Module 1: Properties and Structures of Matter

PROPERTIES OF MATTER
How do the properties of substances help us to classify and separate them?

TYPES OF MATTER
Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space.

ATOMIC THEORY
In 1802, English scientist John Dalton presented the first atomic theory of matter and
proposed that all matter is made of tiny spherical particles that are indivisible and
indestructible. He accurately described elements as materials containing just one type of
atom which cannot be broken down into simpler substances and compounds as materials
containing different types of atoms in fixed ratios.

Subsequent experiments have found that atoms are not indivisible or indestructible and
atoms are made up of even smaller subatomic particles.

ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS

- Elements are made up of just one type of atom and can combine to form compounds
- Most non-metallic elements form discrete molecules, with a definite number of
atoms (e.g. sulfur forms a discrete molecule of 8 atoms)
- Some non-metals form covalent networks or giant molecules (e.g. carbon)
- Monatomic elements: helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon and radon (noble gases)
- Atoms in compounds can also form molecules, or a network of atoms

MIXTURES
HOMOGENOUS AND HETEROGENOUS MIXTURES
- Mixtures are combinations of two or more substances (physically combined)
o Have no definite composition; proportions of each substance can vary
- Homogenous mixtures are uniform in composition (e.g. salt water)
o Most well-known homogenous mixture is a solution (one or more solutes
dissolved in a solvent)
o A colloid is a mixture of particles that consists of smaller clusters of ions or
molecules (e.g. milk is a colloid of fat and water)
- Heterogenous mixtures have compositions that vary within the mixture (e.g.
pebbles)
o A suspension is a heterogenous mixture, with visible distinguishable parts
when a substance does not dissolve significantly (e.g. chalk in water)

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES

- Physical changes include processes such as filtering, distillation, change of state and
evaporation
o Cannot break up a compound into its component elements
- Chemical changes involve the production of a new substance, e.g. combustion,
decomposition, synthesis and electrolysis

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 o More difficult to reverse
FACTOR PHYSICAL CHANGE CHEMICAL CHANGE
New substances No Yes
Particles Stay the same (move differently) New particles are formed (atoms
are rearranged)
Reversal Usually easy to reverse Usually difficult to reverse
Energy involved Small energy changes Large energy changes
Examples Filtration, centrifuging, change of Combustion, acids on metals,
state decomposition by heat or
electrolysis

SEPARATING MIXTURES
The method used to separate out parts of a mixture depends on the differences between
the properties of its components. Properties of substances that can be used include:
- Particle size
- Solubility
- Magnetism
- Density
- Electrostatic attraction
- Melting and boiling point

Filtration
- A filter is a barrier that traps the solid components of a mixture while allowing the
liquid component to pass through
o Fluid that passes through is called the filtrate
- For a homogenous fluid mixture, it is often
possible to add a reagent or change the
temperature to make one component change
state to a solid, to allow filtration
- Examples:
o Within the kidneys, blood is filtered to
remove excess waste
o Reverse osmosis – fresh, drinkable water
is separated from sea water

Evaporation
- A liquid that easily becomes a vapour is said to be volatile
o A liquid’s boiling point is a measure of its volatility (more volatile = lower
boiling point)
- Evaporation can be used to separate
homogenous mixtures where one
component is not volatile
o As the liquid evaporates, the mixture
becomes more concentrated and the
solid eventually precipitates (e.g. salt
water)

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Decanting
- The process of carefully pouring off the liquid and leaving the solid undisturbed at
the bottom of the container
- Done after sedimentation (process where solids settle to the bottom of a container
in a mixture

Sieving
- Separates solid particles of different sizes

Distillation
- A method of separating two or more liquids from one another or of separating the
liquid from solids in a solution (purifying)
- A solution of liquids is boiled with the vapour formed being condensed back to a
liquid in a different part of the apparatus
o Composition of the vapour will be richer in the more volatile component and
the distillation process can be repeated to enrich the more volatile
component further
o The liquid collected is called a distillate

Fractional Distillation
- Used to separate liquids with similar boiling
points (e.g. air)
- Fractionating column allows for repeated
condensations and vaporisations up the column
- Eventually a pure sample of the more volatile
substance emerges from the top

Separating Funnel
- Two liquids are immiscible if, when mixed, they do not form a homogenous mixture
- Immiscible liquids are generally separated by a separating funnel

