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RRB Group D Science Mini eBook

Reasoning: Non-Verbal Reasoning
Figure Series
Non-Verbal Series tests your ability to understand and analyze visual information and solve problems using visual
reasoning. These questions are based on patterns or changes in a series of figures.
Types of Patterns in Non-Verbal Series
Size-Based Patterns
• Elements in the figures may increase or decrease in size step-by-step.
Position-Based Patterns
• Elements change their position in the figure, such as rotating, shifting, or flipping.
Number-Based Patterns
• The number of elements in the figure increases or decreases in a systematic way.
Shape-Based Patterns
• Shapes change from one step to the next, either by modification, addition, or subtraction.
Shading/Color Patterns
• The shading or color of an element changes progressively.
Complex Patterns
• A combination of two or more patterns is involved, such as a change in both size and position.
Steps to Solve Non-Verbal Series Questions
Analyze the Problem Figures:
• Carefully observe the given series of figures and identify any changes in size, shape, position, number, or shading.
Identify the Pattern:
• Look for a systematic progression or rule that explains the changes in the series.
Eliminate Options:
• Compare the options (answer figures) with the pattern identified and eliminate those that do not match.
Select the Correct Answer:
• Choose the option that logically continues the series or fits the pattern.

Embedded Figure
An embedded figure is a smaller, simpler figure hidden within a larger, more complex figure. These questions require
identifying the smaller figure within the larger one, often in the same orientation or slightly altered (rotated or
reflected).
Types of Embedded Figure Questions
Exact Match:
The problem figure is hidden in one of the options without any alterations.
Rotated Figures:
The problem figure is present in the complex figure but rotated to a different angle.
Reflected or Flipped Figures:
The problem figure appears as a mirror image or flipped version within the larger figure.

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Mirror Image
• When the image of any object is seen in a mirror is called a mirror image.
• When we see an object in a mirror then, the right side of the object appears on the left side and the left side of
the object appears on the right side. This phenomenon is also called Lateral Inversion

Types of mirror Image

1. Alphabets
2. Number
3. Figures
4. Alphanumeric
Mirror images of small letters/ Capital letters and digits

Water Image
• When we look at the reflection of an object into water it is called water
image.
• It appears by inverting an object vertically i.e. upside down.
• The water image of the figure looks like the mirror image of the figure
in case the mirror is placed horizontally at the bottom of the figure.

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Types of Water image
1. Alphabetical water image
2. Numeric water image
3. Alphanumeric water image
4. Figure water image
Paper Folding and Cutting
• Paper Folding and Cutting will test one’s ability to keep a track of instructions and shifts in the shape of figures.
• It involves a process in which a sheet is folded and then some cuts and/or folds are made.
• In the questions, a few figures are given showing how a piece is to be folded and then cut from a particular section.
The dotted line is the reference line along which the paper is to be folded and the arrow indicates the direction
of the fold.
• Thus, these figures indicate the sequence in which the paper is to be folded.
• The designs from the cut will appear on each one of the folds made on the paper.
• In questions based on paper folding and cutting it can be asked to find either the folded or unfolded pattern of
the sheet.

Biology
CELL
The cell is the basic structural, functional, and biological unit of all living organisms. It was discovered by Robert
Hooke in 1665.
Types of Cells
• Prokaryotic Cells: Simple, lack a true nucleus (e.g., Bacteria).
• Eukaryotic Cells: Complex, contain a true nucleus (e.g., Plant and Animal cells).
Cell Theory
• Proposed by Schleiden and Schwann.
• All living organisms are made up of cells.
• Cells are the basic unit of life.
• All cells arise from pre-existing cells (added by Rudolf Virchow).

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Important Cell Organelles and Their Functions
• Nucleus – Controls cell activities; contains genetic material.
• Mitochondria – Powerhouse of the cell; produces energy.
• Ribosomes – Site of protein synthesis.
• Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) – Transport system of the cell (Rough ER with ribosomes, Smooth ER without).
• Golgi Apparatus – Packaging and transport of proteins.
• Lysosomes – Contains digestive enzymes; 'suicidal bags'.
• Vacuoles – Storage of substances; large in plants.
• Chloroplasts – Found in plant cells; site of photosynthesis.
• Cell Wall – Found in plant cells; provides shape and protection.
• Cell Membrane – Semi-permeable membrane; regulates entry/exit.
Plant Cell vs Animal Cell
• Plant cells have cell wall, chloroplasts, and large vacuoles.
• Animal cells lack cell wall and chloroplasts, have small or no vacuoles.
Cell Division
• Mitosis: Occurs in somatic cells; produces two identical cells.
• Meiosis: Occurs in reproductive cells; produces four genetically different cells.
Other Key Points
• Largest cell: Ostrich egg.
• Longest cell: Nerve cell.
• Smallest cell: Mycoplasma.
• Cells were first observed in cork by Robert Hooke.

PLANT TISSUE
Tissue Type Sub-Type Key Characteristics / Functions
Meristematic Tissue Apical Meristem Found at root/shoot tips, increases length
Lateral Meristem Increases girth (width) of plant
Intercalary Meristem At internodes, helps in elongation
Permanent - Simple Parenchyma Living, stores food, loosely packed
Collenchyma Living, thick at corners, provides flexibility
Sclerenchyma Dead, thick walls, provides support
Permanent - Complex Xylem Conducts water, made of vessels, tracheids, etc.
Phloem Conducts food, made of sieve tubes, companion cells etc.

ANIMAL TISSUES

Tissue Type Sub-Type Key Characteristics / Functions

Epithelial Squamous Thin, flat, found in lungs and blood vessels
Cuboidal Cube-shaped, found in kidney tubules
Columnar Tall, column-shaped, found in intestine
Ciliated Columnar with cilia, in respiratory tract

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Tissue Type Sub-Type Key Characteristics / Functions
Connective Areolar Binds skin to muscles
Adipose Stores fat, insulates body
Bone Hard matrix, structural support
Cartilage Flexible, found in nose, ear
Ligaments Connects bone to bone
Tendons Connects muscle to bone
Blood Fluid connective tissue, transports nutrients
Muscular Skeletal Voluntary, striated, attached to bones
Smooth Involuntary, non-striated, internal organs
Cardiac Involuntary, striated, heart only
Nervous Neuron Transmit nerve impulses

PLANT KINGDOM
Division Examples Characteristics Reproduction
Algae (Spirogyra, Simple, body not differentiated Asexual by fragmentation;
Thallophyta
Ulothrix) into root, stem, leaf sexual by gametes
Moss (Funaria), Amphibians of plant kingdom, no Alternation of generation;
Bryophyta
Liverwort (Riccia) vascular tissue gametophyte dominant
First vascular plants, body
Pteridophyta Ferns, Marsilea Spores; no flowers or seeds
differentiated
Naked seeds, no fruit, well- Cones bear male/female
Gymnosperms Cycas, Pinus
developed vascular tissues reproductive structures
Monocots (wheat), Flowers, fruits with seeds, Pollination and fertilization;
Angiosperms
Dicots (pea) advanced vascular tissues double fertilization

ANIMAL KINGDOM
Phylum Examples Characteristics Symmetry & Body Cavity
Porifera Sponges Pores on body, canal system, no Asymmetrical, Acoelomate
tissues
Cnidaria Hydra, Jellyfish Tentacles, stinging cells, Radial, Acoelomate
(Coelenterata) diploblastic
Platyhelminthes Flatworms (Planaria) Flat body, unsegmented, Bilateral, Acoelomate
triploblastic
Nematoda Roundworms (Ascaris) Cylindrical body, unsegmented Bilateral, Pseudocoelomate
Annelida Earthworm, Leech Segmented body, closed Bilateral, Coelomate
circulation
Arthropoda Insects, Spider Jointed legs, exoskeleton, open Bilateral, Coelomate
circulation
Mollusca Snail, Octopus Soft body, shell, unsegmented Bilateral, Coelomate
Echinodermata Starfish, Sea urchin Spiny skin, tube feet, only marine Radial (adult), Coelomate
Chordata Fish, Amphibians, Reptiles, Notochord, dorsal nerve cord, Bilateral, Coelomate
Birds, Mammals post-anal tail

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 BRAIN
Aspect Details
Definition The brain is the control center of the nervous system responsible for body functions and
thoughts.
Functions - Controls voluntary and involuntary actions
- Processes sensory information
- Coordinates muscle movements
- Controls emotions, memory, and learning
- Maintains homeostasis (body balance)
Types of Brain Cells 1. Neurons - Transmit signals
2. Glial cells - Support and protect neurons
Protection Protected by the skull, meninges (membranes), and cerebrospinal fluid
Interesting Fact The human brain weighs about 1.4 kg and contains around 100 billion neurons

