CPE 541 Control Theory II Lecture I

Definition of Root locus:

• The root locus technique was introduced by Evans in 1948

• The root locus is the path of the roots of the characteristic equation traced out
in the s-plane as a system parameter varies from zero to infinity.

or

• The root locus technique is a graphical method for sketching the locus of roots
of system characteristic equation in the s-plane as a parameter is varied.

The root locus is a powerful tool for designing and analysing feedback control systems
because it:

o provides graphical information

o can be used to obtain qualitative information concerning the stability

o provides the engineer with a measure of the sensitivity of the roots of the system
to a variation in the parameter being considered.

o can be used to described the performance of a feedback system in terms of the

location of the roots of the characteristic equation in the s-plane.

o can be readily used to ascertained the necessary parameter adjustments

The characteristic equation is important to determine the stability, the further away the
roots are to the imaginary side the less oscillatory and the more stable it becomes.
When it gets to the imaginary axis it oscillates continuously.

R(s) + E(s) C(s)

G(s)
−

H(s)

1
𝑅(𝑠) = 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡

𝐺(𝑠) = 𝐹𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑇𝐹)

𝐶(𝑠) = 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡

𝐻(𝑠) = 𝐹𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑇𝐹)

𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) = 𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑛 − 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑇𝐹

𝐶(𝑠)
= 𝐶𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 − 𝐿𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑇𝐹
𝑅(𝑠)
As stated before, root locus is a graphical technique for determining the roots of the
closed loop characteristic equation of a system as a function of the static gain i.e. the
characteristic equation is written as
1 + 𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) = 0 (1)

where 𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠), is a function of gain 𝐾,

Then the root locus is a plot of the values of 𝑠 (or roots) of equation (1) on a 𝑠 plane
as 𝐾 varies.
Consider a simple system where;
𝐾
𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) = 𝑠(𝑠+2) 𝐾≥0

The characteristic equation is

𝐾
1 + 𝑠(𝑠+2) = 0
That is

𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 𝐾 = 0 (2)

−2±√4−4𝐾
𝑠= 2

= −1 ± √1 − 𝐾
For each 𝐾 there are 2 roots
(From the loop equation as can be determined, the stability of the system is
determine on whether any of the roots fall on the right hand side (r.h.s) of 𝑠 plane)
When 𝐾 < 1 the roots are real
When 𝐾 = 1 there are two equal roots
When 𝐾 > 1 there are two complex conjugate roots with the real part remaining
constant.
For example:

2
when 𝐾 = 0, 𝑠1 = 0, 𝑠2 = −2
when 𝐾 = 0.5, 𝑠1 = −1 + √0.5, 𝑠2 = −1 − √0.5
when 𝐾 = 1, 𝑠1 = 𝑠2 = −1
when 𝐾 = 5, 𝑠1 = −1 + 𝑗2, 𝑠2 = −1 − 𝑗2

Figure 2: Plot of the roots of the characteristic equation as 𝐾 varies

For any particular value of 𝐾, stability is determined by whether or not there are roots
in the right hand side of 𝑗𝜔 axis on 𝑠 plane.
Consider the feedback system shown in Figure 1, in order to find the roots of the
closed loop transfer function, we required that:
1 + 𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) = 0
i.e 𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) = −1 = 1∠(2𝑛 + 1)𝜋 (3)
where 𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2 … … ..
equation (3) implies that the existence of a root of the characteristic equation,
i. the angle of 𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) must be an odd multiple of 𝜋
∠𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) = (2𝑛 + 1)𝜋 for 𝐾 > 0
ii. the magnitude must be unity
|𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠)| = 1 (4)

Definition of “Open loop poles and zeros giving a T.F

𝐾(𝑠+𝜏1 )(𝑠+𝜏3 )
𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) = (𝑠+𝜏 (5)
2 )(𝑠+𝜏4 )(𝑠+𝜏6 )

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(i) The open loop poles are the roots of the characteristic equation

1 + 𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) = 0, when 𝐾 = 0

In equation (5), this means the roots of

𝐾(𝑠+𝜏1 )(𝑠+𝜏3 )
1 + (𝑠+𝜏 =0 (6)
2 )(𝑠+𝜏4 )(𝑠+𝜏6 )
This gives 𝑠 = −𝜏2 , 𝑠 = −𝜏4 , 𝑠 = −𝜏6 e.t.c are the open loop poles
(ii) The open loop zeros are the roots of the characteristics equation as 𝐾 → ∞
From equation (3) this gives 𝑠 = −𝜏1 , 𝑠 = −𝜏3, 𝑠 = −𝜏5 e.t.c

