SulaimaniPolytechnicUniversity

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering &

Manufacturing
Stage: third stage- 5th semester
Metal-Casting Processes

Workshop 3
Metal-Casting Processes

Year: 2025-2026
Fifth Semester
By: Kawan M. Abdulrahman

1
 Outline

1. What is casting??
2. Die-Casting Examples
3. Classification of the casting process
4. Sand Mold Features
5. Desirable Mold Properties
6. Foundry Sands
7. Pure alloy Metals
8. Test for fluidity
9. Solidification time
[Link]
[Link] in Sand Casting
[Link] of casting

2
 What is casting??

One of the oldest processes

a) Melt metal/ alloy
b) pouring molten metal into
a mold cavity
c) Solidification (by cooling
the melt in the mold)
d) remove the cast
component (also called
casting) from the mold
e) Finishing

3
 Die-Casting Examples

(a) (b)

Figure (a) The Polaroid PDC-2000 digital camera with an

AZ91D die-cast, high-purity magnesium case. (b) Two-piece
Polaroid camera case made by the hot-chamber die casting
process. Source: Courtesy of Polaroid Corporation and Chicago White Metal
Casting, Inc.
4
Classification of the casting process

Figure: Type of casting process 5

Casting Examples

Figure 11.2 Typical gray-iron castings used in

automobiles, including transmission valve body
(left) and hub rotor with disk-brake cylinder
(front). Source: Courtesy of Central
Foundry Division of General Motors Corporation.

Figure a Cast
transmission
housing.
6
 Sand Mold Features

Figure Schematic illustration of a sand mold, showing

various features.

7
 Desirable Mold Properties

Strength - to maintain shape and resist erosion

Permeability - to allow hot air and gases to pass
through voids in sand
Thermal stability - to resist cracking on contact with
molten metal
Collapsibility – the ability to give way and allow casting to
shrink without cracking the casting
Reusability - can sand from broken molds be reused to
make other molds?

Erosion: to eat into or away by slow destruction of substance. Permeability: capable of

being penetrated
8
 Foundry Sands

Silica (SiO2) or silica mixed with other minerals

Good refractory properties - capacity to endure high

temperatures
Small grain size yields a better surface finish on the cast
part

Large grain size is more permeable, allowing gases to

escape during pouring

Irregular grain shapes strengthen molds due to

interlocking, compared to round grains
Disadvantage: interlocking tends to reduce permeability
9
 Binders Used with Foundry Sands

Sand is held together by a mixture of water and bonding

clay
 Typical mix: 90% sand, 3% water, and 7% clay

Other bonding agents also used in sand molds:

 Organic resins (eg , phenolic resins)
 Inorganic binders (eg , sodium silicate and phosphate)
Additives are sometimes combined with the mixture to increase
strength and/or permeability

Phenol = a corrosive poisonous crystalline acidic compound C6H5OH present in the tars of coal and
wood that in dilute solution is used as a disinfectant

10
 Types of Sand Mold

Green-sand molds - mixture of sand, clay, and water;

 “Green" means mold contains moisture at time of
pouring

Dry-sand mold - organic binders rather than clay

 And mold is baked to improve strength

Skin-dried mold - drying mold cavity surface of a green-

sand mold to a depth of 10 to 25 mm, using torches or
heating lamps

11
 Temperature Distribution

Air Mold Solid Liquid

Temperature
Melting
point

at metal–mold
T
interface

at mold–air
Room T
interface
temperature
Distance

FIGURE Temperature distribution at the mold wall and liquid-metal interface during
solidification of metals in casting.
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 Shrinkage

Contraction (%) Expansion (%)

Aluminum 7.1 Bismuth 3.3
Zinc 6.5 Silicon 2.9
Al - 4.5% Cu 6.3 Gray iron 2.5
Gold 5.5
White iron 4-5.5
Copper 4.9
Brass (70-30) 4.5
Magnesium 4.2
90% Cu - 10% Al 4
Carbon steels 2.5-4
Al - 12% Si 3.8
Lead 3.2

TABLE Volumetric solidification contraction or expansion for various cast metals.