Brain Parts - Forebrain, Midbrain, Hindbrain

Part of
Components Functions
Brain
Controls voluntary actions like thinking, reasoning, memory, and senses
Cerebrum
Thalamus relays sensory signals
Forebrain Thalamus
Hypothalamus regulates body temperature, hunger, thirst, emotions, and
Hypothalamus
endocrine functions
Controls eye movement and auditory reflexes
Midbrain Part of the brainstem
Acts as a relay station between forebrain and hindbrain
Cerebellum controls balance, posture, and coordination
Cerebellum
Pons controls breathing and connects brain parts
Hindbrain Pons
Medulla controls involuntary functions like heartbeat, breathing, and
Medulla Oblongata
digestion

DISEASES
Category Details
Disease Classification Acute: Short duration (fever, cold, cough)
Chronic: Long duration (Diabetes, TB)
Communicable: Spread person-to-person (AIDS, COVID-19)
Non-Communicable: No person-to-person spread (diabetes, arthritis)
Pandemic: Widespread across countries
Epidemic: Sudden increase in a location
Endemic: Constant presence in a region

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 Category Details
Virus Diseases Hepatitis: Transmission via food, fluids, contact; affects liver
Jaundice: Affects liver
Mumps: Affects salivary glands
Polio: Poliovirus; vaccines IPV and OPV
Cervical Cancer: HPV virus
Dengue: Female Aedes mosquito
HIV/AIDS: Sexually transmitted; weakens immune system
Other: Measles, Influenza, Swine Flu (H1N1), Rabies, Bird Flu (H5N1), Smallpox
(eradicated)
Genetic Disorders Caused by gene malfunction or chromosome abnormalities:
Down Syndrome, Thalassemia, Sickle Cell Anemia, Colour Blindness, Turner’s
Syndrome (missing X in females), Albinism, Angelman Syndrome, Klinefelter
Syndrome (extra X in males)
Fungal Diseases Baldness, Athlete’s foot, Ringworm, Scabies, Asthma
Bacterial Diseases Plague (Yersinia pestis), Leprosy (Mycobacterium leprae), Tetanus (Clostridium
tetani), Whooping Cough, Gonorrhoea, Pneumonia, Typhoid, Anthrax, Cholera,
Syphilis, Acne
Vaccines: BCG (Tuberculosis)
Protozoan Diseases Malaria (female Anopheles mosquito; treated by quinine),
Sleeping Sickness (Trypanosoma),
Kala Azar (sandfly),
Others (Plasmodium, Leishmania)

HUMAN BODY SYSTEM

1. Circulatory System
Function: The circulatory system is responsible for transporting blood, nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide,
hormones, and waste products throughout the body to maintain homeostasis.
Components:
- Heart: A muscular organ that pumps blood. It has four chambers—two atria (upper) and two ventricles (lower).
- Blood Vessels:
• Arteries: Carry oxygen-rich blood away from the heart to the body.
• Veins: Carry oxygen-poor blood back to the heart.
• Capillaries: Tiny vessels where exchange of gases, nutrients, and waste occurs between blood and tissues.
- Blood: Contains red blood cells (carry oxygen), white blood cells (fight infection), platelets (help clot blood), and
plasma (fluid carrying nutrients, hormones, and waste).
Process:
- Oxygenated blood from lungs enters the left atrium, flows into the left ventricle, and is pumped through arteries
to the body.
- Deoxygenated blood returns through veins into the right atrium, moves to the right ventricle, and is pumped to
the lungs for oxygenation.
Additional Roles:
- Helps regulate body temperature by distributing heat.
- Plays a role in immune defense through white blood cells.
- Maintains pH and fluid balance.

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2. Excretory System
Function: The excretory system removes metabolic wastes and excess substances like water, salts, and urea from
the body to maintain chemical balance and prevent toxicity.
Components:
- Kidneys: Bean-shaped organs that filter blood to remove waste and produce urine.
- Ureters: Tubes that carry urine from kidneys to the urinary bladder.
- Urinary Bladder: Stores urine until it is ready to be expelled.
- Urethra: Tube through which urine leaves the body.
Kidney Function:
- Blood enters the kidneys through the renal artery.
- Nephrons inside kidneys filter blood, reabsorb useful substances (glucose, some salts, water), and excrete waste
in urine.
Additional Roles:
- Regulates blood pressure by controlling water volume.
- Maintains electrolyte balance.
- Helps regulate blood pH.

3. Respiratory System
Function: The respiratory system enables the exchange of gases—oxygen is taken in from the air and carbon
dioxide is expelled from the body.
Components:
- Nose and Nasal Cavity: Filters, warms, and moistens the incoming air.
- Pharynx and Larynx: Passageways for air; the larynx also contains the vocal cords.
- Trachea: Windpipe that directs air into the lungs.
- Bronchi and Bronchioles: Branching tubes that distribute air within the lungs.
- Lungs: Main organs where gas exchange happens.
- Alveoli: Tiny air sacs in lungs surrounded by capillaries; site of oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange.
Process:
- Air enters through the nose/mouth, travels down the trachea and bronchi into alveoli.
- Oxygen diffuses into the blood; carbon dioxide diffuses from blood into alveoli to be exhaled.
- Diaphragm and intercostal muscles control the volume of lungs for breathing.
Additional Information:
- Helps regulate blood pH by controlling CO2 levels.
- Protects respiratory tract with mucus and cilia to trap dust and microbes.

4. Digestive System
Function: The digestive system breaks down food into nutrients that can be absorbed and used by the body for
energy, growth, and repair.
Components:
- Mouth: Mechanical digestion (chewing) and chemical digestion (saliva enzymes).
- Esophagus: Muscular tube that moves food to the stomach by peristalsis.
- Stomach: Secretes acid and enzymes to break down proteins; churns food into chyme.
- Small Intestine: Main site for digestion and absorption; enzymes from pancreas and bile from liver aid digestion.
- Large Intestine: Absorbs water and salts; forms feces.

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- Liver: Produces bile to emulsify fats.
- Pancreas: Produces digestive enzymes and bicarbonate to neutralize stomach acid.
- Gallbladder: Stores and releases bile into the small intestine.
Process:
- Food enters the mouth, broken down by chewing and saliva.
- Swallowed food passes through esophagus to stomach.
- In the stomach and small intestine, food is chemically digested.
- Nutrients absorbed in the small intestine enter the bloodstream.
- Waste moves to large intestine and is expelled as feces.
Additional Information:
- Helps maintain fluid and electrolyte balance.
- Supports immune function by housing gut microbiota.

PHYSICS
Fundamental Quantities and SI Units
Below is a summary table of the seven fundamental quantities and their corresponding SI units, including brief definitions:
Physical Quantity Unit (SI) Definition
Length meter (m) Distance light travels in vacuum in 1/299,792,458 seconds
Mass kilogram (kg) Mass of a platinum-iridium cylinder at BIPM
Time second (s) Duration of 9,192,631,770 radiation cycles of Cs-133 atom
Electric Current ampere (A) Current generating 2×10⁻⁷ N/m between two parallel wires 1m apart
Temperature kelvin (K) 1/273.16 of the triple point of water
Luminous Intensity candela (cd) Light of frequency 540×10¹² Hz with intensity 1/683 W/sr
Amount of Substance mole (mol) Contains 6.023×10²³ particles (Avogadro's number)

Motion
1. Basic Definitions
• Rest: A body is said to be at rest if it does not change its position with respect to its surroundings.
• Motion: A body is said to be in motion if it changes its position with respect to its surroundings.
2. Types of Motion
• Translational Motion: Entire body moves along a straight line or a curved path.
• Rotational Motion: Body rotates about a fixed axis.
• Oscillatory Motion: Motion repeats in equal intervals of time (e.g., pendulum).
• Uniform Motion: Equal displacement in equal time.
• Non-uniform Motion: Unequal displacement in equal time intervals.
3. Scalars and Vectors
• Scalar Quantity: Only magnitude (e.g., speed, distance, mass).
• Vector Quantity: Magnitude + Direction (e.g., velocity, displacement, acceleration).
4. Important Terms
• Distance: Total path length (scalar).
• Displacement: Shortest path from initial to final point (vector).
• Speed: Distance / Time.
• Velocity: Displacement / Time.
• Acceleration: Change in velocity / Time

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5. Equations of Uniformly Accelerated Motion
For constant acceleration:
1. v = u + at
2. s = ut + 1/2 at²
3. v² = u² + 2as
Where: u = initial velocity, v = final velocity, a = acceleration, t = time, s = displacement
6. Graphical Representation
• Distance-Time Graph:
- Straight line → Uniform motion.
- Curved line → Non-uniform motion.
• Velocity-Time Graph:
- Area under curve = Displacement.
- Slope = Acceleration.
7. Free Fall and Gravity
• Acceleration due to Gravity (g): g = 9.8 m/s² (approx.)
• In free fall:
- u = 0, a = g
- Equations become:
v = gt
h = 1/2 gt²
v² = 2gh
8. Relative Motion
• Relative Velocity of A with respect to B: V_AB = V_A - V_B
• Same direction: Subtract speeds.
• Opposite direction: Add speeds.
9. Uniform Circular Motion
• Motion in a circle with constant speed.
• Direction of velocity keeps changing.
• Acceleration is directed toward the center (centripetal).
Important Points for Exams
• Displacement can be zero even if distance is not (e.g., round trip).
• If velocity is constant → acceleration is zero.
• Acceleration is positive in speeding up, negative in slowing down (retardation).
• A body under gravity falls with increasing speed (acceleration = g).