Graphical rotation in the application of the magnitude and angle

condition

Figure 3: The system poles and zeros in the 𝑠 plane

Consider open loop poles and zeros as shown in the diagram of Figure 3
Recall |𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠)| = 1
(1 + 2𝑚)180𝑜 𝐾 > 0
∠𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) = { (7)
(𝑚)360𝑜 𝐾< 0
𝑚 = 0, ±1, ±2 … … ..
If the point 𝑠 is on the root locus, then
|𝐾||(𝑠−𝑧1 )|
|(𝑠−𝑝𝑜 )||(𝑠−𝑝1 )|
=1
|(𝑠−𝑝𝑜 )||(𝑠−𝑝1 )| |𝑙1 ||𝑙2 |
i.e at 𝑠, |𝐾| = |(𝑠−𝑧1 )|
= |𝑙3 |

Also angle contribution at 𝑠 is given by

(1 + 2𝑚)180𝑜 𝐾 > 0
𝛽 = 𝜑1 + 𝜑2 − 𝜑3 = {
(𝑚)360𝑜 𝐾< 0

4
All angles are considered positive measured in the clockwise sense or
𝛽 = (∠𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 − ∠𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟)
Note that poles angle is positive and zeros angle is negative

CONSTRUCTION RULES FOR THE ROOT LOCUS

Rule 1: No of Branches
A branch is any locus from 𝐾 = 0 to 𝐾 = ∞ (or 𝐾 = 0 to 𝐾 = −∞).
The number of locus (branches) equals the order of the characteristic equation i.e.,
equals the order of the 𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠). Each branch of the root locus described the
motion of a particular pole of the closed-loop system as the gain is varied.

Rule 2: Open loop Poles and Zeros

The open loop poles define the start of the root locus (𝐾 = 0) and the open loop
zeros define the termination of the root locus (𝐾 = ∞), (N.B. if the numerator is
greater than the denominator, the root locus starts at infinity). The open loop poles
or zeros may be at infinity.
Rule 3: Real Axis Locus
Sections of the real axis are part of the root locus if the number of poles and zeros to
the right of an exploratory point along the real axis is odd
Rule 4: Complex Conjugate
Complex portions of the root locus always occur as complex-conjugate pairs if the
characteristic equation is a rational function of 𝑠 having real coefficients
Rule 5: Asymptotes of Locus as 𝑠 approaches infinity

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Figure 4: Plot of the asymptote on the complex plain
Angle of asymptote:
Angle of asymptote is given by
(2𝑚+1)𝜋
𝛾=± 𝑝−𝑧

where 𝑝 = no of open-loop poles, 𝑧 = no of open-loop zeros

𝑚 = 0, 1, 2 … … 𝑢𝑝 𝑡𝑜 𝑚 = 𝑝 − 𝑧 − 1

Rule 6: Real Axis Intercept of the Asymptotes

The intersection of the asymptotes and the real axis occurs along the real axis at 𝑠𝛾
∑𝑣𝑐=1 𝑅𝑒 (𝑝𝑐 )−∑𝑤
𝑚=1 𝑅𝑒 (𝑧𝑚 )
where, 𝑠𝛾 = 𝑣−𝑤

𝑐 and 𝑚 are the number of real part of the pole and zero; and 𝑣 and 𝑤 are the
maximum number of real part of the pole and zero of the open-loop transfer function.
Rule 7 Break away Point on the Real Axis

1 + 𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) = 𝑓(𝐾)
𝑑𝐾
The breakaway point is obtained by equating 𝑑𝑠 to zero, where 𝑠 is now real and
finding the roots (there are other methods for finding the breakaway point on the real
axis)

Rule 8: Intersection of the Root Locus and the imaginary axis

The intersection can be obtained by applying the Routh-Hurwitz (R.H) stability
criterion to the characteristic equation.
For example, if the characteristic equation is
𝑠 3 + 9𝑠 2 + 20𝑠 + 𝐾 = 0
The R.H. array is
𝑠3 1 20
𝑠2 9 K
𝑠1 180 - K
9
0 K
𝑠