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GRAVIMETRIC ANALYSIS
Gravimetric analysis of a mixture is a technique to find the composition of a mixture by
separating out the components and weighing them.
- Allows us to calculate the percentage composition by weight of the component
elements or compounds
- Used in determining:
o Mineral content of ores
o Total dissolved chemicals in water
o Suitability of bore water for crops and animals
o Nutritional content of foods
o Composition of soils
o Pollutant concentrations in air and water
o Purity of products (e.g. medicines, industrial chemicals
o Accuracy of advertisement claims
- Slow technique (involves careful weighing of the initial sample and the isolated
components)

INORGANIC NOMENCLATURE
- Names of compounds are determined by the rules of the International Union of Pure
and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) where every compound is given an unambiguous,
systematic name and formula
- When a compound consists of atoms of two different non-metal elements, then:
o The element that is further to the left (less electronegative) of the periodic
table will come first in the name
o If both elements occur in the same group, the one lower down is named first
o An exception to the above two rules is that oxygen is named last in
compounds with Cl, Br and I
o The second non-metal has the end of its name changed (e.g. oxide)
o A prefix used to indicate the number of atoms of each element (e.g.
dihydrogen sulphide)
- When a compound consists of atoms of a metal and non-metal then:
o The name of the metal is used first
o The ending of the non-metal is changed as above
o Transition metals can have more than one valency, so this is indicated in the
naming (e.g. iron (II) oxide)

METALS, NON-METALS AND METALLOIDS

METALS METALLOIDS NON-METALS
- Usually solids at - Have some - Many are found as
room temperature properties of both gases, a few as solids
(except mercury) - Tend to be shiny, but and bromine as
- Lustrous brittle liquid
- Ductile - Can conduct heat - Not malleable
- Malleable and electricity, but - Not ductile
- Usually silver usually not as well as - Dull in colour
- Dense metals (semi - Not dense
conductivity)

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 - High melting and - Lower in melting and
boiling points boiling points
- High tensile strength - Poor conductors of
(can be stretched) heat and electricity
- Conduct heat and
electricity

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

Physical properties describe features that can be observed or measured without changing
the element.
- Appearance
- Colour
- Density
- Brittleness
- Electrical conductivity
- Magnetic effects
- Crystal shape
- Melting and boiling point
Chemical properties relate to how easily an element undergoes chemical change.
- Reactivity with water
- Acidic or alkaline
- How easily it burns

PROPERTIES AND POSITION ON THE PERIODIC TABLE

- Elements in the same group have similar physical and chemical properties due to the
arrangement of electrons within the atom
- Group 1 (alkali metals) and group 2 (alkaline earth metals) are active metals
o Shiny, silver solids, high melting and boiling points, hydroxides are strong
alkalis, activity increases down each group
- Elements in groups 3-6 become increasingly metallic as you move down the group
- Elements in group 7 (17) are active non-metals called halogens
- Group 8 (18) are the noble gases
o Inert gases, low melting and boiling points
- Activity of metals decreases across the periodic table
- Electrical conductivity decreases across the table
- Melting and boiling points increase then decrease across the table

ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND ATOMIC MASS

Why are atoms of elements different from one another?

ISOTOPES
- Different forms of an element with a different number of neutrons
- Have the same chemical properties but may have different physical properties (e.g.
mass and stability of nuclei)
- Relative atomic mass: average mass of the isotopes present in a sample of an
element

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 - Represented using the notation "!𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 where the top number is the mass
number and the lower number is the number of protons

RADIOISOTOPES
- An isotope of an element that has unstable atomic nuclei and emits alpha, beta
and/or gamma radiation

FACTOR ALPHA RADIATION BETA RADIATION GAMMA RADIATION

Structure Particles Particles Electromagnetic
radiation
Consist of 2 protons, 2 neutrons Electron High frequency
(He nucleus) radiation
Charge +2 -1 Nil
Ionising ability Good Fair Poor
Penetration Poor (2-10 cm in air) Fair (5 m in air, 2 mm in Very good (at least
aluminium) several cm of lead)
Deflection in Towards negative Towards positive plate Nil
electric field plate

