Fig 2. 1 A block diagram of Instrumentation system

 Instrumentation engineering is the engineering specialization focused on the
principle and operation of measuring instruments that are used in design and
configuration of automated systems in electrical, pneumatic domains etc.
 Instrumentation technologists, technicians and mechanics specialize in
troubleshooting and repairing and maintenance of instruments and instrumentation
systems.
 Introduction Of Transducer
 Transducers
• A transducer is a device that convert one form of energy to other form. It converts
the measurand to a usable electrical signal.
• In other word it is a device that is capable of converting the physical quantity into
a proportional electrical quantity such as voltage or current.

Fig 2.2 Transducers

 Sensors
Sensor is used for an element which produces a signal relating to the quantity being
measured Example: Resistance Temperature Element/(RTD), the quantity being

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 measured is temperature and the sensor transforms and input of temperature into a change
in resistance.
Sensor is used for an input device that provides a usable output in response to a
specified physical input. For example, a thermocouple is a sensor that converts a
temperature difference into an electrical output. The term transducer is generally used to
refer to a device that converts a signal from one form to a different physical form. Thus
sensors are often transducers, but also other devices can be transducers, such as a motor
that converts an electrical input into rotation.
• Transducer is often used in place of the term sensor. They are elements that when
subject
to some physical change experience a related change.
• Sensors are transducers.
• A measurement may use transducers, in addition to the sensor, in other parts of the
system to convert signals in one form to another form.
• A transducer is a device that converts one type of energy to another. Energy types
include (but are not limited to) electrical, mechanical, electromagnetic (including light),
chemical,
acoustic or thermal energy. While the term transducer commonly implies the use of a
sensor/detector, any device which converts energy can be considered a transducer.
Transducers are widely used in measuring instruments.
• Transducer means converts.
• Transducer contains two parts that are closely related to each other i.e. the sensing
element and transduction element.
• The sensing element is called as the sensor. It is device producing measurable
response to change in physical conditions.
• The transduction element convert the sensor output to suitable electrical form.
Classification Of Transducers
The transducers can be classified as:
I. Active and passive transducers.
II. Analog and digital transducers.
III. On the basis of transduction principle used.

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IV. Primary and secondary transducer
V. Transducers and inverse transducers.
Active and passive transducers
A. Active transducers
These transducers do not need any external source of power for their operation. Therefore
they are also called as self generating type transducers.
The active transducer are self generating devices which operate under the energy
conversion principle.
As the output of active transducers we get an equivalent electrical output signal e.g.
temperature or strain to electric potential, without any external source of energy being
used

Classification of Active Transducers

Fig2.3 Piezo Electric Transducer

B. Passive Transducers
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 I. These transducers need external source of power for their operation. So they are
not self generating type transducers.
II. A DC power supply or an audio frequency generator is used as an external power
source.
These transducers produce the output signal in the form of variation in resistance,
capacitance, inductance or some other electrical parameter in response to the quantity to
be measured

Classification of Passive Transducers

III. Analog and digital transducers.

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 A. Analog instrument:-Analog instrument are used to measure Electrical and non
electrical quantity
Eg. Voltage ,current, resistance,Power,Pressure etc
- Analog Instruments have a pointer and Scale.T he pointer and scale are used to indicate
their
Value

[Link] Instrument
B. Digital Instrument:- Digital instruments also used to measure Electrical and non
electrical quantity
- Digital instruments their value Display in the form of a number
Eg. Voltage ,current, resistance, Power, Pressure etc

[Link] Instrument
 Signal Conditioning
Signal Conditioning - a front-end preprocessing,which generally includes functions such
as
signal amplification, filtering, electrical isolation, and multiplexing. In addition, many
transducers require excitation currents or voltages, bridge completion, linearization, or
high amplification for proper and accurate operation.

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 Fig 2.6 Signal condition procedure
Signal Conditioning Devices
Charge amplifiers, lock-in amplifiers, power amplifiers, switching amplifiers, linear
amplifiers, tracking filters, low-pass filters,high-pass filters, and notch filters are some of
the signal-conditioning devices used in mechatronic systems.
2.2 Instrumentation and control standards

 Istrument Code and Standard

Below are some of the major organizations that individually contribute hundreds, some
even thousands, of codes or standards across all disciplines and multiple industries.

Abbreviation Organization

ANSI American National Standards Institute

API American Petroleum Institute

ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers

American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM

ASTM
International)

DIN Deutsches Institut für Normung

IEC International Electrotechnical Commission

IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

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 International Society of Automation formerly
ISA
Instrument Society of America

ISO International Organization for Standardization

NFPA National Fire Protection Association

SAE Society of Automobile Engineers (SAE International)

Industry Standards

Your career path and the industry you work in is going to determine which codes and
standards are relevant for you, but there are a few that are difficult to avoid no matter
what industry you [Link] is a partial list of standards that have been particularly
useful in my career.

bbreviation Code/Standard

BPVC Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code

B31.1 Pressure Piping Code – Power Piping

B31.2 Pressure Piping Code – Fuel Gas Piping

B31.3 Pressure Piping Code – Process Piping

ISA-5.1 Instrumentation Symbols and Identification

ISA-5.4 Instrument Loop Digrams

Human Machine Interfaces for Process Automation

ISA-101.01
Systems

NFPA 70 National Electric Code

NFPA 79 Electrical Standard for Industrial Machinery

NFPA 85 Boiler and Combustion Systems Hazards Code

NFPA 86 Standard for Ovens and Furnaces

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 Process flow diagram(PFDs) shows the major interconnectons of process vessels and
equipment, but omits details such as instrument signal lines and auxilary instruments.

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 Fig2.6 process flow diagram

Pipingand instrumentation diagram(P&IDs)shows the layout of all relevent process

vessels, pipes and machinery, but with instrument superimposed on the diagram showing
what gets measured and what gets controlled. Here, one can view the flow of the process
as well as the flow of information between instrumentmeasuring and controlling the
process.

Fig 2.7 process flow diagram

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 SAMA diagrams is Acronym Standing for Scientific Apparatus Makers Association,
referring to a unique form of diagram used primary in the power generation industryto
document control strategies. Thesediagram focus on the flow of information with in a
control system rather than on the processpiping, or instrument interconnections (wiring,
tubes, etc). the general flow of a SAMAdiagrams istop-to-bottom,with the process
sensinginstrument(transmiter located at top and the final control element(valve or
variable-speed motorlocated at [Link] attempt is made to arrange symbol in aSAMA
diagrams to correlate with actual equipment layout:These diagrams are all about the
algorithms used to make control decisions, and nothing more.A sampleSAMA diagrams
appers here, showing a flow transmiter (FT sending process variable signal to a PID
controller, which then sends a manuplated variable signal to a flow control valve(FCV)

Fig 2.8 Sama diagram

2.3 Instrumentation and control device installation

 Basic terms of measurement technique
Let us start again with the definition of electrical measurements. Apart from the
term “measurements” also other terms are in use, for example “scientific
instrumentation” (or just instrumentation) and “metrology”. The scientific
instrumentation is often used as a synonym of measurements, and the metrology is
assumed as a science about measurements. Thus, the measurements will be treated
narrower, as a technique or engineering of measurements.

