Module 2: Introduction to Quantitative Chemistry

CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND STOICHIOMETRY

What happens in chemical reactions?

STOICHIOMETRY
Stoichiometry relates to the quantities and ratios of chemical species in a chemical reaction.
It enables us to predict the yield of products and whether a reactant is limiting or in excess.
- Law of conservation of mass à chemical reactions only involve the rearrangement
of reactant atoms
o Closed system: a system where matter neither enters or leaves
o Law was first stated by French scientist Antoine Lavoisier in 1774
- All quantities should be expressed in SI units
- Volume can be converted to mass using the density formula

THE MOLE CONCEPT

How are measurements made in chemistry?

THE MOLE
- The unit for the amount of substance, given by the symbol ‘n’ and the abbreviation
‘mol’
- One mole of any substance is defined as the same number of particles as there are
atoms in exactly 12g of carbon-12
o This number is rounded to 6.022 x 1023 à Avogadro’s constant/number,
given by the symbol NA
- The relationship between the number of particles (N) and the amount of substances
!
in moles (n) is: 𝑛 = !
!

MOLAR MASS
- The mass, in grams, of 1 mole of a particular element or compound
o 1 atom of carbon-12 has a relative isotopic mass of 12
o 1 mole of atoms of carbon-12 has a mass of 12g
o Molar mass of carbon is 12.01
- The molar mass of a compound is equal to the relative molecular or relative formula
mass of the compound expressed in grams
" (%& '()"*)
- 𝑛 = ,, (%& ' "-."# )

PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION AND EMPIRICAL FORMULA

")** -/ 012 2.2"2&0 %& 3 "-. -/ 012 4-"5-6&7
- % 𝑏𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = "-.)( ")** -/ 012 4-"5-6&7
× 100
- The empirical formula of a compound gives the simplest whole number ratio of
elements in that compound
o Determined from the mass of each element present in a given mass of the
compound

Jessie Lu
 o Obtain mass of each element à calculate the amount, in mol, of each
element present à convert the mol of each element to a whole number ratio

MOLECULAR FORMULA
- Gives the actual number of atoms of each element present in a molecule
o Ionic compounds do not have molecular formulae because they do not exist
as molecules
- The molecular formula is always a whole number multiple of the empirical formula:
"-.)( ")** -/ 012 4-"5-6&7
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 = "-.)( ")** -/ -&2 4"5%(%4). /-("6.) 6&%0
- Determine empirical formula à determine molar mass of empirical formula and
compound à determine the number of empirical formula units in the compound

MOLE RATIOS
- Stoichiometric calculations allow you to use the mole ratio established in a chemical
equation to predict the amount of a product that will be formed and how much
reactant will be used
- A balanced equation tells us the ratio in which chemicals combine together when
they react, and the ratio of product formed

LIMITING REAGENT REACTIONS

- The limiting reagent is completely consumed in a chemical reaction and limits the
reaction
- The other reactant will be present in excess and some will be left over when the
reaction stops

CONCENTRATION AND MOLARITY

How are chemicals in solutions measured?

CONCENTRATION
- A solution is formed when a substance (solute) is dissolved in a liquid (solvent)
- The concentration of a solution describes the relative amount of solute and solvent
present
- A solution where the ratio of solute to solvent is high is said to be concentrated,
while a solution where the ratio is low is said to be dilute

MEASURES OF CONCENTRATION
- Mass of solute per litre of solution (g L-1)
")** -/ *-.602 (')
o 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 8-.6"2 -/ *-.60%-& (9)
- Moles per litre of solution (molarity)
"-.2* -/ *-.602
o 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 8-.6"2 -/ *-.60%-& (9)
&
o 𝐶 (𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐿:3 ) = ; (9)
Other measures of concentration:
METHOD UNITS DEFINITION WHERE USED

Jessie Lu
 Percentage by % (v/v) Volume of solute General labelling in
volume expressed as a percentage medicines and foods for
of total volume of solution liquid solutes
Percentage by % (m/m) Mass of solute expressed General commercial
mass as a percentage of total labelling for solid solutes
mass of solution
Percentage % (m/v) Mass of solute expressed Drinks
mass/volume as a percentage of the
total volume of solution
Parts per million ppm (v/v) Volume in millilitres per Environmental studies,
by volume kilolitre of solution such as air pollution
Parts per million ppm (m/m) Mass in milligrams per Environmental studies,
by mass kilogram of solution such as water pollution

DILUTION
- The process of adding more solvent to a solution à solution becomes less
concentrated, more dilute
- The amount of solute does not change, therefore:
o 𝐶3 𝑉3 = 𝐶< 𝑉<

STANDARD SOLUTIONS
- A solution of accurately known concentration is called a standard solution
- Find out the concentration of a solution by reacting it with a standard solution
- A primary standard is a solution that is made by dissolving an accurately measured
mass of a solute in a small amount of solvent and making up the volume to a
measured volume in a volumetric flask
- A primary standard is a chemical which:
o Can be obtained in pure form (common acids such as HCl and H2SO4 would
not be suitable as their concentration varies from batch to batch)
o Has a known chemical formula
o Is stable and does not change when exposed to air
o Is soluble
o Has a high molar mass (minimises effect of errors in weighing)
o Is inexpensive
- Examples of primary standards are:
o Basic: anhydrous (no water present) sodium carbonate (Na2CO3)
o Acidic: hydrated oxalic acid (H2C2O4•2H2O)
- To make a primary standard:
o Determine the volume and concentration needed and calculate the mass of
the chemical needed to make a solution with this volume and concentration
o Weigh accurately the mass of chemical needed
o Stir to dissolve this in a small volume of pure distilled water in a clean beaker
o Transfer this solution into the appropriate volumetric flask
o Rinse the beaker and stirring rod with distilled water, transferring all rinse
water to the volumetric flask
o Add water to the volumetric flask until it reaches the graduation on the flask
o Stopper, invert and shake well

Jessie Lu
 - A secondary standard is a solution whose concentration is determined by titration
against a primary standard

GAS LAWS
How does the Ideal Gas Law relate to all other Gas Laws?