Work, Power and Energy

1. Work
• Work is said to be done when a force is applied on a body and the body displaces in the direction of force.
• Formula: W = F × d × cos(θ)
Where, F = force applied, d = displacement, θ = angle between force and displacement
• Unit: Joule (J)
• 1 Joule = 1 Newton × 1 meter
• Work is positive if force and displacement are in the same direction.
• Work is negative if they are in opposite directions.
• Work is zero if there is no displacement or if the force is perpendicular to displacement.

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2. Power
• Power is the rate at which work is done.
• Formula: P = Work / Time
• Unit: Watt (W)
• 1 Watt = 1 Joule / 1 second
• Higher units:
- 1 Kilowatt = 1000 Watt
- 1 Megawatt = 10⁶ Watt
• Horsepower (HP): 1 HP = 746 W

3. Energy
• Energy is the capacity to do work.
• Unit: Joule (J)
• Forms of Energy: Kinetic, Potential, Heat, Sound, Chemical, etc.

4. Kinetic Energy (KE)

• Energy possessed by a body due to its motion.
• Formula: KE = 1/2 × m × v²
Where, m = mass of body, v = velocity of body

5. Potential Energy (PE)

• Energy possessed by a body due to its position or configuration.
• Formula: PE = m × g × h
Where, m = mass, g = acceleration due to gravity, h = height

6. Law of Conservation of Energy

• Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, it can only be transformed from one form to another.
• Total energy in a closed system remains constant.

7. Commercial Unit of Energy

• 1 kilowatt-hour (kWh) = 1000 Watt × 3600 seconds = 3.6 × 10⁶ Joules
• It is used by electricity boards to measure energy consumption.

8. Work-Energy Theorem
• The net work done by the force on an object is equal to the change in its kinetic energy.
• W = ΔKE = KE(final) - KE(initial)

Gravitation
1. Gravitation
• Gravitation is the force of attraction between any two objects in the universe.
• It is a universal force acting between all matter.

2. Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation

• Every particle in the universe attracts every other particle with a force that is:
- Directly proportional to the product of their masses.
- Inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
• Formula: F = G × (m₁ × m₂) / r²
Where, F = gravitational force, G = universal gravitational constant,
m₁ & m₂ = masses of two bodies, r = distance between their centers
• Value of G = 6.674 × 10⁻¹¹ N·m²/kg²

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3. Gravity
• Gravity is the force with which the Earth attracts objects toward its center.
• Acceleration due to gravity is denoted by g.
• g = 9.8 m/s² near the surface of the Earth.

4. Factors Affecting the Value of g

• Height: g decreases with height above the Earth.
• Depth: g decreases as we go deeper into the Earth.
• Latitude: g is maximum at poles and minimum at the equator.

5. Mass and Weight

• Mass: The quantity of matter in a body; remains constant everywhere; SI unit is kg.
• Weight: The force with which a body is attracted toward the Earth; W = m × g; varies with location.

6. Free Fall
• When an object falls under the influence of gravity alone, it is said to be in free fall.
• Equations of motion under gravity:
- v = u + gt
- h = ut + (1/2)gt²
- v² = u² + 2gh

7. Thrust and Pressure

• Thrust: Force acting perpendicular to the surface.
• Pressure: Thrust per unit area; P = Thrust / Area; SI unit: Pascal (Pa)

8. Archimedes' Principle
• When a body is immersed fully or partially in a fluid, it experiences an upward force equal to the weight of fluid displaced by
it.

9. Buoyancy
• The upward force experienced by a body when immersed in fluid is called buoyant force.
• It depends on the density of the fluid and the volume of the displaced fluid.

10. Density and Relative Density

• Density = Mass / Volume; SI unit: kg/m³
• Relative Density = Density of substance / Density of water (no units)

Heat
1. Heat
• Heat is a form of energy that flows from a body at a higher temperature to one at a lower temperature.
• SI unit: Joule (J)
• Other unit: Calorie (1 Calorie = 4.186 J)

2. Temperature
• Temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of a body.
• It determines the direction of heat flow.
• Common units: Celsius (°C), Fahrenheit (°F), Kelvin (K)

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3. Thermal Expansion
• Expansion of matter due to heat.
• Types:
- Linear Expansion (length)
- Superficial Expansion (area)
- Cubical Expansion (volume)

4. Modes of Heat Transfer

• Conduction: Heat transfer in solids without actual movement of particles.
• Convection: Heat transfer in fluids by actual movement of particles.
• Radiation: Heat transfer in the form of electromagnetic waves without any medium.

5. Specific Heat Capacity (c)

• The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of a substance by 1°C (or 1K).
• Formula: Q = m × c × ΔT
Where Q = heat energy, m = mass, ΔT = change in temperature

6. Latent Heat
• The heat energy required to change the state of a substance without change in temperature.
• Types:
- Latent Heat of Fusion (solid to liquid)
- Latent Heat of Vaporization (liquid to gas)

7. Change of State
• Melting: Solid to liquid
• Freezing: Liquid to solid
• Vaporization: Liquid to gas
• Condensation: Gas to liquid
• Sublimation: Solid to gas

8. Thermal Equilibrium
• When two bodies at different temperatures are in contact and reach the same temperature.

9. Anomalous Expansion of Water

• Water contracts on cooling down to 4°C but expands below this temperature.
• This helps aquatic life survive in cold climates.

Reflection of Light
1. Reflection of Light
• Reflection is the phenomenon of bouncing back of light when it strikes a smooth surface.
• It follows the laws of reflection.

2. Laws of Reflection
• The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
• The incident ray, reflected ray, and the normal all lie in the same plane.

3. Types of Reflection
• Regular Reflection: Occurs on a smooth surface; reflected rays are parallel.
• Diffused Reflection: Occurs on a rough surface; reflected rays scatter in different directions.

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4. Plane Mirror
• Image is virtual, erect, and of same size as the object.
• Image distance is equal to object distance from the mirror.
• Laterally inverted image.

5. Spherical Mirrors
• Concave Mirror: Inward curved; converging mirror.
• Convex Mirror: Outward curved; diverging mirror.

6. Image Formed by Concave Mirror

• Depends on object distance from the mirror.
• Can be real or virtual, inverted or erect, magnified or diminished.

7. Uses of Mirrors
• Plane mirrors: Used in dressing tables, periscopes.
• Concave mirrors: Used in torches, shaving mirrors, headlights.
• Convex mirrors: Used in vehicle side mirrors for wider view.

8. Mirror Formula
• 1/f = 1/v + 1/u
Where f = focal length, v = image distance, u = object distance
• Sign Convention: Distances measured against the direction of incident light are negative.

9. Magnification (m)
• m = height of image / height of object = -v/u for mirrors
• If m > 1 → Image is magnified
• If m < 1 → Image is diminished

Refraction of Light
1. Refraction of Light
• Refraction is the bending of light when it passes from one medium to another with different optical density.
• It occurs due to change in speed of light in different media.

2. Laws of Refraction (Snell's Law)

• The incident ray, refracted ray, and normal lie in the same plane.
• n₁ × sin(i) = n₂ × sin(r)
Where i = angle of incidence, r = angle of refraction, n = refractive index

3. Refractive Index
• It is the ratio of speed of light in vacuum to speed of light in the medium.
•n=c/v
Where c = speed of light in vacuum, v = speed of light in medium
• Higher refractive index means denser medium.

4. Effects of Refraction
• Apparent shift in the position of objects.
• Pencil appears bent in water.
• Stars appear twinkling and raised sun during sunrise and sunset.

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5. Refraction through Glass Slab
• Emergent ray is parallel to the incident ray.
• Lateral shift is observed.

6. Total Internal Reflection (TIR)

• Occurs when light travels from denser to rarer medium and angle of incidence exceeds critical angle.
• Conditions:
- Light must travel from denser to rarer medium.
- Angle of incidence > critical angle.
• Used in optical fibers, prism periscopes.

7. Lens and Refraction

• Convex Lens: Converging lens; can form real and virtual images.
• Concave Lens: Diverging lens; always forms virtual and diminished image.

8. Lens Formula
• 1/f = 1/v - 1/u
Where f = focal length, v = image distance, u = object distance

9. Magnification by Lenses
• m = height of image / height of object = v/u
• If m > 1 → image is magnified
• If m < 1 → image is diminished

Sound
1. Sound
• Sound is a form of energy that travels in the form of mechanical waves.
• It requires a medium (solid, liquid, or gas) to propagate.

2. Production of Sound
• Sound is produced due to vibrations of objects.
• Example: Vocal cords, tuning fork, guitar strings.

3. Propagation of Sound
• Sound travels in the form of longitudinal waves.
• In these waves, particles of the medium vibrate in the direction of wave propagation.