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 There are various explanations of the term “measurements”. We can expand the definition
presented in Chapter 1 as: The measurement is a cognitive process of gathering the
information from the physical world. In this process a value of a quantity is determined
(in defined time and conditions) by comparison it (with known uncertainty) with the
standard reference value.
 Application of measuring instruments
A. Indicate
B. Record
C. Comparison
D. Integrated
Indicating instruments measure the electrical quantity with the help of a pointer and
calibrated scale. Recording instruments use an ink pen continuously rotated on the drum
to record the readings on a graph paper. Indicating instruments require an observer to
monitor the changes in the quantity under measurement. Examples of comparison
measurement instruments include dial indicators , test indicators , and optical
comparators. Integrated type instrument is used to do two function i.e it reads the value
again it perform mathematical operation
 characteristics of instrument
A. Static characteristics of instruments
The static characteristics of measuring instruments are concerned only with the steady
state reading that the instruments settle down to, such as the accuracy, Precision and the
reaction to ambient temperature changes are further considerations. These attributes are
collectively known as the static characteristics of instruments, and are given in the data
sheet for a particular instrument. The various static characteristics are defined in the
following paragraphs.
Accuracy of an instrument is a measure of how close the output reading of the Instrument
is to the correct value.
Precision is a term that describes an instrument’s degree of freedom from random errors.
Tolerance is a term that is closely related to accuracy and defines the maximum Error
that is to be expected in some value. When used correctly,

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 tolerancedescribesthemaximumdeviationofamanufacturedcomponentfromsome specified
value
Range or span of an instrument defines the minimum and maximum values of a quantity
that the instrument is designed to measure.

B. Dynamic characteristics of instruments

This is considered when the instrument is used to measure conditions varying with time.
Sensitivity of measurement is a measure of the change in instrument output that occurs
when the quantity being measured changes by a given amount. Thus, sensitivity is the
ratio: scale deflection value of measure and producing deflection
Linearity it is normally desirable that the output reading of an instrument is linearly
proportional to the quantity being measured.
Zero Drift describes the effect where the zero reading of an instrument is modified by a
change in ambient conditions.
Resolution is showing a particular output reading, there is a lower limit on the magnitude
of the change in the input measured quantity that produce an observable change in the
instrument output.

C. Mathematical calculation
Unit conversions
The following subsections give sets of physically equal quantities, which may be used to
create unity fractions for unit conversion problems. Note that only those quantities shown
in the same line (separated by=symbols) are truly equal to each other, not quantities
appearing indifferent lines!
Conversion formulae for temperature
o
F = (oC) (9/5)+32
o
C = (oF - 32)(5/9)
o
R = oF + 459.67
K = oC + 273.15
Conversion factors for distance
1inch (in) =2.540000 centimeter (cm)

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 1foot (ft.) = 12 inches (in)
1yard (yd.) = 3feet (ft.) 1 mile (mi) = 5280 feet (ft.)
Conversion factors for volume
1gallon (gal) =231.0cubic inches (in3) = 4 quarts (qt) = 8pints (pt.) =128 fluid ounces (fl.
oz.) =3.785 4 liters (l) 1milliliter (ml) =1cubic centimeter (cm3)
Conversion factors for velocity
1mile per hour (mi/h) =88 feet per minute (ft./m) =1.46667feet per second (ft./s)
=1.60934 kilometer per hour (km/h) =0.44704 meter per second (m/s)
Conversion factors for mass
1pound (lb.) = 0.45359 kilogram (kg) =0.031081slugs
Conversion factors for force
1pound-force (lb. f) = 4.44822 newton (N)
Conversion factors for area
1acre = 43560 square feet (ft2) = 4840 square yards (yd2) = 4046.86 square meters (m2)
Conversion factors for pressure (either all gauges or all absolute)
1pound per square inch (PSI) =2.03603inches of mercury (in. Hg) = 27.6807 inches of
water (in. W. C.) = 6.894757 kilo-Pascal (kPa)
Conversion factors for pressure (absolute pressure units only)
1atmosphere (Atm) =14.7pounds per square inch absolute (PSIA) = 760 millimeters of
mercury absolute (mm HgA) = 760 torr (torr) =1.01325 bar (bar)
Conversion factors for energy or work
1British thermal unit (Btu) = 251.996 calories (cal) = 1055.06 joules (J) =1055.06watt-
seconds (W-s) = 0.293071 watt-hour (W-hr) =1.05506x1010 ergs (erg) =778.169 foot-
pound-force (ft-lbf)
Conversion factors for power
1 horse power (hp 550ft-lbf/s) =745.7watts (W) =2544.43British thermal units per hour
(Btu/hr) =0.0760181boiler horse power (hp boiler)
Properties of water
 Freezing point at sea level = 32oF = 0oC
 Boiling point at sea level = 212oF=100oC

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  Density of water at 4oC =1000kg/m3
=1g/cm3=1kg/liter=62.428lb/ft3=1.951slugs/ft3
 Specific heat of water at 14oC = 1.00002 calories/[Link] =1BTU/[Link] = 4.1869
joules/g. oC
 Specific heat of ice 0.5calories/[Link]
 Specific heat of steam 0.48calories/[Link]
 Absolute viscosity of water at 20oC = 1.0019 centipoise (cp) = 0.0010019 Pascal-
seconds (Pa.s) Surface tension of water (in contact with air) at18oC =73.05
dynes/cm
 PH of pure water at 25oC=7.0(pH scale = 0 to14)
A fluid is any substance having the ability to flow: to freely change shape and move
under the influence of a motivating force. Fluid motion may be analyzed on a
microscopic level, treating each fluid molecule as an individual projectile body.
Pressure (p): how much force (F) is distributed across how much area (A). P= (F/A) in the
metric system, the standard unit of pressure is the Pascal (Pa), defined as one Newton (N)
of force per square meter (m2) of area. In the English system of measurement, the
standard unit of pressure is the PSI: pounds (lb.) of force per square inch (in2) of area.
Pressure is often expressed. In units of kilo-Pascal (kPa) when metric units are used
because one Pascal is a rather low pressure in most engineering applications.
2.3.1 Instrument in process Industry
Things in Industry that we commonly measure are:
1. Temperature Transducers
A. Thermocouples
When two wires with dissimilar electrical properties are joined at both ends and one
junction is made hot and the other cold, a small electric current is produced proportional
to the difference in the temperature. See beck discovered this effect. It is true no matter
how the ends are joined so the cold end may be joined at a sensitive millivolt meter. The
hot junction forms the sensor end.

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 Fig 2.9 Thermocouples Transducer
The picture shows a typical industrial probe with a flexible Extension and stand ard plug

Fig 2.9 Thermocouole

Thermocouples come in several forms. They may be wires insulated from each other with
plastic or glass fiber materials. For high temperature work, the wire pairs are put inside a
tube with mineral insulation. For industrial uses the sensor comes in a metal enclosure
such as stainless steel.
Types of Thermocouples:
Type J 0 to 800oC Type R/S 0 to 1600oC
Type B 500 to 1800oC Type K 0 to 1200oC
Type N 0 to 1200oC Type T -199 to 250oC
Type L 0 to 800oC Type E 0 to 600oC
B. Thermistor
A special type of resistance sensor is called a Thermistor. They are made from a small
piece of semi-conductor material. The material is special because the resistance changes a
lot for a small change in temperature and so can be made into a small sensor and it costs
less than platinum wire. The temperature range is limited. They are only used for a
typical range of - 20 to 120oC and are commonly used in small hand held thermometers
for everyday use.