- If the nucleus of an atom is unstable and breaks down, this is a nuclear reaction, not
a chemical reaction (not to do with
electrons)
- Stability of isotopes depends on:
o Atomic number - elements above
bismuth (83) are unstable
o Ratio of neutrons to protons – for
light elements the stable ratio is
1:1 and for heavy elements it is
1.5:1
- Nuclei are stable in the band/belt of
stability
- Radioisotopes may occur naturally or be
synthetic
o Naturally occurring radioisotopes
mostly have a nucleus that is too
large to be stable (elements from
84 to 92)
o Synthetic isotopes are usually produced by bombarding atoms with
subatomic particles (usually those with atomic numbers greater than 92 as
well as technetium (Z=43) and promethium (Z=61)
- Radioactive atoms decay at random so it cannot be predicted when an atom will
decay
- If there are a larger number of atoms, the number of atoms that will decay, on
average, in a certain period of time can be predicted
o The time taken for half of a sample of a radioisotope to decay is called a half-
life
o Decay in an exponential fashion

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 FACTOR ALPHA DECAY BETA DECAY
Consist of 2 protons and 2 neutrons Electron formed when neutron
disintegrates to form a proton and
electron
Change in Decreases by 2 Increases by 1
atomic number
Change in mass Decreases by 4 Stays the same
number
$%& $%( ( % % '
Equation #$𝑈 à #'𝑇ℎ + $𝐻𝑒 )𝐻 à $𝐻𝑒 + *)𝑒
Energy in the form of gamma rays is often released by the nucleus as it undergoes
radioactive decay. E.g. ,' ,' '
$+𝐶𝑜 à $&𝑁𝑖 + *)𝑒 + 𝛾

Uses of Radioisotopes
- There are about 3800 radioisotopes and about 200 are used regularly, particularly in
medicine and industry
- Technetium-99m in nuclear medicine
o Has a short half-life (6 hours) so it does not persist in the body and emits low
energy gamma radiation which can be picked up by a gamma camera but
does not harm the body
o Can be attached to biological carriers to concentrate in specific tissues or
organs and diagnose disease
o Can be used to detect heart abnormalities, tumours, stress fractures and
blood flow abnormalities
o Also used in industry to follow movement of things, such as sewage, factory
waste and sand
- Cobalt-60 in medicine and industry
o Emits high energy gamma radiation and has a half-life of 5 years
o Sterilisation of hospital supplies

RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS (AR)

- Compares masses of atoms to the most abundant carbon isotope (C-12) assuming it
has a mass of exactly 12 units à relative atomic mass scale or 12C scale
- Relative isotopic mass can be defined in two ways:
o The mass of an atom of an isotope measured on a scale where a carbon-12
atom has a mass of exactly 12 units
o The mass of an atoms of an isotope relative to one twelfth of the mass of the
carbon-12 isotope
- To find the relative mass of atoms of any element, the weighted average mass of its
atoms needs to be calculated
- Relative atomic mass (AR) can also be defined in two ways:
o The weighted average of the masses of an element’s isotopes on a scale
where the carbon-12 atom has a mass of exactly 12 units
o The weighted average of the masses of an element’s isotopes relative to one
twelfth of the mass of the carbon-12 atom
- E.g. if the bromine consists of 55% Br-79 and 45% Br-81:
(.. 0 +#)2((. 0 &))
o AR = )''

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 - Relative isotopic masses and isotopic abundances are determined using a mass
spectrometer which produces a mass spectrum

ELECTRON CONFIGURATION OF ATOMS

FLAME TESTS
- An analytical technique using the fact that when heated, atoms of different metals
emit different frequencies of light which are seen as different colours
- When atoms are heated, they give off EMR and if this passes through a prism, it
produces a spectrum with a black background and coloured lines
o This is called the emission spectrum and is unique for each element
- When energy is supplied to the atom, CATION POSITIVE RESULT
some electrons may absorb a Barium (Ba2+) Apple-green
quantum of energy and jump to a Calcium (Ca2+) Orange/red
higher shell (excited state) and when + 2+
Copper (Cu and Cu ) Blue-green
it falls back to its ground state, it Potassium (K+) Lilac
releases the extra energy as visible Sodium (Na )+
Orange
light

THE BOHR MODEL OF THE ATOM

- In 1913, Danish physicist Niels Bohr developed a model proposing that:
o Electrons revolve around the nucleus in fixed, circular orbits
o The electron orbits correspond to specific energy levels
o Electrons cannot exist between two energy levels
o Orbits of larger radii correspond to higher energy levels
- In the model, it is possible for electrons to move between energy levels by absorbing
or emitting light energy
- Bohr successfully used his theory to explain the observed spectrum produced by
hydrogen
o Calculated the predicted wavelengths of spectral lines and found that they
coincided with those he measured experimentally
- Limitations:
o Cannot accurately predict the emission spectra of atoms with more than one
electron
o Is unable to explain why electron shells hold 2n2 electrons
o Does not explain why the fourth shell accepts 2 electrons before the third
shell is filled