13
 Typical Applications & Characteristics
Type of Alloy Application Castability∗ Weldability∗ Machinability∗
Aluminum Pistons, clutch housings, intake mani- G-E F* G-E
folds, engine blocks, heads, cross mem-
bers, valve bodies, oil pans, suspension
components
Copper Pumps, valves, gear blanks, marine pro- F-G F G-E
pellers
Gray Iron Engine blocks, gears, brake disks and E D G
drums, machine bases
Magnesium Crankcase, transmission housings, G-E G E
portable computer housings, toys
Malleable iron Farm and construction machinery, heavy- G D G
duty bearings, railroad rolling stock
Nickel Gas turbine blades, pump and valve com- F F F
ponents for chemical plants
Nodular iron Crankshafts, heavy-duty gears G D G
Steel (carbon Die blocks, heavy-duty gear blanks, air- F E F-G
and low alloy) craft undercarriage members, railroad
wheels
Steel (high al- Gas turbine housings, pump and valve F E F
loy) components, rock crusher jaws
White iron Mill liners, shot blasting nozzles, railroad G VP VP
(Fe 3 C) brake shoes, crushers and pulverizers
Zinc Door handles, radiator grills E D E
∗ E, excellent; G , good; F , fair; VP, very poor; D, difficult.

TABLE Typical applications for castings and casting characteristics. 14

 Pure Metals

Temperature as a function of time for the solidification Density as a function of time

15
 Pure Metals

Pure metals Solid- Nucleating

solution agents
alloys 16
Alloys

Gray cast iron

Carbon steels

17
 Test for fluidity
The fluidity index is the length of the solidified metal in the
spiral passage. The greater the length of the solidified
metal, the greater is its fluidity.

18
 Solidification time
During the early stages of solidification, a thin, solidified skin
begins to form at the cool mold walls, and as time passes, the
thickness of the skin increases.

5s 1 min 2 min 6 min

FIGURE Solidified skin on a steel casting; the remaining molten metal is poured
out at the times indicated in the figure. Hollow ornamental and decorative
objects are made by a process called slush casting, which is based on this
principle. Source:After [Link], [Link], and M.C. Flemings.

19
Fundamentals of Metal Casting Defects

20
 Common Defects in Casting
These defects can be minimized or eliminated by proper design and
preparation of molds, as well as control of pouring procedures.

21
 Defects

• The International Committee of Foundry Technical

Associations has developed a standardized
nomenclature, consisting of seven basic categories of
casting defects identified with boldface capital letters:
A—Metallic projections
B—Cavities
C—Discontinuities
D—Defective surface
E—Incomplete casting
F—Incorrect dimensions or shape
G—Inclusions

22
 Porosity

• Porosity in a casting may be caused by shrinkage, or

gases, or both.
• Porous regions can develop in castings because of
shrinkage of the solidified metal.
• Microporosity can also develop when the liquid
metal solidifies and shrinks between dendrites and
between dendrite branches.
• Gross porosity is from shrinkage and usually is
called a shrinkage cavity.
23
 Porosity
Porosity caused by shrinkage can be reduced or
eliminated by various means such as:
i. Adequate liquid metal should be provided
to avoid cavities caused by shrinkage.
ii. Internal or external chills, as those used in sand
casting, are also an effective means of reducing
shrinkage porosity.
iii. With alloys, porosity can be reduced or eliminated
by making the temperature gradient steep.
iv. Subjecting the casting to hot isostatic pressing
is another method of reducing porosity.
24
 Porosity
• Fig. shows the various types of (a) internal and
(b) External chills (dark areas at corners) are used to
eliminate porosity caused by shrinkage.

25
 Steps in Sand Casting

Figure: Outline of production steps in a typical sand-casting

operation. 26
 Steps in Sand Casting in detail
1. Place the pattern on the molding board. 18. Separate cope from drag.

2. Place drag parting surface down on molding board. 19. Moisten the drag mold edges with a swab.

3. Riddle sand over the pattern until covered. 20. Use a draw spike to loosen the pattern.

4. Press sand around the pattern with fingers. 21. Remove the pattern.

5. Fill the drag with sand. 22. Cut the gate from the sprue to the pattern
cavity.
6. Use a ram to pack sand.
23. Cut a riser in the cope to channel hot metal.
7. Remove excess sand with a strike rod.
24. Spray, swab, or dust the mold surfaces with
8. Create vent holes to allow gases to escape from the surface.
coating material.
9. Place the bottom board on the drag.
25. Reassemble the cope and drag to prepare
10. Turn over the drag and remove the molding board.
for pouring.
11. Smooth molding sand.
26. Weight cope to prevent seepage at the parting
12. Add a fine coat of parting sand.
line.
13. Place the cope on the drag.
27. Pour the metal.
14. Add sprue pin ~ 1” to the side of the pattern.
28. Allow to cool.
15. Fill, ram, & vent cope as done.
29. Separate and clean casting.
16. Withdraw the sprue pin. 30. Reclaim the sand & clean the flask.
17. Create a funnel opening.
27
 Pattern Material Characteristics