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 Fig [Link]
C. RTD (Resistance Temp. Detector)
A resistance temperature detector (RTD) operates on the principle that electrical
resistance of metal changes as its temperature changes. The resistance of the sensing
element increases as the temperature rises. There are two basic RTD designs
1. Wire wound 2. Thin film
Wire wound design is a platinum sensing wire wound into a coil and housed in a
ceramic mandrel to protect the coil. The thin film design consists of platinum deposited
on a ceramic substrate and trimmed to achieve the desired alpha the construction is then
covered with glass and epoxy to protect platinum film. Thin films are manufactured much
in the same way as computer chips.

The metal that is employed in a RTD must change resistance with respect to temperature
and provide stability and a high output. The three metals that best exhibit these
characteristics are:
Platinum:
It can withstand oxidation and is effective over a range of –200 to + 8500 C. The four
basic ohm values of 100, 200.500 and 1000 give the user different degrees of sensitivity
within the sensor.

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 Copper:
The greatest strength of this metal is its low cost. Copper performs poorly in oxidizing
atmospheres and has a low output and thus an inability to perform in narrow measuring
spans.
Nickel:
This metal is a good compromise between copper and platinum. It has a higher output and
is slightly less expensive than platinum. It is extremely nonlinear above 300 degrees C
Film type sensing elements are made from a metal coated substrate which has a resistance
pattern cut into it. This pattern acts as a long, flat, skinny conductor, which provides the
electrical resistance. Lead wires are bonded to the metal coated substrate and are held in
place using a bead of epoxy or glass.

RTDs are available in two-, three-, and four-wire configurations. The number of lead
wires directly affects such factors as accuracy, stability, installation budget and distance
between sensor and receiver.
2-wire construction is the least accurate of the 3 types sincethere is no way of
eliminating the lead wire resistance from the sensor measurement. 2-wire RTD’s are
mostly used with short lead wiresor where close accuracy is not required.

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 3-wire construction is most commonly used in industrial applications where the third
wire provides a method for removing the average lead wire resistance from the sensor
measurement. When long distances exist between the sensor and measurement/control
instrument, significant savings can be made in using a three-wire cable instead of a four-
wire cable.

4-wire construction is used primarily in the laboratory where close accuracy is required.
In a 4 wire RTD the actual resistance of the lead wires can be determined and removed
from the sensor measurement.
The 4-wire circuit is a true 4-wire bridge, which works by using wires 1 & 4 to power the
circuit and wires 2 & 3 to read. This true bridge method will compensate for any
differences in lead wire resistances

D. Bi-metal temperature sensors

This type temperature gauge employs the principle of solid expansion and it consists of a
bimetal strip. In response to the temperature change, the bimetal expands and helical
bimetal rotates at its free ends.

Fig 2.11 Bi-metal Strip sensors

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 E. Mercury type thermometer:
It is one of the most versatile and widely used devices in industrial temperature
measurements. The entire assembly of bulb, capillary, and gauge is calibrated directly on
the basis of pressure change changes corresponding to temperature.

Fig 2.12 Mercury type thermometer

2. Pressure Transducers
Pressure sensors either convert the pressure into mechanical movement or into an
electrical output. Complete gauges not only sense the pressure but indicate them on a dial
or scale. Mechanical movement is produced with the following elements.
 Bourdon Tube.
 Spring and Piston.
 Bellows and capsules.
 Diaphragm.
A. Bourdon Tube
The Bourdon tube is a hollow tube with an elliptical cross section. When a pressure
difference exists between the inside and outside, the tube tends to straighten out and the
end moves. The movement is usually coupled to a needle on a dial to make a complete
gauge. It can also be connected to a secondary device such as an air nozzle to control air
pressure or to a suitable transducer to convert it into an electric signal. This type can be
used for measuring pressure difference.

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 Fig 2.13 Bourdon Tube

B. Piston Type
The pressure acts directly on the piston and compresses the spring. The position of the
piston is directly related to the pressure. A window in the outer case allows the pressure
to be indicated. This type is usually used in hydraulics where the ability to withstand
shock, vibration and sudden pressure changes is needed (shock proof gauge). The piston
movement maybe connected to a secondary device to convert movement into an electrical
signal.

Fig 2.14. Piston Type

C. Capsules and Bellows
A bellows is made of several capsules. These are hollow flattened structures made from
thin metal plate. When pressurized the bellows expand and produce mechanical
movement. If the bellows is encapsulated inside an outer container, then the movement is
proportional to the difference between the pressures on the inside and outside. Bellows
and single capsules are used in many instruments. They are very useful for measuring
small pressures

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 Fig 2.15 Bellows
D. Diaphragms
These are similar in principle to the capsule but the diaphragm is usually very thin and
perhaps made of rubber. The diaphragm expands when very small pressures are applied.
The movement is transmitted to a pointer on a dial through a fine mechanical linkage.

Fig 2.16 Capsules

E. Electrical Pressure Transducers
There are various ways of converting the mechanical movement of the preceding types
into an electric signal. The following are types that directly produce an electric signal.
 Strain Gauge types.
 Piezo electric types.
 Other electric effects.
 Strain Gauge Types
The principles of electric strain gauges are covered later. Strain gauges are small elements
that are fixed to a surface that is strained. The change in length of the element produces
changes in the electrical resistance. This is processed and converted into a voltage. A
typical pressure transducer would contain a metal diaphragm which bends under pressure.

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 Fig 2.17 Strain Gauge

 Other Electric Effects

Other electric effects commonly used in transducers are Capacitive and Inductive. In
these cases, the pressure produces a change in the capacitance or inductance of an
electronic component in the transducer. Both these effects are commonly used in an
electronic oscillator and one way they may be used is to change the frequency of the
oscillation. The frequency may be converted into a voltage representing the pressure
 Differential capacitance sensors
Another common electrical pressure sensor design works on the principle of differential
capacitance. In this design, the sensing element is a taut metal diaphragm located
equidistant between two stationary metal surfaces, forming a complementary pair of
capacitances. An electrically insulating full fluid (usually a liquid silicone compound)
transfers motion from the isolating diaphragms to the sensing diaphragm, and also
doubles as an effective dielectric for the two capacitors:

Fig 2.19 Differential capacitance sensors

Any difference of pressure across the cell will cause the diaphragm to °ex in the direction
of least pressure. Since capacitance between conductors is inversely proportional to the

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 distance separating them, this causes capacitance on the low-pressure side to increase and
capacitance on the high- pressure side to decrease:

Fig 2.19 Differential capacitance

A capacitance detector circuit connected to this cell uses a high-frequency AC excitation
signal to measure the different in capacitance between the two halves, translating that into
a DC signal which ultimately becomes the signal output by the instrument representing
pressure. These pressure sensors are highly accurate, stable, and rugged. The solid frame
bounds the motion of the two isolating diaphragms such that the sensing diaphragm
cannot move past its elastic [Link] gives the differential capacitance excellent
resistance to overpressure damage. For Example we can see the Rosemount transmitter as
below:

Fig 2.20 Dismounting Of the Transmitter

Fig 2.21 Close up Photography of Isolating Diaphragm’s

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 3. Flow Meters
There are many hundreds of types of flow meters depending on the make and application.
They may be classified roughly as follows.
• Positive Displacement Types• Inferential Types
• Variable Area Types• Differential Pressure Types
A. Positive Displacement Types
These types have a mechanical element that makes the shaft of the meter rotate once for
an exact known quantity of fluid. The quantity of fluid hence depends on the number of
revolutions of the meter shaft and the flow rate depends upon the speed of rotation. Both
the revolutions and speed may be measured with mechanical or electronic devices. Some
of the most common listed below.
 Rotary piston type
 Vane type.
 Lobe type or meshing rotor
 Reciprocating piston type
 Fluted spiral gear.