4. Characteristics of Sound Waves

• Wavelength (λ): Distance between two consecutive compressions or rarefactions.
• Frequency (f): Number of vibrations per second; unit is Hertz (Hz).
• Amplitude (A): Maximum displacement of particles from mean position.
• Time Period (T): Time taken for one complete vibration.
• Wave Speed (v): v = f × λ

5. Speed of Sound
• Depends on the medium.
• Highest in solids, lower in liquids, and lowest in gases.
• Speed in air at 25°C ≈ 343 m/s

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6. Reflection of Sound
• Sound follows laws of reflection like light.
• Applications: Megaphone, stethoscope, hearing aids, SONAR.

7. Echo and Reverberation

• Echo: Reflected sound heard after 0.1 seconds.
• Reverberation: Persistence of sound due to multiple reflections.
• Minimum distance for echo in air = 17.2 meters.

8. Range of Hearing
• Human hearing range: 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz
• Infrasonic: < 20 Hz
• Ultrasonic: > 20,000 Hz

9. Applications of Ultrasound
• Medical imaging (ultrasound scans)
• SONAR for underwater navigation
• Cleaning delicate instruments

10. SONAR (Sound Navigation and Ranging)

• Uses ultrasound to detect underwater objects.
• Time for echo is used to calculate depth: d = (v × t)/2

Electricity
1. Electric Charge
• It is the property of matter that causes it to experience a force when placed in an electric field.
• SI unit: Coulomb (C)
• Like charges repel, unlike charges attract.

2. Electric Current (I)

• Flow of electric charge in a conductor.
• SI unit: Ampere (A)
• I = Q/t, where Q = charge, t = time

3. Electric Potential and Potential Difference

• Electric Potential: Work done to bring a unit positive charge from infinity to a point.
• Potential Difference: Work done to move unit charge between two points.
• SI unit: Volt (V)
• V = W/Q, where W = work done, Q = charge

4. Ohm's Law
•V=I×R
Where V = potential difference, I = current, R = resistance
• Current is directly proportional to voltage across the conductor at constant temperature.

5. Resistance (R)
• Property of a conductor to resist the flow of current.
• SI unit: Ohm (Ω)
• R = ρ × (L/A), where ρ = resistivity, L = length, A = cross-sectional area

17
6. Factors Affecting Resistance
• Length (R ∝ L)
• Area (R ∝ 1/A)
• Type of material
• Temperature

7. Resistivity
• It is the resistance of a conductor of unit length and unit cross-section.
• SI unit: Ohm metre (Ω·m)

8. Series and Parallel Combination of Resistors

• Series: R = R₁ + R₂ + R₃
• Parallel: 1/R = 1/R₁ + 1/R₂ + 1/R₃

9. Electric Power and Energy

• Power (P) = V × I = I²R = V²/R
• SI unit: Watt (W)
• Energy = Power × Time
• Commercial unit: kilowatt-hour (kWh); 1 kWh = 3.6 × 10⁶ J

10. Heating Effect of Electric Current

• Heat (H) = I²Rt, where I = current, R = resistance, t = time
• Applications: Electric heaters, electric iron, fuse wire

Magnetism
1. Magnetism
• Magnetism is the force exerted by magnets when they attract or repel each other.
• A magnet has two poles: North and South.

2. Magnetic Field
• The region around a magnet where its influence can be experienced.
• Represented by magnetic field lines that emerge from the North pole and enter the South pole.
• Magnetic field strength is stronger near the poles.

3. Properties of Magnetic Field Lines

• They never intersect.
• They form closed loops.
• Denser lines indicate a stronger magnetic field.

4. Magnetic Field Due to a Current-Carrying Conductor

• A current-carrying conductor produces a magnetic field around it.
• Direction is given by Right-Hand Thumb Rule.

5. Right-Hand Thumb Rule

• If the thumb points in the direction of current, the curled fingers indicate the direction of magnetic field.

6. Magnetic Field Due to a Circular Coil

• The magnetic field lines are concentric circles near the wire.
• At the center of the coil, the field is strong and almost uniform.

18
7. Magnetic Field Due to a Solenoid
• A solenoid is a coil of many turns of insulated wire.
• Magnetic field inside is strong and uniform, like that of a bar magnet.

8. Electromagnet
• A temporary magnet made by passing current through a coil wound around a soft iron core.
• Used in electric bells, motors, and cranes.

9. Permanent Magnet
• Made from materials like steel or alnico.
• Retains magnetism for a long time.

10. Earth’s Magnetism

• Earth behaves like a giant magnet with a magnetic field.
• Magnetic North and Geographic North are not the same.

11. Uses of Magnets

• In compasses, electric motors, loudspeakers, and magnetic storage devices.

Nuclear Energy
1. Nuclear Energy
• Energy released from the nucleus of an atom during nuclear reactions.
• It is a powerful source of energy used in power generation and weapons.

2. Nuclear Fission
• A heavy nucleus (like Uranium-235) splits into two lighter nuclei when bombarded with neutrons.
• Releases a large amount of energy.
• Used in nuclear power plants and atomic bombs.
• Chain reaction can be controlled (power plant) or uncontrolled (bomb).

3. Nuclear Fusion
• Two light nuclei (like hydrogen isotopes) combine to form a heavier nucleus.
• Occurs at extremely high temperatures.
• Releases even more energy than fission.
• Powers the sun and hydrogen bombs.

4. Einstein’s Mass-Energy Relation

• E = mc²
• Shows that mass can be converted into energy.
• c = speed of light = 3 × 10⁸ m/s

5. Applications of Nuclear Energy

• Electricity generation (nuclear reactors)
• Medical uses (radiation therapy)
• Agriculture (food preservation, pest control)
• Space missions (nuclear batteries)

19
6. Nuclear Reactor
• A device to control nuclear fission to produce energy safely.
• Key components: Fuel rods (U-235), moderator (graphite/water), control rods
(cadmium/boron), coolant.

7. Advantages of Nuclear Energy

• High energy output
• Low greenhouse gas emission
• Requires small fuel quantity

8. Disadvantages of Nuclear Energy

• Radioactive waste disposal issues
• High initial cost
• Risk of nuclear accidents (e.g., Chernobyl, Fukushima)

9. Radioactivity
• Spontaneous emission of particles or radiation from unstable atomic nuclei.
• Types: Alpha, Beta, Gamma radiation

The Human Eye

1. Human Eye
• The human eye is a natural optical instrument that enables us to see objects.
• It forms real and inverted images on the retina, which are interpreted by the brain.

2. Structure of the Human Eye

• Cornea: Transparent front part that refracts light.
• Iris: Colored part that controls the size of the pupil.
• Pupil: Opening that regulates light entering the eye.
• Lens: Transparent, convex lens that focuses light.
• Retina: Light-sensitive screen where image is formed.
• Ciliary Muscles: Adjust the shape of the lens.
• Optic Nerve: Sends visual information to the brain.

3. Power of Accommodation
• The ability of the eye lens to adjust its focal length to see objects at various distances.
• Done by the action of ciliary muscles.

4. Near Point and Far Point

• Near Point: Closest distance at which the eye can see clearly (for a normal eye = 25 cm).
• Far Point: The farthest point up to which the eye can see (for a normal eye = ∞).

5. Defects of Vision
• Myopia (Nearsightedness):
- Can see near objects clearly, far objects appear blurred.
- Corrected using concave lenses.
• Hypermetropia (Farsightedness):
- Can see distant objects clearly, near objects appear blurred.
- Corrected using convex lenses.

20
• Presbyopia:
- Age-related defect where the eye loses accommodation power.
- Corrected using bifocal lenses.
• Astigmatism:
- Caused due to irregular curvature of cornea.
- Corrected using cylindrical lenses.

6. Persistence of Vision
• The image remains on the retina for about 1/16th of a second.
• Basis for cinema and animations.