TABLE

Ratinga
Characteristic Wood Aluminum Steel Plastic Cast iron
Machinability E G F G G
Wear resistance P G E F E
Strength F G E G G
Weightb E G P G P
Repairability E P G F G
Resistance to:
Corrosionc E E P E P
Swellingc P E E E E
aE, Excellent; G, good; F, fair; P, poor.
bAs a factor in operator fatigue.
cBy water.
Source : D.C. Ekey and W.R. Winter, Introduction to Foundry Technology. New York.
McGraw-Hi l, 1958.

28
 Patterns for Sand Casting

Figure A typical metal match-

plate pattern used in sand
casting.

Figure Taper on patterns

for ease of removal
from the sand mold.

29
 Examples of Sand Cores and Chaplets

Figure Examples of sand cores showing core prints and chaplets

to support cores.

30
 Squeeze Heads

Figure Various designs of squeeze heads for mold making:

(a) conventional flat head; (b) profile head;
(c) equalizing squeeze pistons; and (d) flexible diaphragm.
Source: © Institute of British Foundrymen. Used with permission. 31
 Vertical Flaskless Molding

Figure Vertical flaskless molding. (a) Sand is squeezed

between two halves of the pattern. (b) Assembled molds pass
along an assembly line for pouring.

32
Surface Roughness for Various Metalworking Processes

Figure Surface roughness in casting and other metalworking

processes. See also Figs. 22.14 and
26.4 for comparison with other manufacturing processes.
33
Dump-Box Technique

Figure A common method

of making shell molds.
Called dump-box technique,
the limitations are the
formation of voids in the
shell and peelback (when
sections of the shell fall off
as the pattern is raised).
Source: ASM International.

34
 Composite Molds

Figure (a) Schematic illustration of a semipermanent composite mold.

Source: Steel Castings Handbook, 5th ed. Steel Founders' Society of
America, 1980. (b) A composite mold is used in casting an aluminum-
alloy torque converter. This part was previously cast in an all-plaster
mold. Source: Metals Handbook, vol. 5, 8th ed.
35
Expendable Pattern Casting

Figure Schematic
illustration of the
expendable pattern
casting process, also
known as lost foam or
evaporative casting.

36
 Ceramic Molds

Figure Sequence of operations in

making a ceramic mold.
Source: Metals Handbook, vol. 5, 8th ed.

Figure A typical ceramic mold

(Shaw process) for casting
steel dies used in hot forging.
Source: Metals Handbook, vol.
5, 8th ed.

37
Investment Casting

Figure Schematic illustration of

investment casting, (lost- wax
process). Castings by this
method can be made with very
fine detail and from a variety of
metals. Source: Steel Founders'
Society of America.

38
 Vacuum-Casting Process

Figure Schematic illustration of the vacuum-casting process. Note

that the mold has a bottom gate. (a) Before and (b) after immersion
of the mold into the molten metal. Source: From R. Blackburn,
"Vacuum Casting Goes Commercial," Advanced Materials and
Processes, February 1990, p. 18. ASM International.
39
 Pressure Casting

Figure (a) The bottom-pressure casting process utilizes graphite

molds for the production of steel railroad wheels. Source: The
Griffin Wheel Division of Amsted Industries Incorporated. (b)
Gravity-pouring method of casting a railroad wheel. Note that the
pouring basin also serves as a riser. Railroad wheels can also be
manufactured by forging. 40
 Hot- and Cold-Chamber Die-Casting

(a) (b)

Figure (a) Schematic illustration of the hot-chamber die-casting process.

(b) Schematic illustration of the cold-chamber die-casting process.
Source: Courtesy of Foundry Management and Technology.

41
 Cold-Chamber Die-Casting Machine

(a)

Figure (a) Schematic illustration of a cold-chamber

die-casting machine. These machines are large
compared to the size of the casting because large
forces are required to keep the two halves of the
dies closed.

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 Hot-Chamber Die-Casting Machine

(b)

Figure (b) 800-ton hot-chamber die-casting machine, DAM 8005

(made in Germany in 1998). This is the largest hot-chamber
machine in the world and costs about $1.25 million.

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 Die-Casting Die Cavities

Figure Various types of cavities in a die-casting die. Source:

Courtesy of American Die Casting Institute.