PROPERTIES OF GASES
- No definite shape
- Gases diffuse (spread through other gases)
- Can be poured from one container to another
- Can be compressed
- Exert pressure
- Low density

KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY

Scientists developed a model to explain gas behaviour based on the behaviour of particles.
According to this theory:
- Gases are composed of small particles, either atoms or molecules
- The volume of the particles in a gas is negligible, compared with the volume they
occupy
- Gas particles move rapidly in random, straight-line motion
- Particles collide with one another and with the walls of the container
- Forces between particles are negligible
- Collisions between gas particles are elastic (kinetic energy is conserved)
- The average kinetic energy of the particles increases as the temperature increases
3
o 𝐾𝐸 = < 𝑚𝑣 <

GAS PRESSURE
Pressure (P) is the force per unit area on a surface.
- 1 Pa = 1 N of force acting on 1 m2 of area
- 1 atm = 100 kPa (pressure at sea level)
The factors affecting pressure in a container include:
- Temperature (average KE, collision strength and frequency)
- Number of particles (n)
- Volume of container
𝑛𝑇
𝑃∝
𝑉

Total pressure – the sum of the pressures of each individual gas

Partial pressure – total pressure multiplied by mole fraction of that gas

GAY-LUSSAC’S LAW OF COMBINING VOLUMES

When measured at constant temperature and pressure, the volumes of gases taking part in
a chemical reaction show simple whole number ratios to one another.
- French scientist Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac
- E.g. 100 mL of hydrogen reacts with 50 mL of oxygen to form 100 mL of steam at
temperatures above 100°C

Jessie Lu
 o 2H2 + O2 à 2H2O
Also found that: for a given mass and constant volume of an ideal gas, the pressure exerted
on the sides of its container is directly proportional to its absolute temperature.
BOYLE’S LAW
The volume of a fixed mass of gas at constant temperature, is inversely proportional to the
pressure.
- Irish scientist, inventor and philosopher Robert Boyle
o Trapped air in a curved glass tube using liquid mercury
3
- 𝑃 ∝ ; à PV = k
- P1V1 = P2V2
- Applications of Boyle’s Law:
o As altitude increases, the pressure on air in the ear
canal drops, while the pressure on the inside of the ear
drum does not change unless air moves into the middle
ear
o Air for deep sea divers must flow through a regulator so the divers receive air
at the correct pressure to counteract the pressure of the surrounding water
(prevents barotraumas – pressure related injuries)

CHARLES’ LAW
The volume of a fixed mass of gas, at constant pressure, varies directly with the
temperature, measured in Kelvins.
- Jacques Charles
o Experimented with manned balloon flights in 1783
- In 1802, Joseph Gay-Lussac published a paper based on his own
experiments showing the mathematical relationship between
temperature and volume
o He called this relationship Charles’ Law in honour of the
earlier work done by Jacques Charles
- 𝑉 ∝ 𝑇 à V = kT
; ;
- =# = =$
# $
- The temperature of an object is defined as the average kinetic energy of its moving
particles
o Absolute zero (-273.15°C) is a theoretical temperature where the particles
slow down to such an extent that they stop moving altogether and the
volume of the gas would drop to zero

AVOGADRO’S LAW
When measured at the same temperature and pressure, equal volumes of gases contain the
same number of molecules. At the same temperature and pressure, one litre of all gases
occupies the same volume.
- Explains Gay-Lussac’s law

COMBINED GAS LAW

When combining the gas laws of Boyle and Charles, the relationship between temperature,
pressure and volume is:

Jessie Lu
 𝑃𝑉 𝑃3 𝑉3 𝑃< 𝑉<
= 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑟 =
𝑇 𝑇3 𝑇<

THE IDEAL GAS EQUATION/UNIVERSAL GAS LAW

At everyday temperatures and pressures, gases obey the ideal (or universal gas law):
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇
Where:
- P = pressure (kPa)
- V = volume (L)
- n = number of moles
- R = universal gas constant = 8.314 J mol-1 K-1
- T = temperature (K)

IDEAL AND NON-IDEAL GASES

- The concept of an ideal gas is a theoretical model and the kinetic theory assumes all
gases fit the ideal gas model
- An ideal gas would be one in which:
o The gas particles have no volume
o There would be no forces between gas particles
o Any collisions between particles would be elastic
- Generally, a gas behaves more like an ideal gas at higher temperatures and lower
pressure, as intermolecular forces become less significant compared to KE and the
size of the molecules becomes less significant compared to the empty space
- Most gases are considered to be obeying the law
- Gases do not behave as ideal gases when the pressure is very high, or the
temperature is very low
o Particles are more closely packed and the volume of the particles becomes
more significant compared to total volume
- Hydrogen and helium most closely approximate ideal gas behaviour

MOLAR VOLUME
- Molar volume is defined as the volume occupied by one mole of an ideal gas at a
given temperature and pressure
o Unit is L mol-1
;
- 𝑛=;
%
o V = volume of gas at a specific temperature
o VM = molar volume under the same conditions
- The mole is the amount of gas that occupies:
o 24.79 L at 25°C and 100 kPa à standard laboratory conditions (SLC)
o 22.71 L at 0°C and 100 kPa à standard temperature and pressure (STP)

Jessie Lu