7. Power of Lens
• Power (P) = 100 / focal length (in cm)
• Unit: Dioptre (D)

CHEMISTRY
States of Matter
Concept Solid Liquid Gas Plasma
Shape Fixed shape No fixed shape No fixed shape No fixed shape
Volume Fixed volume Fixed volume No fixed volume No fixed volume
Particle Tightly packed, Loosely packed, slide over Very far apart, move freely
Very far apart, move freely
Arrangement vibrate in place each other (charged particles)
Density High density Moderate density Low density Low density
Compressibility Low Moderate High High
Examples Ice, wood, metal Water, oil, milk Air, oxygen, carbon dioxide Sun, lightning, neon lights
High density, low Highly compressible, low Ionized gas, conducts
Key Concept Can flow, moderate density
compressibility density electricity
Freezing (Liquid → Solid), Condensation (Gas → Not common, but can change
Melting (Solid →
Change Process Evaporation (Liquid → Liquid), Sublimation (Solid from gas to plasma via
Liquid)
Gas) → Gas) ionization

State Change Processes

State Change Process Example
Solid → Liquid Melting Ice to water
Liquid → Solid Freezing Water to ice
Liquid → Gas Evaporation Water to steam
Gas → Liquid Condensation Steam to water
Solid → Gas Sublimation Dry ice to carbon dioxide gas
Gas → Solid Deposition Frost formation

21
Effect of Temperature & Pressure
Effect Increase in Temperature Increase in Pressure
Solid Melting No significant effect
Liquid Evaporation Can become solid at high pressure (e.g., water to ice)
Gas Evaporation Can be condensed to liquid (e.g., gas to liquid)
Plasma Can form at very high temp Can be created with very low pressure

Key Concepts
Gas Laws Kinetic Theory of Gases Latent Heat
Explains the movement and energy of gas Heat required to change state (e.g., liquid to
Ideal Gas Law: PV = nRT
molecules gas)
Boyle's Law: Pressure and Heat required for fusion, vaporization, or
Gas molecules collide with the container's walls
volume inversely related condensation
Charles' Law: Volume and
Gas molecules speed up with heat
temperature directly related

Acid, Base, and Salts

Concept Acid Base Salt
Product formed when an acid reacts
Definition Substance that donates H⁺ ions Substance that donates OH⁻ ions
with a base
Taste Sour Bitter Salty
pH Less than 7 More than 7 Near neutral (7)
Reaction with Litmus
Red Blue No color change
Paper
Examples HCl, H₂SO₄ NaOH, KOH NaCl, KNO₃
Used in food preservation, Used in soap making,
Uses Used in fertilizers, medicine
cleaning, etc. neutralizing acids

Acid-Base Reactions
Acid + Base Reaction Product Example
Acid + Base Salt + Water HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H₂O
Acid + Base Salt + Water H₂SO₄ + 2NaOH → Na₂SO₄ + 2H₂O
Acid + Base Salt + Water HNO₃ + NaOH → NaNO₃ + H₂O

Types of Acids and Bases

Type Acids Bases

Strong HCl, H₂SO₄ NaOH, KOH
Weak CH₃COOH (Acetic acid) NH₃ (Ammonia)
Organic Citric acid, Acetic acid Calcium hydroxide

22
Neutralization Reaction

Reaction Example
Acid + Base → Salt + Water HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H₂O
Acid + Base → Salt + Water H₂SO₄ + 2NaOH → Na₂SO₄ + 2H₂O
Acid + Base → Salt + Water HNO₃ + NaOH → NaNO₃ + H₂O

Laws of Chemical Combination

Law Statement Example
Law of
When 10g of calcium reacts with 5g of oxygen,
Conservation of Mass can neither be created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction.
the mass of calcium oxide formed is 15g.
Mass
Law of Definite A given chemical compound always contains the same elements in Water (H₂O) always contains 8g of oxygen for
Proportions the same proportion by mass. every 1g of hydrogen.
When two elements combine to form more than one compound, Carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide
Law of Multiple
the mass of one element that combines with a fixed mass of the (CO₂) both contain carbon and oxygen, but in
Proportions
other is in simple whole number ratios. different proportions.
The pressure of a gas is directly proportional to its temperature (at At constant volume, doubling the temperature
Gay-Lussac's Law
constant volume). of a gas doubles its pressure.
Equal volumes of all gases, at the same temperature and pressure, At STP, 1 liter of hydrogen contains the same
Avogadro's Law
contain an equal number of molecules. number of molecules as 1 liter of oxygen.

Applications of Chemical Laws

Law Application
Law of Conservation of Mass Helps balance chemical equations and understand reactions in terms of mass conservation.
Law of Definite Proportions Used in preparing chemicals with known composition and in quality control.
Law of Multiple Proportions Used to determine the formulas of new compounds by analyzing their elemental ratios.
Important in understanding the behavior of gases under different temperature conditions in
Gay-Lussac's Law
chemical processes.
Avogadro's Law Used to understand molar volume and calculate the number of molecules in a given volume of gas.

Atomic and Molecular Masses

Concept Atomic Mass Molecular Mass Relation
The mass of a single atom of an element, The mass of one molecule of a compound, Molecular mass is the sum of atomic
Definition
expressed in atomic mass units (amu). expressed in atomic mass units (amu). masses of all atoms in a molecule.
1 amu = 1/12th of the mass of a
Unit Atomic Mass Unit (amu) or Dalton (Da) Atomic Mass Unit (amu)
carbon-12 atom
The atomic mass of Carbon (C) is 12 The molecular mass of Water (H₂O) is 18 Molecular mass = Sum of atomic
Example
amu. amu (2×1 + 16). masses of constituent elements.

Calculation of Molecular Mass

Compound Atomic Masses of Elements Molecular Mass
Water (H₂O) Hydrogen = 1, Oxygen = 16 Molecular Mass = (2×1) + 16 = 18 amu
Carbon Dioxide (CO₂) Carbon = 12, Oxygen = 16 Molecular Mass = 12 + (2×16) = 44 amu
Methane (CH₄) Carbon = 12, Hydrogen = 1 Molecular Mass = 12 + (4×1) = 16 amu

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Calculation of Empirical Formula Mass
Compound Empirical Formula Empirical Formula Mass
Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) C₆H₁₂O₆ Empirical Formula Mass = 6 + (12×1) + (6×16) = 180 amu
Hydrogen Peroxide (H₂O₂) H₂O₂ Empirical Formula Mass = (2×1) + (2×16) = 34 amu
Ethanol (C₂H₅OH) C₂H₅OH Empirical Formula Mass = (2×12) + (6×1) + 16 = 46 amu

Hydrocarbons
Type of
Saturated (Alkanes) Unsaturated (Alkenes & Alkynes) Aromatic Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbon
Hydrocarbons with only single Hydrocarbons with at least one double Hydrocarbons containing a benzene
Definition
bonds between carbon atoms. or triple bond between carbon atoms. ring (C₆H₆) or similar structure.
Example Methane (CH₄), Ethane (C₂H₆) Ethene (C₂H₄), Ethyne (C₂H₂) Benzene (C₆H₆), Toluene (C₆H₅CH₃)
General
CₙH₂ₙ₊₂ CₙH₂ₙ, CₙH₂ₙ₋₂ C₆H₆ (for benzene)
Formula
Relatively less reactive due to More reactive due to double/triple Less reactive but can undergo
Reactivity
single bonds. bonds. substitution and addition reactions.

Important Reactions of Hydrocarbons

Reaction Saturated Hydrocarbons (Alkanes) Unsaturated Hydrocarbons (Alkenes & Alkynes)
Combustion CH₄ + 2O₂ → CO₂ + 2H₂O C₂H₄ + 3O₂ → 2CO₂ + 2H₂O
Substitution Methane + Chlorine → Methyl Chloride + HCl Ethene + Bromine → Dibromoethane
Addition Not applicable Ethene + H₂ → Ethane

Uses of Hydrocarbons
Type of Hydrocarbon Uses
Alkanes Used as fuels (e.g., methane, propane), in the production of synthetic materials (e.g., polyethylene).
Alkenes Used in the production of plastics (e.g., polyethylene), synthetic rubber, and in the chemical industry.
Aromatic Hydrocarbons Used in the production of dyes, plastics, and pharmaceuticals.

Atoms, Molecules, and Compounds

Concept Definition Examples Key Features
The smallest unit of matter, composed Hydrogen (H),
Atom Atoms combine to form molecules.
of protons, neutrons, and electrons. Oxygen (O)
Two or more atoms bonded together Oxygen (O₂), Water Molecules can be elements (O₂) or
Molecule
chemically. (H₂O) compounds (H₂O).
Water (H₂O),
A substance formed when two or more Compounds have distinct properties
Compound Carbon Dioxide
different elements combine chemically. from the elements they are made of.
(CO₂)
A pure substance made of only one kind Iron (Fe), Nitrogen Elements cannot be broken down into
Element
of atom. (N) simpler substances.

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Types of Molecules and Compounds
Type Description Examples
Elemental
Molecules made up of only one type of atom. Oxygen (O₂), Nitrogen (N₂)
Molecules
Compound
Molecules made up of different types of atoms. Water (H₂O), Sodium Chloride (NaCl)
Molecules
Compounds formed by the transfer of electrons between Sodium Chloride (NaCl), Magnesium
Ionic Compounds
atoms, forming ions. Oxide (MgO)
Covalent Compounds formed by the sharing of electrons between
Water (H₂O), Carbon Dioxide (CO₂)
Compounds atoms.

Properties of Atoms, Molecules, and Compounds

Type Properties Examples
Hydrogen atom (H),
Atoms Smallest unit of matter, indivisible, retains chemical properties of elements.
Oxygen atom (O)
Molecules Two or more atoms bonded together, can be elements or compounds. Oxygen (O₂), Water (H₂O)
Made from two or more different elements combined chemically, have Water (H₂O), Carbon
Compounds
different properties from their constituent elements. Dioxide (CO₂)

Structure of Atoms
Concept Description Example Key Feature
Atom The basic unit of matter, composed of protons, Hydrogen (H), Atoms are the building
neutrons, and electrons. Oxygen (O) blocks of elements.
Proton Positively charged particle found in the nucleus of an Proton (p⁺) Mass of proton = 1 amu,
atom. charge = +1.
Neutron Neutral particle found in the nucleus, with a mass Neutron (n⁰) Mass of neutron = 1 amu,
slightly greater than that of a proton. charge = 0.
Electron Negatively charged particle found in orbitals Electron (e⁻) Mass of electron = 1/1836
surrounding the nucleus. amu, charge = -1.
Nucleus The central core of an atom, containing protons and Carbon nucleus Nucleus contains most of the
neutrons. (C) atom’s mass.