A pair of complex conjugate poles crossing the imaginary axis is indicated when the
𝑠1 row is equal to zero
180−𝐾
i.e. =0
9

6
 𝐾 = 180
This imply the system is stable for all gains up to a value of 180. The value of the
roots at the 𝑗𝜔 crossing is obtained from the 𝑠 2 row by writing the auxiliary equation
9𝑠 2 + 𝐾 = 0
𝑠 = ±𝑗√20
= ±𝑗4.48

Rule 9: angle of departure from complex pole (or angle of approach to a Complex
Zero)

Angle of departure or approach is the domain in which the root locus leave a complex
pole or enters a complex zero.

Note
𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) = 𝐹𝑒 −𝑗𝛽
𝐹 = |𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠)| = 1
−𝛽 = (1 + 2𝑚)𝜋
−𝛽 = ∑(∠𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟) − ∑(∠𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟)
(1 + 2𝑚)180𝑜 𝐾 > 0
−𝛽 = {
(𝑚)360𝑜 𝐾< 0
𝛽 = ∑(∠𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟) − ∑(∠𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟)

−(1 + 2𝑚)180𝑜 𝐾 > 0

𝛽={
−(𝑚)360𝑜 𝐾< 0
Taking anticlockwise to be positive i.e. reading from horizontal to locus as true angle
we can obtain
𝛽 = ∑(∠𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠) − ∑(∠𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠) = (1 + 2𝑚)180𝑜

Since traditionally the angle is from the locus to horizontal

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Figure 5:

e.g. angle of departure 𝜑2 from pole 𝑝2 is give

𝜑0 + 𝜑1 + 𝜑2 + 𝜑3 − Ψ1 = (1 + 2𝑚)180𝑜
𝜑2 = (1 + 2𝑚)180𝑜 − (𝜑0 + 𝜑3 + 90𝑜 − Ψ1 )

Figure 6:

Angle of approach to a complex zero angle of approach of 𝜑1 to 𝑧1 is given by

𝜑0 + 𝜑1 + 𝜑2 − 90𝑜 − Ψ1 = (1 + 2𝑚)180𝑜
Ψ1 = (𝜑0 + 𝜑1 + 𝜑2 − 90𝑜 ) − (1 + 2𝑚)180𝑜

EXAMPLE
𝐾
Let 𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) = 𝑠(𝑠+4)(𝑠+5)

Rule 1: No of pole = 3 no of branches = 3

8
Or since the characteristic equation is a 3rd order equation there are 3 branches
each starting from a pole (at either finite or infinite position) and ending at a zero (at
either finite or infinite position)
Rule 2:
The open-loop poles are at 0, - 4, - 5,
i.e. root locus starts (𝐾 = 0) from 0, - 4 – 5 for this problem since there are no finite
zero, all loci terminate (𝐾 = ∞) at zeros which are located at infinity.
Rule 3:
The portions of the real axis between -4 and 0, and also between - ∞ to – 5 are part
of the root locus.

Rule 4:
The portions of the root locus occur in complex conjugate pairs
Rule 5:
The 3 loci approach infinite as 𝐾 becomes large at angles given by
(2𝑚+1)𝜋
𝛾=± for 𝑚 = 0, 1, 2 … … 𝑢𝑝 𝑡𝑜 𝑚 = 𝑝 − 𝑧 − 1
𝑝−𝑧

180𝑜 3×180𝑜 5×180𝑜

𝛾=± , ± ,±
3 3 3

= ±60𝑜 , ±180𝑜 , ±300𝑜

Rule 6:
Intersection of the asymptotes and the real axis occurs along the real axis at

(−4−5)−0
𝑠𝛾 = = −3
3−0

Recall
∑𝑣𝑐=1 𝑅𝑒 (𝑝𝑐 )−∑𝑤
𝑚=1 𝑅𝑒 (𝑧𝑚 )
𝑠𝛾 = 𝑣−𝑤

Rule 7:
𝐾
𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) = 𝑠(𝑠+4)(𝑠+5)
𝐾
1 + 𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) = 1 + 𝑠(𝑠+4)(𝑠+5) = 0
𝐾 = −𝑠(𝑠 + 4)(𝑠 + 5)
= −𝑠 3 − 9𝑠 2 − 20𝑠
𝑑𝐾
= −3𝑠 2 − 18𝑠 − 20 = 0
𝑑𝑠
𝑠1 = −1.47
𝑠2 = −4.53

Therefore, the breakaway point is – 1.47

9
 The 𝑠2 is not a possible solution in this negative feedback example. Since no
branch exists on the real axis at this point. The – 4.53 is actually a breakaway
point for this system where there is positive feedback present.