Figure Examples of
cast-in- place inserts in
die casting. (a) Knurled
bushings. (b) Grooved
threaded rod.
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 Properties and Typical Applications of Common
Die-Casting Alloys

TABLE 11.4
Ultimate
tensile Yield Elongation
strength strength in 50 mm
Alloy (MPa) (MPa) (%) Applications
Aluminum 380 (3.5 Cu-8.5 Si) 320 160 2.5 Appliances ,automotive components ,
electrical motor frames and housings
13 (12 Si) 300 150 2.5 Complex shapes withthin walls,parts
requiring strength at elevated
temperatures
Brass 858 (60 Cu) 380 200 15 Plumbingfiztures ,lock hardware,
bushings,ornamental cas tings
Magnesium AZ91 B (9 Al-0.7 Zn) 230 160 3 Power tools,automotive parts,sporting
goods
Zinc No.3 (4 Al) 280 -- 10 Automotive parts,office equipment,
hous eholdutensils, building hardware,
toys
5 (4 Al-1 Cu) 320 -- 7 Appliances ,automotive parts ,building
hardware,business equipment
Source : Data from AmericanDie Casting Institute

Kalpakjian • Schmid © 2001 Prentice-Hall Page 11-29 45

Centrifugal Casting Process

Figure Schematic
illustration of the
centrifugal casting process.
Pipes, cylinder liners, and
similarly shaped parts can
be cast with this process.

46
Melt Spinning

Figure Schematic illustration

of melt-spinning to produce
thin strips of amorphous
metal.

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 T A B L E 11.1
Process Advantages Limitations
Sand A l m o s t a n y m e t a l c a s t; n o l i mi t S o m e finis hing required;
t o s i z e , s ha pe o r w e i g h t ; l o w s o m e w h a t c o a r s e f i ni s h; w i de
tooling c o st. tole rances .

S h e l l mold G o o d d i m e n s i o n a l a c c u r a c y a nd P a r t s i z e l i m i t e d ; e x p e n s ive
s u r f a c e f i n i s h; h i g h p r o d u c t i o n p a t t e r n s a n d e q u i p me n t
rate . required.

E xp e n d a b l e p a t t e r n Mos t me t a l s c a s t with no l i mi t P a t t e r n s have l o w s t r e n g t h and

t o s i z e ; c o m p l e x s ha pe s c a n b e c o s t l y f o r l o w qua nti ti es

P l a s t e r mold Intri c a t e s h a p e s ; g o o d L i mi t e d to nonferrous metals;

d i m e n s i o n a l a c c u - r a c y and l i m i t e d s i z e a n d v o l u me of
Summary of f i n i s h ; l o w p o r o s ity. production; m o l d m a ki n g ti me
r e l a t i v e l y l o ng .

Casting C e r a m i c mold Intri c a t e s h a p e s ; c l o s e

tolerance pa rts; good s urf ace
Limited s ize.

Processes f i ni s h.

Inves t m e n t Intri c a t e s h a p e s ; e x c e l l e n t P a r t s i z e l i m i t e d ; e x p e n s ive

s u r f a c e finis h and a c c ur a cy; patterns , mo l ds , and labor.
a l m o s t a n y m e t a l c a s t.

P e r m a n e n t mo l d G o o d s u r f a c e f i ni s h a nd H i g h m o l d c o s t; l i m i t e d s h a p e
di mens ional a c c u r a c y ; low a nd i n t r i c a c y ; n o t s u i t a b l e f o r
poros ity; high production r a te . hi g h -m e l t i n g - p o i n t m e t a l s .

Die Exce llent d i me n s i on al a c c ur a c y D i e c o s t i s hi g h; p a r t s i z e

a n d s u r f a c e f i ni s h; hi g h l i m i t e d ; u s u a l l y l i m i t e d to
production rate . nonferrous me t a l s ; long lead
time.

Centrifugal L a r g e c y l i ndr i c a l parts with E qui pme nt is e x p e n s ive; pa r t

g o o d qual i ty ; h i g h p r o d u c t i o n s ha pe l i m i t e d .
rate .

48
 References

1. Campbell, John. Casting Practice: The 10 Rules of Casting.

Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, [Link],
2. Peter R. Foundry Technology. Oxford: Butterworth-
Heinemann, 2001.
3. Degarmo, E. Paul, Black, J. T., and Kohser, Ronald A.
Materials and Processes in Manufacturing. Wiley, 2019.
4. Khurmi, R. S., and Gupta, J. K. A Textbook of Production
Technology (Manufacturing Processes). S. Chand
Publishing, 2018.

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