Bohr’s Model of the Atom

Concept Description Key Feature
Energy Levels Electrons revolve in specific orbits or The first shell can hold 2 electrons, the second 8
(Shells) shells around the nucleus. electrons, and so on.
Electron Electrons can jump between energy levels When electrons jump to higher orbits, they absorb
Transition by absorbing or emitting energy. energy, and when they fall back, they emit energy (light).
Quantized Energy is absorbed or emitted in discrete The energy difference between shells is quantized and
Energy quantities (quanta). defines the wavelength of light emitted.

25
Atomic Number and Mass Number

Concept Description Example

Atomic The number of protons in an atom’s nucleus, which Hydrogen (H) has atomic number 1, Oxygen (O)
Number determines the element. has atomic number 8.
Mass The sum of protons and neutrons in an atom’s Carbon (C) has mass number 12 (6 protons + 6
Number nucleus. neutrons).
Atoms of the same element with different numbers
Isotopes Carbon-12 (12C), Carbon-14 (14C)
of neutrons.

Solutions and Mixtures

Concept Definition Example Key Feature
A homogeneous mixture of two or Salt water (NaCl Solutions have uniform composition
Solution
more substances. dissolved in H₂O) throughout.
The substance that dissolves the Solvents can be liquids, gases, or
Solvent Water in salt water
solute, usually in greater quantity. solids.
The substance that is dissolved in the Solutes can be solids, liquids, or
Solute Salt in salt water
solvent. gases.
The amount of solute dissolved in a Concentration can be expressed in
Concentration 10% salt solution
given amount of solvent. molarity, molality, or percentage.
Sugar solution with A saturated solution is in
Saturated A solution in which no more solute
excess sugar at the equilibrium with undissolved
Solution can dissolve at a given temperature.
bottom solute.

Types of Mixtures

Type Description Examples

Homogeneous Salt water, Air,
Mixtures that have a uniform composition throughout.
Mixtures Vinegar
Heterogeneous Oil and water, Sand
Mixtures that do not have a uniform composition throughout.
Mixtures and salt
Mixtures where particles are dispersed but do not settle out and are
Colloids Milk, Fog, Gelatin
visible under a microscope.
Mixtures where the solute particles are large and eventually settle Mud in water, Flour in
Suspensions
out. water

26
Methods of Separating Mixtures
Method Description Example
Filtration Separation of solid particles from liquids or gases using a filter. Sand from water
Separation of components of a mixture based on differences in
Distillation Water from salt water
boiling points.
Separation of components in a mixture based on their affinity Ink separation into different
Chromatography
for a stationary phase and a mobile phase. colors
Separation of a solute from a solvent by heating the solution
Evaporation Salt from salt water
to evaporate the solvent.
Separation of components of a mixture by spinning it at high Separation of blood components
Centrifugation
speed. (plasma and cells)

Organic Chemistry
Concept Definition Examples Types
Compounds that contain carbon atoms, usually
Organic Methane (CH₄), Ethanol Alkanes, Alkenes, Alkynes,
bonded to hydrogen, oxygen, and other
Compounds (C₂H₅OH) Aromatic Compounds
elements.
Hydroxyl group (-OH) in
A specific group of atoms that imparts distinct Alcohols, Aldehydes,
Functional Group alcohols, Carboxyl group (-
chemical properties to an organic compound. Carboxylic Acids
COOH) in acids
Compounds with the same molecular formula Butane (C₄H₁₀) and Isobutane Structural isomerism,
Isomerism
but different structural arrangements. (C₄H₁₀) Geometrical isomerism
Saturated Hydrocarbons that only have single bonds
Methane (CH₄), Ethane (C₂H₆) Alkanes
Hydrocarbons between carbon atoms.
Unsaturated Hydrocarbons with one or more double or
Ethene (C₂H₄), Ethyne (C₂H₂) Alkenes, Alkynes
Hydrocarbons triple bonds between carbon atoms.

Important Reactions in Organic Chemistry

Reaction Type Example Type of Organic Compound
Substitution Reaction Methane + Chlorine → Methyl Chloride + HCl Alkanes
Addition Reaction Ethene + H₂ → Ethane Alkenes
Elimination Reaction Ethanol → Ethene + H₂O Alcohols
Condensation Reaction Ethanol + Acetic Acid → Ethyl Acetate + Water Esters
Oxidation Reaction Methanol + O₂ → Formaldehyde + H₂O Alcohols

Uses of Organic Compounds

Organic Compound Uses
Methane (CH₄) Used as a fuel and in the production of chemicals like ammonia.
Ethanol (C₂H₅OH) Used as a solvent, in alcoholic beverages, and in fuel (ethyl alcohol).
Acetic Acid (CH₃COOH) Used in vinegar, food preservation, and as a chemical reagent.
Benzene (C₆H₆) Used in the production of plastics, resins, synthetic fibers, and dyes.

27
 Types of Reactions
Type of Reaction Definition Example Key Feature
Two or more reactants combine to
Combination Reaction 2H₂ + O₂ → 2H₂O One product is formed from multiple reactants.
form a single product.
Decomposition A single reactant breaks down into two One reactant breaks down to form multiple
2HgO → 2Hg + O₂
Reaction or more products. products.
One element displaces another in a Zn + CuSO₄ → A more reactive element displaces a less
Displacement Reaction
compound. ZnSO₄ + Cu reactive element.
Double Displacement Two compounds exchange ions to form NaCl + AgNO₃ → Two compounds react to form two new
Reaction two new compounds. NaNO₃ + AgCl compounds, often precipitating a solid.
A reaction involving the transfer of Involves both reduction and oxidation
Redox Reaction 2Na + Cl₂ → 2NaCl
electrons between reactants. processes.

Key Concepts in Types of Reactions

Reaction Type Concept Example
Combination Two or more substances combine to form one product. 2H₂ + O₂ → 2H₂O
Decomposition One reactant breaks down into simpler products. 2HgO → 2Hg + O₂
Displacement A more reactive element replaces a less reactive one. Zn + CuSO₄ → ZnSO₄ + Cu
Double Displacement Two ionic compounds exchange their ions. NaCl + AgNO₃ → NaNO₃ + AgCl
Redox Electron transfer takes place with oxidation and reduction. 2Na + Cl₂ → 2NaCl

Applications of Types of Reactions

Reaction Type Application
Combination Used in the formation of compounds like water and carbon dioxide in combustion reactions.
Decomposition Used in the extraction of metals from ores (e.g., thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate).
Displacement Used in various industrial processes like galvanization and extraction of metals.
Double Displacement Used in preparing salts and precipitation reactions in water treatment.
Redox Used in processes like respiration, combustion, and electroplating.

Periodic Table Overview

Concept Definition Example Key Feature
A tabular arrangement of elements, ordered by their atomic Elements are grouped in
Periodic Hydrogen (H), Oxygen
number, electron configuration, and recurring chemical periods (rows) and groups
Table (O), Sodium (Na)
properties. (columns).
Horizontal rows in the periodic table. Elements in the same There are 7 periods in the
Periods Period 1: H, He
period have the same number of electron shells. periodic table.
Vertical columns in the periodic table. Elements in the same Group 1: Alkali metals There are 18 groups in the
Groups
group have similar chemical properties. (Li, Na, K) periodic table.
Elements that are good conductors of heat and electricity, Metals are found on the left side
Metals Iron (Fe), Copper (Cu)
generally malleable and ductile. of the periodic table.
Non- Elements that are poor conductors of heat and electricity and Oxygen (O), Nitrogen Non-metals are found on the
Metals have higher electronegativity. (N) right side of the periodic table.

28
Properties of Elements
Element Type Properties Examples
Lithium (Li), Sodium (Na),
Alkali Metals Soft, highly reactive, and have one electron in the outermost shell.
Potassium (K)
Alkaline Earth
Reactive metals with two electrons in the outermost shell. Magnesium (Mg), Calcium (Ca)
Metals
Metals with high melting points and good conductivity, found in the middle of
Transition Metals Iron (Fe), Copper (Cu), Zinc (Zn)
the periodic table.
Helium (He), Neon (Ne), Argon
Noble Gases Non-reactive gases with a full outer electron shell, found in Group 18.
(Ar)
Fluorine (F), Chlorine (Cl),
Halogens Highly reactive non-metals with seven electrons in the outermost shell.
Bromine (Br)

Trends in the Periodic Table

Trend Explanation Effect
Size of an atom decreases across a period and Decreases from left to right across a period, increases down a
Atomic Size
increases down a group. group.
Ionization Energy required to remove an electron from an
Increases across a period and decreases down a group.
Energy atom.
The tendency of an atom to attract electrons
Electronegativity Increases across a period and decreases down a group.
towards itself.
Energy released when an electron is added to an More negative (more energy released) across a period and
Electron Affinity
atom. less negative down a group.