B. Inferential Type Meters

The flow of the fluid is inferred from some effect produced by the flow. Usually this is a
rotor which is made to spin and the speed of the rotor is sensed mechanically or
electronically. The main types are:
 Turbine rotor types
 Rotary shunt types
 Rotating vane types•
 Helical turbine types

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  Turbine Type
The turbine type shown has an axial rotor which is made to spin by the fluid and the
speed represents the flow rate. This may be sensed electrically by coupling the shaft to a
small electric tachometer. Often this consists of a magnetic slug on the rotor which
generates a pulse of electricity each time it passes the sensor.

Fig 2.22 Turbine type flow meter

 Rotating Vane Type

The jet of fluid spins around the rotating vane and the speed of the rotor are measured
mechanically or electronically.

Fig 2.23 Rotating Vane flow meter

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 C. Variable Area Types
There are two main types of this meter
 Float type (Rota meter)
 Tapered plug type.
 Float Type
The float is inside a tapered tube. The fluid flows through the annular gap around the
edge of the float. The restriction causes a pressure drop over the float and the pressure
forces the float upwards. Because the tube is tapered, the restriction is decreased as the
float moves up. Eventually a level is reached where the restriction is just right to produce
a pressure force that counteracts the weight of the float. The level of the float indicates
the flow rate. If the flow changes the float moves up or down to find a new balance
position.

Fig 2.23 Float type flow meter

 Tapered Plug Type:

In this meter, a tapered plug is aligned inside a hole or orifice. A spring holds it in place.
The flow is restricted as it passes through the gap and a force is produced which moves
the plug. Because it is tapered the restriction changes and the plug takes up a position
where the pressure force just balances the spring force. The movement of the plug is
transmitted with a magnet to an indicator on the outside.

Fig 2.24 Tapered Plug flow meter

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 D. Differential Pressure
 Flow Meters
These are a range of meters that convert flow rate into a differential pressure. The
important types conform to BS1042 and are
 Orifice Meters.
 Venturi Meters
 Nozzle Meters
 Pitot Tubes.
The diagram shows a cross section through the four types of d.p. meters.
Orifice Plate
Of all the pressure-based flow elements in existence, the most common is the orifice
plate. This is simply a metal plate with a hole in the middle for fluid to flow through.
Orifice plates are typically sandwiched between two flanges of a pipe joint, allowing for
easy installation and removal:

Fig 2.25 Orifice Plate

The point where the fluid flow profile constricts to a minimum cross-sectional area after
flowing through the orifice is called the vena contract, and it is the area of minimum fluid
pressure. The vena contract corresponds to the narrow throat of a venturi tube. The
simplest design of orifice plate is the square-edged, concentric orifice. This type of orifice
plate is manufactured by machining a precise, straight hole in the middle of a thin metal
[Link] a side view of a square-edged concentric orifice plate reveals sharp edges
(90o corners) at the hole:

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 Square-edged orifice plates may be installed in either direction, since the orifice plate
\appears “exactly the same from either direction of fluid approach. In fact, this allows
square-edged orifice plates to be used for measuring bidirectional flow rates (where the
fluid flow direction reverses itself from time to time). A text label printed on the \paddle"
of any orifice plate customarily identifies the upstream side of that plate, but in the case
of the square- edged orifice plate it does not matter.
The purpose of having a square edge on the hole in an orifice plate is to minimize contact
with the fast-moving moving fluid stream going through the hole. Ideally, this edge will
be knife-sharp. If the orifice plate is relatively thick (1/8 or an inch or more), it may be
necessary to bevel the downstream side of the hole to further minimize contact with the
fluid stream:

Looking at the side-view of this orifice plate, the intended direction of flow is left-to-
right, with the sharp edge facing the incoming fluid stream and the bevel providing a non-
contact outlet for the fluid. Beveled orifice plates are obviously unidirectional, and must
be installed with the paddle text facing upstream.
Other square-edged orifice plates exist to address conditions where gas bubbles or solid
particles may be present in liquid flows, or where liquid droplets or solid particles may be
present in gas flows. The first of this type is called the eccentric orifice plate, where the
hole is located off center to allow the undesired portions of the fluid to pass through the
orifice rather than build up on the upstream face:
For gas flows, the hole should be offset downward, so that any liquid droplets or solid
particles may easily pass through. For liquid flows, the hole should be offset upward to
allow gas bubbles to pass through and offset downward to allow heavy solids to pass
through.

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 The second offcenterorifice plate type is called the segmental orifice plate, where the hole
is not circular but rather just a segment of a concentric circle:
As with the eccentric orifice plate design, the segmental hole should be offset downward
in gas flow applications and either upward or downward in liquid flow applications
depending on the type of undesired material(s) in the flow stream.
For relatively low flow rates, an alternative arrangement is the integral orifice plate. This
is where a small orifice plate is physically attached to the differential pressure-sensing
element so that no impulse lines are needed. A photograph of an integral orifice plate and
transmitter is shown here:
Flow Nozzle: Another variation on the venturi theme is called a flow nozzle, designed
to be clamped between the faces of two pipe flanges in a manner similar to an orifice
plate. The goal here is to achieve simplicity of installation approximating that of an
orifice plate while improving performance (less permanent pressure loss) over orifice
plates:

Fig 2.26 Flow nozzle

Pitot tube
Other pressure-based flow elements exist as alternatives to the orifice plate. The Pitot
tube, for example, senses pressure as the fluid stagnates (comes to a complete stop)
against the open endof a forward-facing tube. A short coming of the classic single-tube
Pitot assembly is sensitivity to fluid velocity at just one point in the pipe, so a more
common form of Pitot tube seen in industry is the averaging Pitot tube consisting of
several stagnation holes sensing velocity at multiple points across the width of the flow:

Fig 2.27 Pitot tube

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 E. Magnetic Flow meters
When an electrical conductor moves perpendicular to a magnetic field, a voltage is
induced in that conductor perpendicular to both the magnetic flux lines and the direction
of motion. This phenomenon is known as electromagnetic induction, and it is the basic
principle upon which all electro-mechanical generators operate. In a generator
mechanism, the conductor in question is typically a coil (or set of coils) made of copper
wire. However, there is no reasonthe conductor must be made of copper wire. Any
electrically conductive substance in motion is sufficient to electromagnetically induce a
voltage, even if that substance is aliquid(or a gas). Consider water flowing through a pipe,
witha magnetic field passing perpendicularly through the pipe:

The direction of liquid flow cuts perpendicularly through the lines of magnetic flux,
generating a voltage along an axis perpendicular to both. Metal electrodes opposite each
other in the pipe wall intercept this voltage, making it readable to an electronic circuit.
A voltage induced by the linear motion of a conductor through a magnetic field is called
motional EMF, the magnitude of which is predicted by the following formula (assuming
perfect perpendicularity between the direction of velocity, the orientation of the magnetic
flux lines, and the Axis of voltage measurement):
E=Blv
Where,
E = Motional EMF (volts)

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 l = Length of conductor passing through the magnetic field (meters)
v = Velocity of conductor
B = Magnetic flux density (Tesla) (meters per second)
4. Level Measurements
• Level gauges • Float
• Differential pressure transmitter• Compensated leg system
• Displacement • Ultrasonic level transmitter
• Radar level transmitter
[Link] gauges (sight glasses)
The level gauge or sight glass is to liquid level measurement as manometers are to
pressure measurement: a very simple and effective technology for direct visual indication
of process level. In its simplest form, a level gauge is nothing more than aclear tube
through which process liquid may be seen. The followingphotograph shows a simple
example of a sight glass:

A functional diagram of a sight glass shows how it visually represents the level of liquid
inside a vessel such as a storage tank:

Fig 2.28 Level gauges (sight glasses)

B. Float
Perhaps the simplest form of solid or liquid level measurement is with a float: a device
that rides on the surface of the fluid or solid within the storage vessel.
Floats may be used for manual \gauging" of level, as illustrated here:

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 Fig 2.29 Float type level measurement
A person lowers a float down into a storage vessel using a flexible measuring tape, until
the tape goes slack due to the float coming to rest on the material surface. At that point,
the person notes the length indicated on the tape (reading off the lip of the vessel access
hole).
Obviously, this method of level measurement is tedious and may pose risk to the person
conducting the measurement. If the vessel is pressurized, this method is simply not
applicable.
If we automate the person's function using a small winch controlled by a computer
{having the computer automatically lower the °oat down to the material surface and
measure the amount of cable played out at each measurement cycle {we may achieve
better results without human intervention. Such a level gauge may be enclosed in such a
way to allow pressurization of the vessel, too:
A simpler version of this technique uses a spring-reel to constantly tension the cable
holding the float, so that the float continuously rides on the surface of the liquid in the
vessel:

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 A variation on the theme of float level measurement is to place a small float inside the
tube of a
Sight glass-style level gauge

Fig 2.30 Sight glass-style level gauge

D. Differential Pressure transmitter

Differential pressure transmitters are the most common pressure-sensing device used in
this capacity to infer liquid level within a vessel. In the hypothetical case of the oil vessel
just considered, the transmitter would connect to the vessel in this manner (with the high
side toward the process and the low side vented to atmosphere):

Fig 2.31 Differential Pressure Transmitter

Connected as such, the differential pressure transmitter functions as a gauge pressure
transmitter, responding to hydrostatic pressure exceeding ambient (atmospheric) pressure.
As liquid level increases, the hydrostatic pressure applied to the \high" side of the
differential pressure transmitter also increases, driving the transmitter's output signal
higher.
Some pressure-sensing instruments are built specifically for hydrostatic measurement of
liquid level in vessels, doing away with impulse tubing altogether in favor of a special
kind of sealing diaphragm that protrudes slightly into the vessel through a flanged pipe
entry (commonly called a nozzle). A photograph of such a level transmitters shown here:

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 A. Compensated leg systems
The simple and direct relationship between liquid height in a vessel and pressure at the
bottom of that vessel is ruined if another source of pressure exists inside the vessel other
than hydrostatic (elevation head). This is virtually guaranteed to be the case if the vessel
in question is unvented. Any gas or vapor pressure accumulation in an enclosed vessel
will add to the hydrostatic pressure at the bottom, causing any pressure-
sensinginstrument to falselyregistera high level:

Fig 2.32 Compensated leg systems

B. Displacement
Displacer level instruments exploit Archimedes' Principle to detect liquid level by
continuously measuring the weight of a rod immersed in the process liquid. As liquid
level increases, the displacer rod experiences a greater buoyant force, making it appear
lighter to the sensing instrument, which interprets the loss of weight as an increase in
level and transmits a proportional output signal. In practice a displacer level instrument
usually takes the following form.

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 Fig 2.33 Displacement type level measurement

D. Ultrasonic level measurement

Ultrasonic level instruments measure the distance from the transmitter (located at some
high point) to the surface of a process material located further below. The time-of-flight
for a sound pulse indicates this distance, and is interpreted by the transmitter electronics
as process level. These transmitters may output a signal corresponding either to the
fullness of the vessel (fill age) or the amount of empty space remaining at the top of a
vessel (ullage).
Fill age= Total height –Ullage
Ullage= Total height –Fill age

Fig 2.34 Ultrasonic level measurement

F. Level measurement
Radar level instruments measure the distance from the transmitter (located at some high
point) to the surface of a process material located further below in much the same way as

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 ultrasonic transmitters. The fundamental difference between a radar instrument and an
ultrasonic instrument is the use of radio waves instead of sound waves. Radio waves are
electromagnetic in nature (comprised of alternating electric and magnetic fields), and very
high frequency (in the microwave frequency range {GHz). Sound waves are mechanical
vibrations (transmitted from molecule to molecule in a fluid or solid substance) and of
much lower frequency (tens or hundreds of kilohertz {still too high for a human being to
detect as a tone) than radio waves.
Some radar level instruments use waveguide \probes" to guide the radio waves into the
process liquid while others send radio waves out through open space to reflect of the
process material. The instruments using waveguides are called guided-wave radar
instruments, whereas the radar instruments relying on open space for signal propagation
are called non-contact radar. The differences between these two varieties of radar
instruments is shown in the following illustration:

Fig 2.35 Radar type level measurement

6. Load Measurements (Strain Gauge)

 STRAIN GAUGE:-It is used to measure the load of an object

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  The strain gauge is a passive, resistive transducer which converts the
mechanical elongation and compression into a resistance change.
 This change in resistance takes place due to variation in length and cross
sectional area of the gauge wire, when an external force acts on it.

[Link] strain Gauge

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 Types Of Strain Gauge
 There are Two Common type of strain gauge these are
• Wire gauge
• Semiconductor gauge
I. Wire gauge
A. Unbonded
B. Bonded
C. Foil type
A. Unbonded Strain Gauge
 An unbonded meter strain gauge is shown in fig
 This gauge consist of a wire stretched between two point in an insulating medium
such as air. The wires may be made of various copper, nickel, crome nickle or nickle
iron alloys.
 In fig the element is connected via a rod to diaphragm which is used for sensing the
pressure. The wire are tensioned to avoid buckling when they experience the
compressive force.
 The unbounded meter wire gauges used almost exclusively in transducer application
employ preloaded resistance wire connected in Wheatstone bridge as shown in fig.
 At initial preload the strain and resistance of the four arms are nominally equal with
the result the output voltage of the bridge is equal to zero.
 Application of pressure produces a small displacement , the displacement increases a
tension in two wire and decreases it in the other two thereby increase the resistance of
two wire which are in tension and decreasing the resistance of the remaining two wire
.
 This causes an unbalance of the bridge producing an output voltage which is
proportional to the input displacement and hence to the applied pressure .
B. Bonded Strain Gauge
 The bonded metal wire strain gauge are used for both stress analysis and for
construction of transducer.
 A resistance wire strain gauge consist of a grid of fine resistance wire. The grid is
cemented to carrier which may be a thin sheet of paper bakelite or teflon.

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  The wire is covered on top with a thin sheet of material so as to prevent it from any
mechanical demage.
 The carrier is bonded with an adhesive material to the specimen which permit a good
transfer of strain from carrier to grid of wires.

Fig2.28 Bonded Strain Gauge

C. Bonded Metal Foil Strain Gauge

 It consist of following parts:
1. Base (carrier) Materials: several types of base material are used to support the
wires. Impregnated paper is used for room temp. applications.
2. Adhesive: The adhesive acts as bonding materials. Like other bonding
operation, successful strain gauge bonding depends upon careful surface
preparation and use of the correct bonding agent.

In order that the strain be faithfully transferred on to the strain gauge, the bond has to be
formed between the surface to be strained and the plastic backing material on which the
gauge is mounted.