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ELECTRON CONFIGURATION AND THE SHELL MODEL
- Evidence for the existence of energy levels was obtained from studies of successive
ionisation energies in different elements
o Concluded that electrons are grouped in different energy levels called
electron shells
o Electrons in the same shell are about the same distance from the nucleus and
have about the same energy
- Different shells can hold different numbers of electrons and the arrangement of
electrons is called the electronic configuration
o Rule 1 – each shell can contain a maximum number of electrons
o Rule 2 – lower energy shells fill before higher energy shells
o Rule 3 – electron shells fill in a particular order (3rd shell can hold 18 electrons
but once it contains 8, the next two electrons go into the fourth shell)
- An atom’s outermost shell is its valence shell
o Valence electrons are involved in chemical reactions and atoms tend to lose,
gain or share these electrons based on the octet rule

THE SCHRODINGER MODEL OF THE ATOM

- ‘Quantum’ means ‘a specific amount’ à the energy of electrons is said to be
quantised, depending on which shell they are in
- In 1926, German scientist Erwin Schrodinger proposed that electrons behave as
waves around the nucleus and developed a model of the atom called quantum
mechanics
- Bohr viewed electrons as particles that revolve around the nucleus in circular orbits,
but Schrodinger viewed electrons as having wave-like properties
- In his model, the electrons occupy a 3D space around the nucleus, known as an
orbital
- Schrodinger determined the following:
o There are major energy levels in an atom, called shells
o These shells contain separate energy levels of similar energy, called subshells
(s, p, d and f) and each subshell holds a certain number of electrons
o The first shell contains only an s-subshell, the second contains s- and p-
subshells and so on
o Each subshell is made up of orbitals that are regions of space surrounding the
nucleus of an atom

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The Pauli Exclusion Principle
- States that each orbital can contain a maximum of 2 electrons and
each electron must have a different quantum mechanical property
called spin
- The total number of orbitals in a shell is given by n2, therefore the
total number of electrons per shell is given by 2n2

The Aufbau Principle

- States that the lowest energy orbitals are always filled with
electrons first

Hund’s Rule
- Every orbital in a subshell must first be filled with one
electron with the same spin before an orbital is filled with a
second electron

Exceptions
- Chemists calculate that there is little difference in energy between the 3d- and 4s-
orbitals
- Chromium: 1s22s22p63s23p63d54s1
o Slightly more stable as each of the five d-orbitals is exactly half-filled
- Copper: 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s1
o More stable as there are five completely filled d-orbitals

PERIODICITY
Are there patterns in the properties of elements?

THE PERIODIC TABLE

- Elements are arranged in rows (periods) in order of increasing atomic number,
numbered 1-7
- The number of valence electrons is used to organise elements into columns (groups),
numbered 1-18
- Number of valence electrons determines many of an element’s chemical properties
o E.g. alkali metals (group 1) are all relatively soft metals and highly reactive
with water and oxygen
- Four main blocks (s, p, d and f)

TRENDS IN THE PERIODIC TABLE

STATES OF MATTER
- Dependent on melting and boiling points, which in turn depends on the strength of
attractive forces between atoms or molecules
- Melting points increase across periods from groups 1-14 and then drastically drop
for groups 15-18
- Metals generally have high melting points and most non-metals have low melting
points
o Some exceptions: carbon has highest melting point
- Elements, in the s-block, except hydrogen, are solids

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 - d-block elements are all solids, except mercury
- All noble gases are gases at room temperature and the only other gases in the p-
block are nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine and chlorine
- Bromine is a liquid (melting point of -7°C)

CORE CHARGE
- A measure of the attractive force felt by the valence shell electrons towards the
nucleus
o Valence electrons are attracted to the nucleus, but this attraction is shielded
by inner shell electrons
- Core charge = number of protons – total number of inner-shell electrons
o E.g. core change of a chlorine atom is +7
- Increases from left to right across a period and remains constant down a group

ELECTRONEGATIVITY
- The ability of an atom to attract electrons towards itself
- The more strongly the valence electrons are attracted the nucleus, the greater the
electronegativity
- Decreases down a group (valence electrons are further away) and increases across a
period (core charge increases)
- Fluorine has the highest electronegativity

ATOMIC RADIUS
- A measurement used for the size of atoms – distance from the nucleus to the
valence shell electrons

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 o Usually measured by halving the distance between the nuclei of atoms in
molecules
- Increases down a group (more shells) and decreases across a period (core charge
increases)

FIRST IONISATION ENERGY

- The energy required to remove an electron from an atom to form an ion in the gas
phase
- Reflects how strongly the valence electrons are attracted to the nucleus
- Decreases down a group (more shells) and increases across a period (core charge
increases)

REACTIVITY
The reactivity of an element is an indication of how easily an atom of that element loses or
gains electrons.