Rule 8:
The intersection of the root locus and the imaginary axis can be determined as
follows:
Characteristic equation is
3𝑠 2 + 18𝑠 + 20 + 𝐾 = 0
The routh – Hurwitz arrange is
𝑠3 1 20
𝑠2 9 K
𝑠1 180-K
9
0 K
𝑠

For this array, a zero in the third row indicates a pair of complex conjugate poles
crossing the imaginary axis.
180−𝐾
At this point = 0 or 𝐾 = 180.
9

180 –K = 0 or K = 180
9
This system is stable for all gains up to 180. The corresponding value of 𝑠 occurring
at the crossing of the imaginary axis can be obtained from the expression
9𝑠 2 + 180 = 0
𝑠 = ±𝑗√20 = 𝑗4.48.
Assignment sketch the root locus for a system with
𝐾(1−0.5𝑠)
𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) = 𝑠(1+0.1𝑠)(1−0.25𝑠)

10
CPE 541 Control Theory II Lecture II
Frequency response analysis and design:
• The frequency response of a system is defined as the steady-state response of the
system to a sinusoidal input signal.
• The technique allows the transfer function of both the system elements and the
complete system to be estimated, and the controller to be designed
• Let the system input be
𝜃𝑖 (𝑡) = 𝐴1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 (1)
• In complex form, equation (1) becomes
𝜃𝑖 (𝑡) = 𝐴1 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 (2)
• The steady state response of a linear system to the input of equation (1) is
𝜃𝑜 (𝑡) = 𝐴2 sin⁡(𝜔𝑡 − ∅) (3)
• In complex form equation (3) becomes
𝜃𝑜 (𝑡) = 𝐴2 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡−∅) ) (4)
• where ∅ is the phase between the input and output sine wave as shown in Figure 1

Figure 1: Steady-state input and output sinusoidal response

𝐴2
• The amplitude ratio is defined by equation (5) as
𝐴1
𝐴2
𝐴1
= |𝐺(𝜔)| (5)

𝐴2 = 𝐴1 |𝐺(𝜔)| (6)

• Substitute equation (6) in (4) gives

𝜃𝑜 (𝑡) = 𝐴1 |𝐺(𝜔)|(𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡−∅) ) (7)

𝜃𝑜 (𝑡) = 𝐴1 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 |𝐺(𝜔)|𝑒 −𝑗∅ (8)

𝜃𝑜 (𝑡) = 𝜃𝑖 (𝑡)|𝐺(𝜔)|𝑒 −𝑗∅

𝜃𝑜 (𝜔)
• 𝜃𝑖 (𝜔)
= |𝐺(𝜔)|𝑒 −𝑗∅ (9)
 • For a given 𝜔 equation (9) represents a point 𝑃(𝜔) in complex plane.
• When 𝜔 is varies from 0 to ∞ in the complex plane, a locus will be generated
• Example of the locus is shown in Figure 2 and is called polar plot
• The shape of this plot is uniquely related to the dynamic characteristics of the system

Figure 2: Polar plot

Relationship between 𝒔 and 𝒋𝝎:
• From equation (2)
𝜃𝑖 (𝑡) = 𝐴1 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡

𝑑𝜃𝑖 (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
= 𝑗𝜔(𝐴1 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 )
• Taking Laplace transform gives

𝑠𝜃𝑖 (𝑠) = 𝑗𝜔𝜃𝑖 (𝑠) (10)

• 𝑠 = 𝑗𝜔 (11)

• Therefore, for sinusoidal input, the steady state system response may be calculated
by substituting 𝑠 = 𝑗𝜔 into the transfer function and using the law of complex algebra to
calculate the modulus and phase angle.