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 Fig 2.29 Bonded Metal Foil Strain Gauge
It is important that the adhesive should be suited to this backing and adhesive material
should be quick drying type and also insensitive to moisture.
3. Leads: The leads should be of such materials which have low and stable resistivity
and also a low resistance temperature coefficient
 This class of strain gauge is only an extension of the bonded metal wire
strain gauges.
 The bonded metal wire starin gauge have been completely superseded by
bonded metal foil strain gauges.
 Metal foil strain gauge use identical material to wire strain gauge and are
used for most general purpose stress analysis application and for many
transducers.
 Semiconductor Gauge
 Semiconductor gauge are used in application where a high gauge factor is desired. A
high gauge factor means relatively higher change in resistance that can be measured
with good accuracy.
 The resistance of the semiconductor gauge change as strain is applied to it. The
semiconductor gauge depends for their action upon the piezo-resistive effect i.e.
change in value of resistance due to change in resistivity.
Silicon and germanium are used as resistive material for semiconductor gauges

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 Fig2.30 Semiconductor Gauge
6. Resistive transducers/ Measurements
Resistive transducers :-Resistive transducers are those transducers in
which the resistance change due to the change in some physical phenomenon.
– The resistance of a metal conductor is expressed by a simple equation.
– R = ρL/A
– Where R = resistance of conductor in Ω
L = length of conductor in m
A = cross sectional area of conductor in m2
ρ = resistivity of conductor material in Ω-m.
Potentiometer and Linear Variable Differential Transformer(LVDT) are good example of
Resistive transducer
7. Potentiometer
• The potentiometer are used for voltage division. They consist of a resistive
element provided with a sliding contact. The sliding contact is called as wiper.
• The contact motion may be linear or rotational or combination of the two. The
combinational potentiometer have their resistive element in helix form and are
called helipots.
• Fig shows a linear pot and a rotary pot

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 Fig2. 40 Rotary type of POT Fig2.41. Linear type of
POT
II. Linear Variable Differential Transformer(LVDT)
• AN LVDT transducer comprises a coil former on to which three coils are wound.
• The primary coil is excited with an AC current, the secondary coils are wound
such that when a ferrite core is in the central linear position, an equal voltage is
induced in to each coil.
• The secondary are connected in opposite so that in the central position the outputs
of the secondary cancels each other out.

Fig2.42. LVDT
 The excitation is applied to the primary winding and the armature assists the induction
of current in to secondary coils.

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  When the core is exactly at the center of the coil then the flux linked to both the
secondary winding will be equal. Due to equal flux linkage the secondary induced
voltages (eo1 & eo2) are equal but they have opposite polarities. Output voltage eo is
therefore zero. This position is called “null position

Fig2.43 LVDT

 Now if the core is displaced from its null position toward sec1 then flux linked to sec1
increases and flux linked to sec2 decreases. Therefore eo1 > eo2 and the output
voltage of LVDT eo will be positive
 Similarly if the core is displaced toward sec2 then the eo2 > eo1 and the output
voltage of LVDT eo will be negative.
8 .Photo transducers

The Photo transducers or light sensor is a passive devices that convert this "light
energy" whether visible or in the infrared parts of the spectrum into an electrical signal
output. Light sensors are more commonly known as "Photoelectric Devices" or "Photo
Sensors" because the convert light energy (photons) into electricity (electrons).

Common Type of photo transducers or photo sensors are the following

D. The Light Dependant Resistor(LDR)

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 A Photoconductive light sensor does not produce electricity but simply changes its
physical properties when subjected to light energy. The most common type of
photoconductive device is the Photoresistor which changes its electrical resistance in
response to changes in the light intensity. Photoresistors are Semiconductor devices that
use light energy to control the flow of electrons, and hence the current flowing through
them. The commonly used Photoconductive Cell is called the Light Dependant Resistor
or LDR.

Fig2. 44 Light Dependant Resistor

As its name implies, the Light Dependant Resistor (LDR) is made from a piece of
exposed semiconductor material such as cadmium sulphide that changes its electrical
resistance from several thousand Ohms in the dark to only a few hundred Ohms when
light falls upon it by creating hole-electron pairs in the material. The net effect is an
improvement in its conductivity with a decrease in resistance for an increase in
illumination. Also, photoresistive cells have a long response time requiring many seconds
to respond to a change in the light intensity

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 One simple use of a Light Dependant Resistor, is as a light sensitive switch as shown
below.

This basic light sensor circuit is of a relay output light activated switch. A potential
divider circuit is formed between the photoresistor, LDR and the resistor R1. When no
light is present ie in darkness, the resistance of the LDR is very high in the Megaohms
range so zero base bias is applied to the transistor TR1 and the relay is de-energised or
"OFF".

As the light level increases the resistance of the LDR starts to decrease causing the base
bias voltage at V1 to rise. At some point determined by the potential divider network
formed with resistor R1, the base bias voltage is high enough to turn the transistor TR1
"ON" and thus activate the relay which inturn is used to control some external circuitry.

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 As the light level falls back to darkness again the resistance of the LDR increases causing
the base voltage of the transistor to decrease, turning the transistor and relay "OFF" at a
fixed light level determined again by the potential divider network.

By replacing the fixed resistor R1 with a potentiometer VR1, the point at which the relay
turns "ON" or "OFF" can be pre-set to a particular light level. This type of simple circuit
shown above has a fairly low sensitivity and its switching point may not be consistent due
to variations in either temperature or the supply voltage. A more sensitive precision light
activated circuit can be easily made by incorporating the LDR into a "Wheatstone Bridge"
arrangement and replacing the transistor with an Operational Amplifier as shown.

[Link] Photodiode
Photojunction Devices are basically PN-Junction light sensors or detectors made from
silicon semiconductor PN-junctions which are sensitive to light and which can detect both
visible light and infrared light levels. Photo-junction devices are specifically made for
sensing light and this class of photoelectric light sensors include the Photodiode and the
Phototransistor

Fig2.45Photodiode

This characteristic can be a problem for diodes with transparent or glass bead bodies
such as the 1N4148 signal diode. LED's can also be used as photodiodes as they can both
emit and detect light from their junction. All PN-junctions are light sensitive and can be
used in a photo-conductive unbiased voltage mode with the PN-junction of the

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 photodiode always "Reverse Biased" so that only the diodes leakage or dark current can
flow.

Photo-diode Construction and Characteristics

When used as a light sensor, a photodiodes dark current (0 lux) is about 10uA for
geranium and 1uA for silicon type diodes. When light falls upon the junction more
hole/electron pairs are formed and the leakage current increases. This leakage current
increases as the illumination of the junction increases. Thus, the photodiodes current is
directly proportional to light intensity falling onto the PN-junction. One main advantage
of photodiodes when used as light sensors is their fast response to changes in the light
levels, but one disadvantage of this type of photodevice is the relatively small current
flow even when fully lit.

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 Photodiodes are very versatile light sensors that can turn its current flow both "ON" and
"OFF" in nanoseconds and are commonly used in cameras, light meters, CD and DVD-
ROM drives, TV remote controls, scanners, fax machines and copiers etc, and when
integrated into operational amplifier circuits as infrared spectrum detectors for fibre optic
communications, burglar alarm motion detection circuits and numerous imaging, laser
scanning and positioning systems etc.
E. Phototransistor

An alternative photo-junction device to the photodiode is the Phototransistor which is

basically a photodiode with amplification. The Phototransistor light sensor has its
collector-base PN-junction reverse biased exposing it to the radiant light source.
Phototransistors operate the same as the photodiode except that they can provide current
gain and are much more sensitive than the photodiode with currents are 50 to 100 times
greater than that of the standard photodiode and any normal transistor can be easily
converted into a phototransistor light sensor by connecting a photodiode between the
collector and base.