Metals and Their Properties

Property Metals Examples Key Feature
Physical Solid at room temperature (except Iron (Fe), Copper (Cu), Metals are generally solids, except for Mercury
State mercury). Aluminum (Al) which is liquid.
Gold (Au), Silver (Ag), Copper
Luster Shiny appearance when polished. Metals have a metallic luster.
(Cu)
Good conductors of heat and Metals are excellent conductors, especially
Conductivity Copper (Cu), Aluminum (Al)
electricity. copper and aluminum.
Can be hammered or rolled into Metals can be hammered into sheets without
Malleability Gold (Au), Iron (Fe)
thin sheets. breaking.
Can be drawn into wires without Metals are ductile and can be stretched into
Ductility Copper (Cu), Aluminum (Al)
breaking. wires.

Types of Metals
Type of Metal Properties Examples
Alkali Metals Highly reactive, soft, low melting points. Lithium (Li), Sodium (Na), Potassium (K)
Alkaline Earth
Reactive, shiny, and have two electrons in the outer shell. Magnesium (Mg), Calcium (Ca)
Metals
Good conductors of heat and electricity, form various
Transition Metals Iron (Fe), Copper (Cu), Zinc (Zn)
compounds.
Noble Metals Highly resistant to corrosion and oxidation, rare and precious. Gold (Au), Platinum (Pt), Silver (Ag)
High density, often used in electronics and high-tech Lanthanum (La), Neodymium (Nd), Cerium
Rare Earth Metals
applications. (Ce)

29
 Non-Metals and Their Properties
Property Non-Metals Examples Key Feature
Physical Non-metals exist in all three states Sulfur (solid), Oxygen (gas), Non-metals can exist in all states at room
State (solid, liquid, gas). Bromine (liquid) temperature.
Dull appearance (except iodine which Non-metals generally have a non-metallic
Luster Sulfur (S), Phosphorus (P)
is shiny). luster.
Non-metals are bad conductors and are
Conductivity Poor conductors of heat and electricity. Sulfur (S), Carbon (C)
good insulators.
Non-metals are brittle in the solid Non-metals cannot be hammered into
Malleability Sulfur (S), Phosphorus (P)
state. sheets.
Non-metals cannot be drawn into
Ductility Carbon (C), Sulfur (S) Non-metals lack ductility.
wires.

Types of Non-Metals
Type of Non-Metal Properties Examples
Highly reactive, form salts when combined with metals, 7 electrons in the
Halogens Fluorine (F), Chlorine (Cl), Iodine (I)
outer shell.
Noble Gases Inert gases with a complete outer electron shell, very low reactivity. Helium (He), Neon (Ne), Argon (Ar)
Chalcogens Group 16 non-metals, some are essential for life, such as oxygen. Oxygen (O), Sulfur (S), Selenium (Se)
Non-metals that do not fall into the above categories, found in various Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P), Carbon
Other Non-Metals
compounds. (C)

Uses of Non-Metals
Non-Metal Uses
Oxygen Essential for respiration in animals and combustion in living organisms.
Nitrogen Used in fertilizers, explosives, and as a cryogenic liquid.
Sulfur Used in the production of sulfuric acid and in vulcanization of rubber.
Phosphorus Used in fertilizers, detergents, and pesticides.
Carbon Used in the form of graphite for electrical applications and diamonds in jewelry.

Inventions and Discoveries in Chemistry

Discovery/Invention Inventor/Discoverer Year Significance
Arrangement of elements by atomic number and properties. Led to
Periodic Table Dmitri Mendeleev 1869
the discovery of periodic law.
Discovered the electron, a negatively charged subatomic particle.
Electron J.J. Thomson 1897
Changed understanding of atomic structure.
Discovered radioactivity and isolated polonium and radium. Paved the
Radioactivity Marie Curie and Pierre Curie 1898
way for nuclear physics and medicine.
Revolutionized physics, impacting our understanding of space, time,
Theory of Relativity Albert Einstein 1905
and energy. Applied to chemical reactions and nuclear energy.
Bohr Model of the Introduced the Bohr model to explain electron orbits in atoms,
Niels Bohr 1913
Atom fundamental to quantum mechanics.
Developed the first synthetic polymer, changing industries like textiles
Invention of Nylon Wallace Carothers 1935
and plastics.

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 Discovery/Invention Inventor/Discoverer Year Significance
Frederick Banting and Charles Discovery of insulin led to diabetes treatment and saved millions of
Discovery of Insulin 1921
Best lives.
First successful nuclear chain reaction, leading to the development of
Atomic Bomb J. Robert Oppenheimer 1945
nuclear energy and weapons.
Discovered penicillin, the first antibiotic, revolutionizing medicine
Discovery of Penicillin Alexander Fleming 1928
and saving countless lives.
Joseph Priestley and Carl Discovered oxygen, crucial for respiration and combustion,
Discovery of Oxygen 1774
Wilhelm Scheele fundamental to modern chemistry.

Polymers
Concept Definition Examples Types
A large molecule formed by the combination Addition Polymers,
Polymer Polyethylene, Polystyrene
of many smaller molecules (monomers). Condensation Polymers
A small molecule that can join with other Ethene (C₂H₄), Styrene Monomers for Addition and
Monomer
monomers to form a polymer. (C₆H₅CH=CH₂) Condensation Polymers
The process of linking monomers to form a Polymerization of ethene forms Addition Polymerization,
Polymerization
polymer. polyethylene. Condensation Polymerization
Addition Polymerization where monomers with double Polyethylene (from ethene),
Addition Polymers
Polymerization or triple bonds are added together. Polypropylene (from propene)
Polymerization in which monomers join
Condensation
together by eliminating a small molecule (e.g., Nylon, Teflon Condensation Polymers
Polymerization
water).

Types of Polymers
Type Polymerization Method Examples
Polyethylene, Polystyrene, Polyvinyl Chloride
Addition Polymers Addition Polymerization
(PVC)
Condensation Polymers Condensation Polymerization Nylon, Teflon, Bakelite
Naturally occurring polymers formed by natural
Natural Polymers Cellulose, Starch, Rubber
processes
Biodegradable Polylactic acid (PLA), Polyhydroxyalkanoates
Polymers that can be broken down by natural organisms
Polymers (PHA)

Properties and Uses of Polymers

Polymer Uses
Polyethylene Used in plastic bags, bottles, and toys.
Polystyrene Used in packaging, insulation, and disposable cups.
Nylon Used in textiles, ropes, and carpets.
Teflon Used as a non-stick coating for cookware and in electrical insulation.
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) Used in plumbing pipes, flooring, and medical equipment.

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 Static G.K: Wetlands of India
• The Ramsar Convention was established in 1971 in Ramsar, Iran.
• India's Membership: India became a signatory to the Ramsar Convention on 1 February 1982.
• Ramsar Sites in India: As of now, India has 89 Ramsar sites, the highest in South Asia, covering diverse ecosystems across
the country.
• World Wetlands Day is observed annually on 2nd February.
• Tamil Nadu has the highest number of wetland.

Number
State/UT Notable Ramsar Sites
of Sites
Andhra Pradesh 1 Kolleru Lake
Assam 1 Deepor Beel
Bihar 3 Kanwar Lake, Nagi Bird Sanctuary, Nakti Bird Sanctuary
Goa 1 Nanda Lake
Gujarat 4 Nalsarovar, Thol Lake, Wadhvana Wetland, Khijadia Wildlife Sanctuary
Haryana 2 Sultanpur National Park, Bhindawas Wildlife Sanctuary
Himachal Pradesh 3 Pong Dam Lake, Chandra Taal, Renuka Lake
Jharkhand 1 Udhwa Lake
Karnataka 4 Ranganathittu Bird Sanctuary, Aghanashini Estuary, Magadi Kere, Ankasamudra BCR
Kerala 3 Vembanad-Kol Wetland, Ashtamudi Wetland, Sasthamkotta Lake
Madhya Pradesh 5 Bhoj Wetland, Sirpur Wetland, Sakhya Sagar, Yashwant Sagar, Tawa Reservoir
Maharashtra 3 Lonar Lake, Thane Creek, Nandur Madhameshwar
Manipur 1 Loktak Lake
Mizoram 1 Pala Wetland
Chilika Lake, Bhitarkanika Mangroves, Hirakud Reservoir, Satkosia Gorge, Tampara Lake,
Odisha 6
Ansupa Lake
Harike Wetland, Kanjli Wetland, Ropar Wetland, Beas Conservation Reserve, Keshopur-
Punjab 6
Miani Community Reserve, Nangal Wildlife Sanctuary
Rajasthan 2 Keoladeo National Park, Sambhar Lake
Sikkim 1 Khecheopalri Wetland
Vedanthangal Bird Sanctuary, Point Calimere WLS, Pichavaram Mangrove, Gulf of Mannar
Marine Biosphere Reserve, Kazhuveli Bird Sanctuary, Nanjarayan Bird Sanctuary, Karaivetti
Tamil Nadu 20
Bird Sanctuary, Longwood Shola Reserve Forest, Sakkarakottai Bird Sanctuary, Therthangal
Bird Sanctuary, and others
Tripura 1 Rudrasagar Lake
Upper Ganga River, Sur Sarovar, Nawabganj Bird Sanctuary, Saman Bird Sanctuary,
Uttar Pradesh 10 Samaspur Bird Sanctuary, Sandi Bird Sanctuary, Sarsai Nawar Jheel, Parvati Arga Bird
Sanctuary, Haiderpur Wetland, Bakhira Wildlife Sanctuary
Uttarakhand 1 Asan Barrage
West Bengal 2 Sundarban Wetland, East Kolkata Wetlands
Jammu & Kashmir
5 Wular Lake, Hokera Wetland, Surinsar-Mansar Lakes, Hygam Wetland, Shallbugh Wetland
(UT)
Ladakh (UT) 2 Tsomoriri Lake, Tso Kar Wetland Complex