Frequency response characteristics of first-order systems:

• The transfer function of first-order system is given by
𝜃𝑜 (𝑠) 𝐾
(𝑠)
= 𝐺(𝑠) = (12)
𝜃𝑖 1+𝑇𝑠
• For sinusoidal input equation (12) become
𝜃𝑜 (𝑗𝜔) 𝐾
𝜃 (𝑗𝜔)
= 𝐺(𝑗𝜔) = 1+𝑗𝜔𝑇 (13)
𝑖
• After rationalization process equation (13) becomes
𝐾(1−𝑗𝜔𝑇)
𝐺(𝑗𝜔) = 1+𝜔2 𝑇 2 (14)
• Equation (14) can be expressed as 𝑎 + 𝑗𝑏 where
𝐾 −𝑗𝜔𝐾𝑇
• 𝑎 = 1+𝜔2 𝑇 2 and 𝑏 = 1+𝜔2 𝑇 2
• Therefore, equation (14) can be plotted in the complex space to produce harmonic
response diagram as shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3: A point in the complex space for a first -order system

• From Figure 3, the polar coordinate are

𝐾
|𝐺(𝑗𝜔)| = (15)
√1+𝜔2 𝑇 2
and
∠𝐺(𝑗𝜔) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (−𝜔𝑇) (16)
• Using equations (15) and (16), the value of modulus and phase angle can be
determined as shown in Table 1.

Table 1: Modulus and phase for first-order systems

• The results in Table 1 can be used to plot the polar plot of Figure 4 or a rectangular
plot of Figures 5 and 6

• Figure 6 is called frequency response diagram because the response is a function of

frequency
 Figure 5: Polar plot

Figure 6: Rectangular plot or frequency response

Frequency response characteristics of second-order systems:
• The standard second-order transfer function is given by equation (17)
𝑘
𝐺(𝑠) = 𝑠2 +2𝜁𝜔 𝑠+𝜔 2 (17)
𝑛 𝑛
• Equation (17) can be rewritten as
𝑘
𝜔𝑛 2
𝐺(𝑠) = 1 2 2𝜁 (18)
𝑠 + 𝑠+1
𝜔𝑛 2 𝜔𝑛
𝑘
• Let 𝐾 = 𝜔 2
𝑛
then,
𝐾
• 𝐺(𝑠) = 1 2 2𝜁 (19)
𝑠 + 𝑠+1
𝜔𝑛 2 𝜔𝑛
• Substituting 𝑠 = 𝑗𝜔 gives
𝐾
• 𝐺(𝑗𝜔) = 1 2𝜁 (20)
(𝑗𝜔)2 + (𝑗𝜔)+1
𝜔𝑛 2 𝜔𝑛

𝐾
• 𝐺(𝑗𝜔) = 𝜔 2 𝜔
(21)
{1−( ) }+𝑗{2𝜁( )}
𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛
from (21)
𝐾
• |𝐺(𝑗𝜔)| = (22)
2 2 2
√{1−( 𝜔 ) } +{2𝜁( 𝜔 )}
𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛

𝜔
−2𝜁( )
• ∠𝐺(𝑗𝜔) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 { 𝜔𝑛
𝜔 2
} (23)
1−( )
𝜔𝑛
• From equations (22) and (23) the modulus and phase may be calculated as shown in
Table 2.
Table 2: Modulus and phase for a second-order system

• The results in Table 2 are function of 𝜁 and may be represented as a polar plot or
frequency response diagrams as shown in Figures 7and 8 respectively
Figure 7: Polar diagram of a second-order system

Modulus
 Phase
Figure 8: Frequency response diagrams of a second-order system

Bode diagram:
• The Bode plot is the logarithmic version of frequency response diagrams illustrated in
Figure 6 and 8 for first and second order systems respectfully and it consists of:
• a log modulus-log frequency plot and
• a linear phase log frequency plot
• The technique uses asymptote to quickly construct frequency response diagram by
hand
• The construction of the diagram for higher-order systems is achieved by simple
graphical addition of the individual diagrams of the separate elements in the system
• The modulus is plot on the linear y-axis scale in decibels, where
• |𝐺(𝑗𝜔)|𝑑𝐵 = 20𝑙𝑜𝑔10 |𝐺(𝑗𝜔)| (24)
• The phase is plot on the linear y-axis scale in degrees
• The frequency is plotted on a logarithmic x-axis scale for both modulus frequency and
phase frequency plots.