Phototransistors consist mainly of a bipolar NPN Transistor with its large base region
electrically unconnected, although some phototransistors allow a base connection to
control the sensitivity, and which uses photons of light to generate a base current which in
turn causes a collector to emitter current to flow. Most phototransistors are NPN types
whose outer casing is either transparent or has a clear lens to focus the light onto the base
junction for increased sensitivity

Fig2.46 Phototransistor

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 Photo-transistor Construction and Characteristics

D . Photodarlington

Photodarlington transistors use a second bipolar NPN transistor to provide additional

amplification or when higher sensitivity of a photodetector is required due to low light
levels or selective sensitivity, but its response is slower than that of an ordinary NPN
phototransistor.

Photo darlington devices consist of a normal phototransistor whose emitter output is

coupled to the base of a larger bipolar NPN transistor. Because a darlington transistor

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 configuration gives a current gain equal to a product of the current gains of two individual
transistors, a photodarlington device produces a very sensitive detector.

Typical applications of Phototransistors light sensors are in opto-isolators, slotted opto

switches, light beam sensors, fibre optics and TV type remote controls, etc. Infrared
filters are sometimes required when detecting visible light..

Fig2.47 Photo-darlington

9. Photovoltaic Cells.

The most common type of photovoltaic light sensor is the Solar Cell. Solar cells convert
light energy directly into DC electrical energy in the form of a voltage or current to a
resistive load such as a light, battery or motor. Then photovoltaic cells are similar to a
battery because they supply DC power. Unlike the other photo devices above which use
light intensity even from a torch to operate, photvoltaic cells work best using the suns
radiant energy. Solar cells are used in many different types of applications to offer an
alternative power source from conventional batteries, such as in calculators, satellites and
now in homes offering a form of renewable power.

Fig2.48Photovoltaic Cell

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 Photovoltaic cells are made from single crystal silicon PN junctions, the same as
photodiodes with a very large light sensitive region but are used without the reverse bias.
They have the same characteristics as a very large photodiode when in the dark. When
illuminated the light energy causes electrons to flow through the PN junction and an
individual solar cell can generate an open circuit voltage of about 0.58v (580mV). Solar
cells have a "Positive" and a "Negative" side just like a battery.

Individual solar cells can be connected together in series to form solar panels which
increases the output voltage or connected together in parallel to increase the available
current. Commercially available solar panels are rated in Watts, which is the product of
the output voltage and current (Volts times Amps) when fully lit.

Characteristics of a typical Photovoltaic Solar Cell.

The amount of available current from a solar cell depends upon the light intensity, the
size of the celland its efficiency which is generally very low at around 15 to 20%. To
increase the overall efficiency of the cell commercially available solar cells use
polycrystalline silicon or amorphous silicon, which have no crystalline structure, and can
generate currents of between 20 to 40mA per cm2. Other materials used include Gallium
Arsenide, Copper Indium Diselenide and Cadmium Telluride. These different materials
each have a different spectrum band response, and so can be "tuned" to produce an output
voltage at different wavelengths of light.

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 Self-Check 2 Written Test

[Link] True or False

[Link] to measure highest temperature range Thermocouple is preferable
[Link] tube is used to measure Level
[Link] is to measure load
[Link] type level measurement is direct measurement
[Link] meter is a type of integrated type measurement
Test 1:- Choose the best answer from the given alternatives
[Link] one of the following is not used to measure Temperature.
A. Thermocouple B. Potentiometer C. Thermistor [Link]
[Link] the following which one is used to as pressure transducer
A. Diaphragm B. Capsule C. Burdon tube [Link]
[Link] temperature measurement not need to touch
A .Radiation /Infrared pyrometer B. Mercury in glass thermometer C .Thermo
couple
[Link]
[Link] temperature measurement is preferable to measure Higher Temperature.
A. Termistor [Link] C. Termocouple D. None
5. Orifice plate & Pitot Tube are a type of ________Transducer
A. Level B. Pressure C .Flow [Link]
[Link] meter is

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 A. Indicating instrument [Link] instrument [Link] instrument D.A&B
[Link] is a
[Link] transducer [Link] transducer [Link] transducer
[Link] transducer
8. which Level measurement not need to touch.
A. Float gauge B. Displacement [Link] level measurement D. All
[Link] couple are used for the measurement of
A. Temperature B. Pressure [Link] D. Flow
[Link] one is a type of transducer do not required external power supply
A. Potentiometer B. Photovoltaic [Link] [Link]
[Link] what principle operate a potentiometer
A. Change in resistance B. Change in induced EMF C. Change in position D. None
[Link] the following g which one is not a pressure Transducers
A. Manometer B. Thermometer [Link] [Link]
[Link] a float gauge type level measurement
A. Direct measurement [Link] type [Link] type D.A&C .
14. ______a type of Strain Gauge that are used to measure small load & it is more
sensitivity
A. Semiconductor gauge B. Unbonded C. Bonded [Link]

15. . LEDs are

A. Photodiode [Link] C. Phototransistor D. All

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 Operation sheet 2:- Instrumentation and control devices installation
Operation title:-Temperature measurement
Purpose: Temperature measurement of liquid using Thermocouple.
Instruction:- Follow the the given step measure the temperature of water with
different temperature range . You have given 40 minute for the task and you are
expected to write the answer on the given paper
Steps in doing the task
Step [Link] a Thermocouple

Fig. Teromcouple
Step [Link] the Electrical Multimeter that have a Temperature selector

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 .
Fig. Multimeter
Step [Link] the above type thermocouple terminal into the multimeter.

[Link] with thermocouple

Step [Link] Multimeter change to temperature selector
Step [Link] the sensor terminal of thermocouple into water and record the value
Step 6. Insert the sensor terminal of thermocouple into Boiled water and record the value
Step 7. Insert the sensor terminal of thermocouple into Ice and record the value
Lap Test-2
Instruction :-Given the necessary tools and materials you are expected to perform the
following tasks within 1 hour.
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 Task 1:- Temperature measurement of a liquid using Thermocouple

Unit Three: Inspect the complete work

This unit is developed to provide you the necessary information regarding the following
content coverage and topics
 Installed devices inspection
 work completion procedure
 Test all complete termination
This unit will also assist to attain the learning outcomes stated in the cover page
.Specifically ,upon completion of this learning guide, you will be able to:-
 Inspect installed devices for completeness before formal functioning
 Notify work completion according to procedure
 Conduct of testing all completed termination / connections of wiring

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 3.1 Installed devices inspection
Instrument Equipment Testing, Inspection and Maintenance Implementing an ambient air
monitoring network, with the various types of equipment needed, is no easy
task. Through appropriate testing, inspection and maintenance programs, monitoring
organizations can be assured that equipment is capable of operating at acceptable
performance levels. Every piece of equipment has an expected life span, and its use
should be discontinued if its performance quality ceases to meet appropriate standards.
For amortization purposes, EPA estimates a 7 year lifespan for most monitoring
instruments and a somewhat longer lifespan for more permanent types of equipment
(instrument racks, monitoring shelters etc.). This means that funds for replacing capital
equipment are provided in resource allocations and monitoring organizations should make
the best use of equipment replacement resources. Monitoring organizations may be able
to prolong the life of equipment but in doing so they may run the risk of additional
downtime, more upkeep and a greater chance of data invalidation, while losing out on
newer technologies, better sensitivity/stability and the opportunities for better information
management technologies.
Due to the many types of equipment that can be used in an ambient air monitoring
program, this section provides general guidance on testing, inspection, and maintenance
procedures for broad categories of equipment only. In most cases, equipment
manufacturers include inspection and maintenance information in the operating manuals.
The role of monitoring organizations, in developing a quality system, is to address the
scheduling and documentation of routine testing, inspection, and maintenance.
Detailed maintenance documents should be available for each monitoring site. Elements
incorporated into testing, inspection and maintenance documents include:
 equipment lists - by organization and station;
 spare equipment/parts lists - by equipment, including suppliers;
 inspection/maintenance frequency - by equipment;
 testing frequency and source of the test concentrations or equipment;