Reactivity of Metals
- Measure of how easily an atom can lose electrons
- Reactivity increases down a group (valence electrons are further away) and
decreases across a period (core charge increases)
- The rate at which metals react with water indicates their relative reactivity
o Group 1 metals react vigorously with water
o Group 2 metals react less vigorously
o Groups 13-16 are not very reactive with water
o Group 17 reacts with water to form acids

Reactivity of Non-Metals
- The more easily a non-metal can attract or share electrons, the more reactive it is
- Decreases down a group (harder to attract electrons) and increases across a period
(increasing core charge)

TRENDS IN METALS TO NON-METALS

- Metals become more metallic (more active) down a group as they lose valence
electrons more easily
- Elements become less metallic across a period (nuclear charge increases)
- Non-metals have higher electronegativity than metals

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Group 1 Metals
- Very reactive so they never exist naturally as elements, only compounds
- Physical properties: soft, shiny, silver metals which can be cut with a knife
o High melting points
o Good conductors of electricity
- Chemical properties
o Release hydrogen gas when reacted with water
o Burn in air to form basic oxides
o Dissolve in water to form basic hydroxides

Group 2 Metals
- Very reactive so they are also only found as compounds
- Physical properties: shiny, silver-white, harder than group 1 and good conductors of
electricity
o Higher melting points than group 1 (stronger metallic bonding)
- Chemical properties: less reactive than group 1
o Combine with oxygen to form oxides
o React with water, releasing hydrogen gas and forming a hydroxide

Group 17 Non-Metals
- Halogens and their ions are called halide ions
- Most electronegative elements
- Physical properties:
o Exist as diatomic, covalent molecules (atoms are too reactive to exist alone)
o Vary in colour and state of matter
- Chemical properties:
o Very reactive so they occur naturally as compounds
o React with metals, gaining an electron to form metal halides which are ionic
o React with most other non-metals, sharing electrons to form covalent
compounds called halides
o React with hydrogen to form acidic hydrogen halides
o React with water to form acids

BONDING
What binds atoms together in elements and compounds?

ELECTRONEGATIVITY AND BONDING

- Electronegativity is measured on the Pauling scale, with values from 0.7 to 4.0
- The difference in electronegativity between two elements decides whether the bond
formed is ionic or covalent
o >1.5 = ionic
o <1.5 = covalent
THE METALLIC BONDING MODEL
The basis for the metallic bonding model is that, in a solid sample of a metal:

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 - Cations are fixed in a closely packed, 3D network
structure (lattice)
- Delocalised electrons move freely throughout the
lattice
o Inner-shell electrons are not free to move
and remain firmly bonded to individual
atoms
- Cations are held in the lattice by the electrostatic forces between these cations and
the delocalised electrons
o This attraction is called metallic bonding

EXPLAINING THE PROPERTIES OF METALS

PROPERTY EXPLANATION
Hard and have Strong electrostatic forces of attraction between the metal ions
relatively high and the sea of delocalised electrons holds the metallic lattice
melting points together
Good conductors of Free-moving delocalised electrons will move towards a positive
electricity electrode and away from a negative electrode in an electric circuit

Malleable and When a force causes layers of metal ions to move past one
ductile another, the layers are still held together by their electrostatic
attraction to the delocalised electrons between them
High density Cations in a metal lattice are closely packed
Good conductors of When delocalised electrons collide, they transfer heat energy
heat
Lustrous Presence of free electrons in the lattice cause metals to reflect light

LIMITATIONS
- Does not explain the range in melting points, hardness, electrical conductivities and
densities of different metals
- Does not explain the magnetic nature of metals, such as cobalt, iron and nickel

IONIC BONDING
PROPERTIES OF IONIC COMPOUNDS
- High melting and boiling points (solids at room temperature)
- Hard but brittle
- Do not conduct electricity in the solid state
- Good conductors of electricity in the liquid or molten state, or when dissolved in
water
- Vary in solubility
o Not soluble in non-polar solvents, such as oil