Summation of system elements on a Bode diagram:

Consider two elements in cascade as shown in Figure 9.

Figure 9: Two elements in cascade

• 𝐺1 (𝑗𝜔) = |𝐺1 (𝑗𝜔)|𝑒 𝑗∅1 (25)

• 𝐺2 (𝑗𝜔) = |𝐺2 (𝑗𝜔)|𝑒 𝑗∅2 (26)

𝐶(𝑗𝜔)
• = 𝐺1 (𝑗𝜔)𝐺2 (𝑗𝜔) (27)
𝑅(𝑗𝜔)

𝐶(𝑗𝜔)
• 𝑅(𝑗𝜔)
= |𝐺1 (𝑗𝜔)||𝐺2 (𝑗𝜔)|𝑒 𝑗(∅1 +∅2 ) (28)
 𝐶(𝑗𝜔)
• |𝑅(𝑗𝜔)| = |𝐺1 (𝑗𝜔)||𝐺2 (𝑗𝜔)| (29)

𝐶(𝑗𝜔)
• |𝑅(𝑗𝜔)| 𝑑𝐵 = 20𝑙𝑜𝑔10 |𝐺1 (𝑗𝜔)| + 20𝑙𝑜𝑔10 |𝐺2 (𝑗𝜔)| (30)
and
𝐶(𝑗𝜔)
• ∠ 𝑅(𝑗𝜔) = ∅1 + ∅2 = ∠𝐺1 (𝑗𝜔) + ∠𝐺2 (𝑗𝜔) (31)

• It can be seen from equations (30) and (31) that the complete system frequency
response is obtained by summation of the log modulus of the system elements, and
summation of the phase of system elements.

Asymptotic approximation on Bode diagram:

First-order lag systems:
• Log modulus: this consists of a low frequency (LF) asymptote and a high frequency
(HF) asymptote which are obtained from equation (15).
• LF asymptote: when 𝜔 → 0, |𝐺(𝑗𝜔)| → 𝐾. Therefore, the LF asymptote is the horizontal
line at 𝐾⁡dB.
1
• HF asymptote: when 𝜔 ≫ , equation (15) approximates to
𝑇
𝐾
• |𝐺(𝑗𝜔)| =
𝜔𝑇
(32)
• As can be seen from equation (32), each time the frequency doubles (an increase of
octave) the modulus halves, or fall by 6 dB.
• That is each time the frequency increases by a factor of 10 (decade), the modulus falls
by 10, or 20 dB.
• Therefore, the HF asymptote for a first-order system has a slope which can be express
as -6 dB per octave, or -20 dB per decade.
1
• From (32) when 𝜔 → 𝑇, HF asymptote has a value of 𝐾, therefore, the asymptotes
1
intersect at 𝜔 = 𝑇 rad/sec.
𝐾
• Also, at this frequency, from equation (15) the exact modulus has a value |𝐺(𝑗𝜔)| =
√2
1
• Since is -3 dB, the exact modulus passes 3 dB below the asymptote intersection at
√2
1
rad/sec.
𝑇
• The asymptotic construction of the log modulus Bode plot for a first-order system is
shown in Figure 10.
 Figure 10: Bode modulus construction for first-order system

Phase plot: This has three asymptotes

• A LF horizontal asymptote at 0𝑜
• A HF horizontal asymptote at 90𝑜
1
• A mid-frequency (MF) asymptote that intersect the LF asymptote at and the HF
10𝑇
10 1
asymptote at 𝑇
(a decade either side of 𝑇
)
• The Bode phase plot for a first-order system is shown in Figure 11

Figure 11: Bode phase construction for a first-order system

First-order lead systems:

• These are the first-order in which the phase of the output at steady state leads the
phase of the input
• The TF of a first-order lead system is
• 𝐺(𝑠) = 𝐾(1 + 𝑇𝑠) (33)
• |𝐺(𝑗𝜔)| = 𝐾√(1 + 𝜔 𝑇 )
2 2 (34)
• ∠𝐺(𝑗𝜔) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (𝜔𝑇)
−1
(35)
• The Bode diagram is shown in Figure 12
 Modulus