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  equipment replacement schedules;
 sources of repair - by equipment;
 service agreements that are in place; and
 monthly check sheets and entry forms for documenting testing, inspections and
maintenance
performed.
3.2 work completion procedure
3.2.1 Installation report and records

The final step is to produce an installation report and records document. This document
should summarize the results, outcomes, and achievements of the installation project. It
should also provide the evidence and documentation of the installation process, such as
the installation logs, checklists, test results, verification reports, calibration certificates,
and warranty documents. The installation report and records document helps you to
demonstrate the completion and compliance of the installation project and to provide the
client or stakeholder with the necessary information and support for the operation and
maintenance of the installed equipment.

Why documentation and reporting are important

Documentation and reporting are essential for any equipment installation project, as they
help to communicate and collaborate with the client or stakeholder, monitor and control
the progress and performance of the installation project, identify and resolve any issues or
problems that may arise, ensure quality and compliance with relevant standards and
regulations, and provide evidence and documentation for future reference and audit.
Proper documentation and reporting is not only a requirement but also a best practice for
equipment installation projects, allowing you to ensure success and satisfaction.

3.3 Teste all completed termination

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 3.3.1 Terminations/Connections at Field Instruments & Junction Boxes

 Connections at Field Instruments: All connections at the field instrument shall be

made on screw type terminal blocks. Wire nuts and spring type terminals shall not
be used. Instruments with integral terminal blocks shall be connected directly to
the field cable.
 The outer jacket of shielded twisted single pair/triad cables shall be left intact up
to the point of termination. Drain wires and mylar shields on shielded cables shall
be cut and insulated with heat shrink sleeve at the field instrument unless
otherwise specified by the instrument manufacturer.
 All Cable entries to field Junction Boxes shall be through the bottom.
 Conduit and Cable sealing shall be as per SAES-J-902 section 6. Cable gland
being used shall be selected as per the “Cable Gland Selection Table”.
 Twisted, multi-pair/triad cables shall be cut to the appropriate length to minimize
looping and flexing of the cable within the junction box.
 For twisted shielded single pair/triad cables the outer jacket shall be left intact up
to the point-of-termination (approximately three to four inches from terminal
blocks). The shield drain wire shall be insulated from jacket end to
Approximately, one inch of heat shrink tubing shall be applied over the jacket
end.
 For individually shielded twisted multi-pair/triad cables each pair/triad shall be
heat shrink sleeve insulated from the cable-jacket-end up to the point-of-
termination to keep the foil shielding intact and free from accidental grounds.
 The shield drain wire shall be insulated from foil end to terminal. Approximately,
two inches of heat shrink tubing shall be applied over the jacket end.
 All spare pairs/triads of a multi-pair/triad cable shall be terminated at both the
field junction box and the marshaling cabinet. Drain wires for spare shielded
pairs/triads shall also be individually terminated at these locations.
 Each cable or group of cables carrying similar signals shall contain a minimum of
20% spare pairs or triads.

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  Cable shields must have a single, continuous path to ground. Special grounding
terminals in intimate contact with the DIN Rail, jumper bars or preformed jumper
combs designed for the selected terminal blocks shall be used to consolidate shield
drain wires for connection to ground. Ground loops and floating shields shall be
avoided. Shield drain wires shall not be daisy-chained to the ground connection.

Self-Check 3 Written Test

I. Say True or False

1. Inspection and Maintenance decrease the expected life span of an instrument.
2. In most cases, equipment manufacturers include inspection and maintenance
information in the operating manuals
3. The role of monitoring organizations, in developing a quality system, is to address the
scheduling and documentation of routine testing, inspection, and maintenance.
4. Equipment replacement schedules is under testing, inspection and maintenance
program
5. Evidence and documentation of the installation process is not under installation report
and records document

II. Choose the best answer

1. Elements incorporated into testing, inspection and maintenance documents include:
A..Equipment lists
B. Spare equipment/parts lists
C .Inspection/maintenance frequency D. All
[Link] and documentation of the installation process include
A. installation logs B checklists C. test results D. All
[Link] inspection instrument used to measure temperature
[Link] [Link] [Link] D. Strain Gauge

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 [Link] inspection instrument is not used to measure pressure
[Link] [Link] [Link] D. Strain Gauge
5. which inspection instrument is not used to measure Level
[Link] [Link] [Link] glass D. Strain Gauge

Operation sheet 3.1:- Inspect the complete work

Operation title:-Inspect pressure measurement of a Compressor
Purpose: Replace defective pressure measurement of a compressor.
Instruction:- Follow the the given step Assemble and Disassemble the defective
pressure measurement of a compressor . You have given 50 minute for the task and you
are expected to write the answer on the given paper
Steps in doing the task
[Link] unfasten (unlock) the screw of pressure measurement from a using Allenkey,
socket wrench.
Step [Link] unfasten (unlock) pressure measurement using Allenkey, socket wrench
Step [Link] and identify the type of pressure sensor i.e burdontube, capsule, diaphragm,
Bellows etc.
Step [Link] possible repair if not prepare a new one
Step 5..Install the new pressure pressure measurement on the compressor

Fig. Pressure measurement

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 [Link] the installed pressure measurement
[Link] the installed pressure measurement by giving the power to the compressor

Lap Test:-2
Instruction :-Given the necessary tools and materials you are expected to perform the
following tasks within 1 hour.
Task 1:- Replace defective pressure measurement of a compressor

Reference Book
[Link], Procès-Verbaux CIPM, 49th Session, 1960, pp 71–72; Comptes Rendues, 11th
CGPM, 1960,
p. 85
2. P. Anderton and P. H. Bigg, Changing to the Metric System, HMSO, London, 1980.
3. The International System of Units (SI), Natl. Inst. Stand. Technol., Spec. Publ. 330,
1991 ed., U.S.
Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1991.
4. B. N. Taylor, Interpretation of the SI for the United States and Metric Conversion
Policy for Federal
Agencies, Natl. Inst. Stand. Technol., Spec. Publ. 814, U.S. Government Printing Office,
Washington,
D.C., 1991.
5. E. R. Cohen, The Physics Quick Reference Guide, American Institute of Physics Press,
New York,
1995.
6. B. N. Taylor, Guide for the Use of the International System of Units, 1995 ed., Natl.
Inst. Stand.
Technol., Spec. Publ. 811, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1995.
7. Standard for Use of the International System of Units (SI): The Modern Metric System,
IEEE/ASTM
SI 10-1997, IEEE Standards Co-ordinating Committee 14 (Revision and redesignation of

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 ANSI/IEEE Std 268-1992 and ASTM E380), IEEE, New York: 1997.
8. The International System of Units, 7th ed., BIPM, France, 1998.

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