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 Static G.K: Capital and Currency
Region Country Capital(s) Currency
South Asia Afghanistan Kabul Afghani
Bangladesh Dhaka Taka
Bhutan Thimphu Ngultrum
India New Delhi Indian Rupee
Maldives Male Rufiyaa
Nepal Kathmandu Nepalese Rupee
Pakistan Islamabad Pakistani Rupee
Sri Lanka Colombo (Executive), Sri Jayewardenepura Kotte (Legislative) Sri Lankan Rupee
Southeast Brunei Bandar Seri Begawan Brunei Dollar
Asia Cambodia Phnom Penh Riel
Indonesia Jakarta Rupiah
Laos Vientiane Kip
Malaysia Kuala Lumpur Ringgit
Myanmar (Burma) Nay Pyi Taw Kyat
Philippines Manila Peso
Singapore Singapore Singapore Dollar
Thailand Bangkok Baht
Vietnam Hanoi Dong
East Asia China Beijing Yuan
Japan Tokyo Yen
Mongolia Ulaanbaatar Tugrik
North Korea Pyongyang Won
South Korea Seoul Won
Middle East Bahrain Manama Bahraini Dinar
Iran Tehran Rial
Iraq Baghdad Iraqi Dinar
Israel Jerusalem Shekel
Jordan Amman Jordanian Dinar
Kuwait Kuwait City Kuwaiti Dinar
Lebanon Beirut Lebanese Pound
Oman Muscat Omani Rial
Qatar Doha Qatari Riyal
Saudi Arabia Riyadh Riyal
Syria Damascus Syrian Pound
Turkey Ankara Turkish Lira
United Arab Abu Dhabi Dirham
Emirates (UAE)
Yemen Sana'a Rial
Africa Algeria Algiers Dinar
Egypt Cairo Egyptian Pound
Kenya Nairobi Kenyan Shilling
Nigeria Abuja Naira
South Africa Pretoria (Administrative), Cape Town (Legislative), Rand
Bloemfontein (Judicial)

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 Region Country Capital(s) Currency
Europe France Paris Euro
Germany Berlin Euro
Italy Rome Euro
United Kingdom London Pound Sterling
Russia Moscow Ruble
Australia Australia Canberra Australian Dollar
South Argentina Buenos Aires Peso
America Bolivia Sucre (Judicial), La Paz (Administrative) Boliviano
Brazil Brasília Real
Chile Santiago Chilean Peso
Colombia Bogota Colombian Peso
Ecuador Quito US Dollar
Guyana Georgetown Guyanese Dollar
Paraguay Asuncion Guaraní
Peru Lima Sol
Suriname Paramaribo Surinamese Dollar
Uruguay Montevideo Uruguayan Peso

Quantitative Aptitude: Series

Arithmetic Progression (AP)
Concept 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒂
nth Term (Tn) 𝑇𝑛 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑
𝑛
Sum of n terms (Sn) 𝑆𝑛 =
2
× [2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑]
𝑛
Sum of n terms (Sn) (alternative) 𝑆𝑛 =
2
× (𝑎 + 𝑙)
Common Difference (d) 𝑑 = 𝑇𝑛 − 𝑇(𝑛 − 1)
First Term (a) 𝑎 = 𝑇𝑛 − (𝑛 − 1)𝑑
Last Term (l) 𝑙 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑

Geometric Progression (GP)

Concept Formula
nth Term (Tn) 𝑇𝑛 = 𝑎 × 𝑟 𝑛 − 1
(𝑟 𝑛 − 1)
Sum of n terms (Sn), r ≠ 1 𝑆𝑛 = 𝑎 ×
(𝑟 − 1)
(1 − 𝑟𝑛 )
Sum of n terms (Sn), r < 1 𝑆𝑛 = 𝑎 × (1 − 𝑟)
𝑎
Sum to Infinite Terms, |r| < 1 𝑆∞ = 1 − 𝑟
𝑇𝑛
Common Ratio (r) 𝑟 = 𝑇(𝑛−1)
𝑇𝑛
First Term (a) 𝑎 = 𝑟𝑛 − 1

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 Quantitative Aptitude: Co-ordinate Geometry
A point in the plane is represented as (x, y) where x and y are coordinates.
The plane is divided into four quadrants by the x-axis and y-axis.

Distance between two points (x₁, y₁) and (x₂, y₂) is:
Distance Formula:
Distance = √[(𝑥₂ − 𝑥₁)² + (𝑦₂ − 𝑦₁)² ]
Midpoint of line segment joining (x₁, y₁) and (x₂, y₂) is:
Midpoint Formula: 𝑥 1 + 𝑥 2 𝑦1 + 𝑦2
Midpoint = ( 2
, 2
)
Coordinates of point dividing the segment joining (x₁, y₁) and (x₂, y₂) in ratio m:n:
Section Formula: 𝑚 𝑥 2 + 𝑛 𝑥 1 𝑚 𝑦2 + 𝑛 𝑦1
Point = ( 𝑚+𝑛
, 𝑚+𝑛
)
𝑦2 − 𝑦1
• Slope (m) = 𝑥 2− 𝑥 1
Slope of a Line: • Horizontal line slope = 0
• Vertical line slope = undefined
• Slope-Intercept Form: y = mx + c
• Point-Slope Form: y - y₁ = m(x - x₁)
Equation of a Line: 𝑦 − 𝑦1 𝑥 − 𝑥1
• Two-Point Form: 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 = 𝑥 2− 𝑥 1
• General Form: Ax + By + C = 0
Distance of a Point Distance d of point (x₀, y₀) from line Ax + By + C = 0 is:
|𝐴𝑥 0 + 𝐵𝑦0 + 𝐶|
from a Line: d=
√𝐴2 + 𝐵 2

Area of Triangle 1
Area = 2 |𝑥₁(𝑦₂ − 𝑦₃) + 𝑥₂(𝑦₃ − 𝑦₁) + 𝑥₃(𝑦₁ − 𝑦₂)|
Formed by Points:
Conditions for
Points (x₁, y₁), (x₂, y₂), (x₃, y₃) are collinear if area = 0
Collinearity:
• Reflection about x-axis: If point is (x, y), its reflection is (x, -y).
• Reflection about y-axis: If point is (x, y), its reflection is (-x, y).
Reflection of Points • Reflection about origin: Point (x, y) reflects to (-x, -y).
• Reflection about line y = x: Point (x, y) reflects to (y, x).
• Reflection about line y = -x: Point (x, y) reflects to (-y, -x).
A circle is the set of all points equidistant from a fixed point called the center.
(𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 𝑟 2
Circle with center at origin (0, 0):
𝑥2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑟2
Radius Formula:
𝑟 = √[(𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 ]
Circle Concept
General form of circle: 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0
Center: (-g, -f)
Radius: √(g^2 + f^2 - c)
Tangent to a circle:
If tangent touches circle at (x₁, y₁):
(𝑥 − ℎ)(𝑥₁ − ℎ) + (𝑦 − 𝑘)(𝑦₁ − 𝑘) = 𝑟 2

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 For two variables x and y, a system of two linear equations can be written as:
a₁x + b₁y = c₁
a₂x + b₂y = c₂
where a₁, b₁, c₁, a₂, b₂, c₂ are constants.
Types of Solutions:
1. Unique Solution:
• The two lines intersect at exactly one point.
• Equations are consistent and independent.
𝑎1 𝑏1
• Occurs when ( 2) ≠ ( 2).
System of Linear 𝑎 𝑏

Equations
2. No Solution:
• The lines are parallel and never intersect.
• Equations are inconsistent.
𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1
• Occurs when (𝑎2) = (𝑏2) ≠ (𝑐 2).

3. Infinite Solutions:
• The lines coincide (are the same line).
• Equations are consistent and dependent.
𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1
• Occurs when (𝑎2) = (𝑏2) = (𝑐 2)

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