Phase
Figure 12: Bode gain and phase for first-order a lead system

Second-order systems:
• Log modulus plot:
• LF asymptote: A horizontal line at 𝐾 dB.
• HF asymptote: when 𝜔 ≫ 𝜔𝑛 equation (22) that is
𝐾
|𝐺(𝑗𝜔)| =
2 2 2
√{1−( 𝜔 ) } +{2𝜁( 𝜔 )}
𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛

• approximates to
𝐾
|𝐺(𝑗𝜔)| = 𝜔 2 (36)
( )
𝜔𝑛

• From equation (36), an octave increase in frequency will reduce the modulus by a
quarter, or -12 dB and a decade frequency increase will reduce the modulus by a factor
of 100, or -40 dB. Hence the HF asymptote for a second-order system has a slope of
-12 dB/octave or -40 dB/decade.
• The LF and HF asymptotes intercept at 𝜔 = 𝜔𝑛
• Also, the exact value of modulus from equation (22) is
𝐾
|𝐺(𝑗𝜔)| =
2𝜁
• The value of the modulus relative to the LF asymptote is
𝐾⁄
2𝜁 1
|𝐺(𝑗𝜔)|𝑑𝐵 = 20 log10 ( ) = 20 log10 (2𝜁) (37)
𝐾

• Hence,
• 𝜁 = 0.25, Relative modulus = +6 dB
• 𝜁 = 0.5, Relative modulus = 0 dB
• 𝜁 = 1, Relative modulus = -6 dB

• Phase plot: this has two asymptotes

𝜔
−2𝜁( )
• −1 𝜔𝑛
Using equation (23) that is ∠𝐺(𝑗𝜔) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 { 𝜔 2
}
1−( )
𝜔𝑛
• A LF horizontal asymptote is at 0𝑜
• A HF horizontal asymptote is at −180𝑜
• The phase curve passes through −90𝑜 at 𝜔 = 𝜔𝑛 .
• Its shape depends upon 𝜁 and is obtained from the standard curves given in Figure 13

Log modulus
 Phase
Figure 13: Bode gain and phase for a second-order system.

A pure integrator:
• Consider a pure integrator of the form
𝐾
𝐺(𝑠) = (38)
𝑠
• Equation (38) can be express as
𝐾
𝐺(𝑗𝜔) = 0+𝑗𝜔 (39)
• Rationalizing equation (39) gives
𝐾(0−𝑗𝜔)
𝐺(𝑗𝜔) = 2 (40)
𝜔
𝐾
|𝐺(𝑗𝜔)| = (41)
𝜔
And
𝐾𝜔
−( 2 )
−1
∠𝐺(𝑗𝜔) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( 0𝜔 ) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ∞ = −90𝑜 (42)
• It can be seen from equation (41) that the modulus will be halve in value each time the
frequency is doubled, i.e. the slope is -6 dB/octave (-20 dB/decade) over the complete
frequency range.

• It should be noted that

• |𝐺(𝑗𝜔)| = 𝐾⁡𝑑𝐵 when 𝜔 = 1

• |𝐺(𝑗𝜔)| = 1 = 0⁡𝑑𝐵 when 𝜔 = 𝐾
• The Bode diagram for pure integrator is as shown in Figure 14
Figure 14: Bode diagram for a pure integrator
CPE 541 Control Theory II Lecture III
Frequency performance parameter and systems relative stability:
▪ The gain margin and phase margin are crucial parameters in control system engineering,
▪ They are used to determine the stability of a system,
▪ The brief explanation of both is present as follows:
▪ Gain Margin (GM): The gain margin refers to the amount of gain, which can be
increased or decreased without making the system unstable.
▪ It is usually expressed as a magnitude in dB.
▪ The greater the Gain Margin, the greater the stability of the system.
▪ The Gain Margin is the negative of the gain (in decibels, dB).
▪ The formula for Gain Margin (GM) can be expressed as:
▪ GM=0−G
▪ where G is the gain.
▪ This is the magnitude (in dB) as read from the vertical axis of the magnitude plot at the
phase crossover frequency.
▪ Phase Margin (PM): The phase margin refers to the amount of phase, which can be
increased or decreased without making the system unstable.
▪ It is usually expressed as a phase in degrees.
▪ The greater the Phase Margin, the greater will be the stability of the system.
▪ The formula for Phase Margin (PM) can be expressed as:
▪ PM=180°−∣ϕ∣
▪ where ϕ is the phase lag (a number less than 0).
▪ This is the phase as read from the vertical axis of the phase plot at the gain crossover
frequency.
▪ In summary, both gain margin and phase margin are measures of how close a system is
to instability.
▪ A system with a larger gain margin or phase margin is more stable.