THE IONIC BONDING MODEL

- The properties of ionic compounds indicate features of their structure:
o Strong forces between particles
o No free-moving electrons
o Ions present, but they are not free to move in the solid state

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 o When an ionic compound melts, the ions are free to move
- When metallic and non-metallic atoms react, metal atoms lose electrons to non-
metallic atoms forming cations and anions
o Ions then arrange themselves into a 3D network or lattice
o The lattice is held together by strong electrostatic forces of attraction
between the oppositely charged ions (ionic bonding)
- Ionic compounds are made up of a continuous lattice of alternating cations and
anions, so they are not made up of discrete molecules

EXPLANING THE PROPERTIES OF IONIC COMPOUNDS

PROPERTY EXPLANATION
High melting points Strong electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions
Hard and brittle Strong force is needed to disrupt the crystal lattice, making it hard
and difficult to scratch. A strong force causes layers of ions to move,
causing a repulsion force between similarly charged ions.
Electrical In the solid state, ions are held strongly within the lattice and
conductivity cannot move. When ionic compounds melt or are dissolved in
water, the ions are free to move and conduct electricity.
Solubility Depends on the relative strength of forces of attraction between
the oppositely charged ions and between the water molecules and
the ions.

Connecting Physical Properties and Uses

- Hardness
o Calcium phosphate is a constituent of bone tissue that gives it strength
o Granite, limestone and sandstone are used as building stone
- High melting point
o Magnesium oxide is used to line furnaces
- Electrical conductivity
o Ammonium chloride is used as an electrolyte in dry-cell batteries
- Other uses
o Sodium hydrogen carbonate (baking soda) causes cakes to rise in an oven as
the compound decomposes to produce carbon dioxide
o Sodium hypochlorite is used in pools to kill microorganisms

POLYATOMIC IONS
- Ions made up of two or more atoms that have an overall charge
o Groups of atoms behaves as a single unit with a specific charge

POLYATOMIC ION SYMBOL

Carbonate CO32-
Dichromate Cr2O72-
Ethanoate/acetate CH3COO-
Hydrogencarbonate HCO3-
Hydroxide OH-
Nitrate NO3-
Permanganate MnO4-

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 Phosphate PO43-
Sulphate SO42-
Ammonium NH4+

COVALENT BONDING
A covalent bond is formed by electron sharing between non-metallic elements and most
covalent compounds consist of molecules. A molecule is a discrete group of atoms bonded
together by covalent bonds.

PROPERTIES OF COVALENT ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS

- Low melting and boiling points à some of the bonding in covalent substances must
be weak
- Absence of electrical conductivity in any phase à do not contain ions or delocalised
electrons
- Some are soft and malleable

TYPES OF COVALENT BONDS

- A covalent bond is formed between shared electrons and the nuclei of atoms
involved in the bond
- Single (e.g. H2), double (e.g. O2) and triple (e.g. N2)

Lewis Dot Diagrams

- Show the valence shell electrons of an atom
- Distinguishes bonding and non-bonding electrons
o Pairs of non-bonding electrons are called lone pairs

Polyatomic Molecules
- Water
o Oxygen atom shares two electrons and hydrogen atoms share one
o Two single covalent bonds and four non-bonding electrons on
the oxygen atom
- Methane
o Four hydrogen atoms are needed to satisfy the octet rule in the
outer shell of the carbon atom

NAMING COVALENT COMPOUNDS

- The least electronegative element is named first (further left and lower)
- The name of the second element is modified by adding ide to the end of its name
- Prefixes indicate number of atoms of each element (mono, di, tri, tetra, penta, hexa)
o ‘Mono’ is not used for the first element

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SHAPES OF MOLECULES
- Molecular shape determines how a molecule interacts with other molecules and
therefore, it affects melting and boiling point, hardness and solubility
- The shape of small molecules can be predicted using the valence-shell electron-pair
repulsion (VSEPR) theory
o Pairs of electrons repel one another to be as far apart as
possible
o E.g. the electron pairs in methane repel each other so they
are as far apart as possible, resulting in a tetrahedral shape
- Lone electrons are treated in the same way as electron pairs in
covalent bonds
o Lone pairs occupy more space than bonding
pairs so they decrease the bond angle between
bonding pairs
o Lone pairs are ignored when describing the
shape of the molecule (ammonia has a pyramidal shape)
- An electron domain (or electron cloud) can be a single, double or triple bond or it
can be a lone pair of electrons

e- DOMAINS LONE PAIRS SHAPE EXAMPLES

4 0 Tetrahedral CH4, NH4+, SO42-
1 Trigonal pyramidal NH3, PH3, SO32-
2 Bent H2O, H2S, SCl2
3 Linear HF
3 0 Trigonal planar SO3, BH3, NO3-
1 Bent NO2-, SO2, O3
2 Linear
2 0 Linear All diatomic
molecules, e.g. H2
1 Linear