• Relative stability of a system in frequency domain is usually expressed in terms of

phase margin and gain margin which may be defined using a typical bode plot sketch
of a system.
• Example: The Bode diagram of 𝐺(𝑗𝜔) in equation (1) is as given in Figure 1.
1
𝐺(𝑗𝜔) = (1)
𝑗𝜔(𝑗𝜔+1)(0.2𝑗𝜔+1)
 Figure 1: The Bode diagram for system of equation (1)
• The phase angle when the logarithmic magnitude is 0 dB is equal to -137°.
• Thus, the phase margin is 180° - 137° = 43°, as shown in Figure 1.
• The logarithmic magnitude when the phase angle is -180° is -15 dB, and therefore the
gain margin is equal to 15 dB, as shown in Figure 1.
• The frequency response of a system can be graphically portrayed on the logarithmic-
magnitude-phase-angle diagram.
• For the log-magnitude-phase diagram, the critical stability point is the 0-dB, -180°
point, and the gain margin and phase margin can be easily determined and indicated
on the diagram.
CPE 541 Control Theory II Lecture IV
Proportional-integral-derivative (PID) controller:
• Most plant in process industries do not contain an integration term in their transfer
function
• For a system to have zero steady state error response to step input an integration term is
required in the system forward transfer function
• To achieve this an integration term is normally require in the controller transfer function
• Therefore, the use Proportional-integral-derivative (PID) controller which contain
proportional, integral and derivative term is a logical option.
• This type of controller have been in use in industries for many years
• This controller was first implemented via pneumatic, then vacuum tubes, transistors,
integrated circuits and finally software in microprocessor
• The controller can be implemented in various ways but ideal form with transfer function
of equation (1) will be considered.
1
𝐺𝑐 (𝑠) = 𝐾𝑝 (1 + 𝑠𝑇 + 𝑠𝑇𝑑 ) (1)
𝑖

• The earliest work usually referenced on PID controller is due to Ziegler-Nichols (Z-N)
• The procedure is known as controller tuning and to achieve the tuning there are two
methods that can be applied
Method I:
• An open-loop step response identification of the plant was suggested with the resulting
response modelled (fit) by a first-order plus dead time (FOPDT) transfer function as
shown in equation (2).
𝐾𝑒 −𝑠𝜏
𝐺(𝑠) = (2)
1+𝑠𝑇

• where K is the system gain, T > 0 is the time constant and τ > 0 is the dead time
parameter
• Based on equation (2), the suggested controller parameters are as given in Table 1.
Table 1: Controller parameters for method 1
Type 𝐾𝑝 𝑇𝑖 𝑇𝑑
P 𝑇⁄
𝜏𝐾
PI 0.9𝑇⁄ 3.33𝜏
𝜏𝐾
PID 1.2𝑇⁄ 2𝜏 0.5𝜏
𝜏𝐾

Method II:
• With the controller in situ in the control loop,
 • The controller is set to proportional mode by switching off both the integral and
derivative mode
• Then tuned up the proportional controller parameter until an oscillation took place.
• The value of the proportional gain at this point (critical or ultimate gain) and the
frequency of oscillation is denoted by 𝐾𝑐 and 𝜔𝑐 respectively. But
2𝜋
𝜔𝑐 = 𝑇 (3)
𝑐
• where 𝑇𝑐 is the critical or ultimate period in seconds.
• Based on these values the controller parameters are as presented in Table 2.
Table 2: Controller parameters for method 2
Type 𝐾𝑝 𝑇𝑖 𝑇𝑑
P 0.5𝐾𝑐
PI 0.45𝐾𝑐 0.8𝑇𝑐
PID 0.6𝐾𝑐 0.5𝑇𝑐 0.125𝑇𝑐

• It should be note that the Z-N design method was based on achieving around a 25%
overshoot to the set point step response.