ELECTRONEGATIVITY AND POLARITY

POLARITY IN DIATOMIC MOLECULES
- Electronegativity is the key factor that determines the electron distribution in
diatomic molecules
- Electron density is the measure of the probability of an electron being present at a
particular location within an atom
o High electron density around the nuclei and within bonds
- If the two atoms in a covalent bond have the same electronegativity, then the
electrons are shared equally à non-polar (e.g. H2)
o High electron density between the two atoms, forming a covalent bond
- If the covalent bond is between two different atoms, then the electrons will stay
close to the more electronegative atom à polar (e.g. HF)
o In HF, fluorine is more electronegative so the
imbalance in electron distribution makes the
fluorine atom negatively charged and the hydrogen
atom positively charged

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 o The separation of the positive and negative charges is known as an electric
dipole, or dipole, as there are two oppositely charged poles
o The level of polarity depends on the difference in electronegativities
o Partial charges on a polar molecule will always add to zero and these charges
are much smaller than charges on ions à intermolecular bonds are much
weaker than ionic bonds
o As the difference in electronegativities of two atoms increases, the covalent
bond increases in polarity and becomes more like an ionic bond

POLARITY OF POLYATOMIC MOLECULES

- Polarity of polyatomic molecules depends on the shape of the molecules and the
polarity of the covalent bonds. Generally:
o Symmetrical molecules are non-polar
o Asymmetrical molecules are polar
- Methane is an example of a non-polar molecule with polar covalent bonds as the
individual dipoles of the covalent bonds cancel each other perfectly

- Chloromethane is an example of a polar molecule where the individual dipoles do

not cancel each other out

- Polarity has a significant impact on solubility

o Polar substances tend to dissolve in polar solvents
o Non-polar substances tend to dissolve in non-polar solvents

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TYPES OF INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
DIPOLE-DIPOLE FORCES
- Only occur in polar molecules
- Result from the electrostatic attraction between the positive and negative ends of
polar molecules
- Relatively weak since the partial charges are small
o The more polar the molecule, the stronger
the dipole-dipole forces
- Strength of dipole-dipole forces is directly related to
the melting and boiling points of the substance
o Stronger dipole-dipole forces require more energy to break

HYDROGEN BONDING
- A special form of dipole-dipole force which occurs in molecules where a hydrogen
atom is bonded to an oxygen, nitrogen or fluorine atom
o Oxygen, nitrogen and fluorine atoms are small and highly electronegative;
therefore, they strongly attract electrons and create a significant partial
positive charge on hydrogen atoms
- Hydrogen only has one electron that is strongly attracted to the N, O or F
o The exposed proton is attracted to a lone pair on a N, O or F atom of another
molecule
- Creates an intermolecular bond that is approximately 10 times stronger than a
dipole-dipole bond but about one tenth the strength of an ionic or covalent bond

- Results in higher melting and boiling points

- Can explain why ice is less dense than liquid water
o Water has two hydrogen atoms and two lone pairs so it can form hydrogen
bonds with four other water molecules
o Hydrogen bonding holds the molecules in a regular crystal lattice where the
molecules are further apart than in liquid water

DISPERSION FORCES
- Caused by temporary dipoles created by the random movement of electrons
o Known as instantaneous dipoles
- Always present between molecules (both polar and non-polar)
- Strength of dispersion forces increases as the size of the molecule increases (more
electrons)
o Molecules that form long chains also tend to have stronger dispersion forces
than more compact molecules as they have greater surface area over which
to interact with other molecules

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 - In large molecules, dispersion forces may even dominate over dipole-dipole forces
and hydrogen bonding

ALLOTROPES
Allotropes are different structural forms of an element. They consist of identical atoms, so
they have the same chemical properties, but the different arrangement of atoms gives them
different physical properties.

CARBON
Allotropes of carbon include diamond, graphite and fullerenes which have the same
chemical properties, e.g. undergo combustion in oxygen.

Diamond
- Carbon atoms are arranged in a tetrahedron, where each carbon atom is joined to
four other carbon atoms by covalent bonds
- Tetrahedrons form a 3D network
PHYSICAL PROPERTY CAUSE
Extremely hard, but brittle The strong covalent bonds hold the
structure together firmly. It can be split
along crystal faces.
Very high melting point Held together by strong covalent bonds
which take a lot of energy to break.
Poor conductor of electricity All of the valence electrons are used in
bonding.
High thermal conductivity Atoms are held together very strongly

Graphite
- Each carbon atom only forms covalent bonds with three other carbon atoms, leaving
one free valence electron in each atom
o These become delocalised and allow graphite to conduct electricity
o Delocalised electrons move with the layers but cannot move between layers
- Structure of graphite is referred to as a covalent layer network
- Layers of hexagonal shaped rings of carbon atoms form which can slide over each
other
- Weak dispersion forces attract the layers of rings, allowing graphite to be used as a
lubricant and to write on paper
- High melting point as covalent bonds have to be broken

Graphene
- A single layer of graphite with the same arrangement as the layers in graphite
- Retains the electrical conductivity of graphite but is extremely strong and tough
- Potential uses:
o Replace silicon in computer chips and circuits due to high electrical
conductivity
o Use in desalination plants (water under pressure can pass through the thin
layer but undissolved impurities cannot
o Construct electrodes

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 o Reinforce composite materials

Nanotubes
- Closely related to graphene; have a long, hollow structure with walls formed from
graphene
- Diameter is around 1 nanometre while they can be millions of times longer
- Each end is capped by a half fullerene molecule
- Can be single-walled or multiwalled
- Properties:
o Extremely strong
o Electrical conductivity (depends on shape)
o Thermal conductivity
o Strong forces of attraction to one another
- Great promise in fields such as optics, nanotechnology and electronics

Fullerenes (Bucky balls)

- Nanostructures made from carbon atoms
- Consist of 60 or more carbon atoms arranged like a hollow sphere and held together
by strong covalent bonds
- Can be used as lubricants and coatings and to isolate chemicals from each other
o Act as ‘molecular containers’
o Used in drug and gene delivery to targeted cells
- Stable to heat but will sublime

PHOSPHOROUS
- White phosphorous (molecules of P4) is a white, waxy solid, is highly flammable and
can self-ignite when it comes in contact with air
- Red phosphorous consists of P4 molecules joined together to form a chain of
repeating units (called a polymer)
o Made by heating white phosphorous to 300°C, more stable and will not ignite
until the temperature reaches 240°C
- Black phosphorous is the most stable allotrope of phosphorous and is produced by
heating white phosphorous under very high pressures
o Each phosphorous atom is bonded to three other phosphorous atoms,
forming a covalent layer network
o Forces between layers are weak and has similar properties to graphite

COVALENT NETWORK STRUCTURES

Covalent network structures are covalent substances which exist as continuous 3D
structures. They have very high melting points and are very hard as the atoms are held
firmly in fixed positions.

DIAMONDS
- The crystalline appearance of diamonds and their high refractive index make them
sparkle

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 - Hardest naturally occurring material known à many industrial tools are diamond-
tipped to improve hardness and durability
- Carbon atoms form a continuous 3D covalent network structure à no weak
intermolecular forces present, only strong covalent bonds
SILICON DIOXIDE (SILICA SiO2)
- A major component of sand
- Each silicon atom is at the centre of a tetrahedron and
covalently bonded to four oxygen atoms
- Each oxygen atom is bonded to two silicon atoms
- As a result of strong covalent bonding, it is hard, has a
high melting point and does not dissolve in water or
organic solvents
- Widely used to make glass and ceramics

COMPARING METALS, IONIC AND COVALENT SUBTANCES

FACTOR METALLIC IONIC COVALENT COVALENT
MOLECULAR NETWORK
Description Tightly packed 3D crystal Discrete Sharing of
positive ions in lattice of molecules with valence
a 3D lattice cations and atoms held electrons
surrounded by anions held together by indefinitely to
a sea of together by covalent bonds. form a
delocalised ionic bonding. continuous,
valence lattice
electrons. structure.
Examples Sodium, Sodium Chlorine, Carbon, silicon
magnesium chloride, ammonia dioxide
magnesium
sulfate
Electrical Good Poor Poor Poor (except
conductivity graphite)
when solid
Electrical Good Good Poor Poor
conductivity
when molten
Electrical Insoluble Good Poor Poor
conductivity
when dissolved
in water
Hardness Hard Hard Soft Hard
Melting and Very high High Low Extremely high
boiling points

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