Velocity, density, current, power and temperature gradient in physics; rate of reaction and

Differential Calculus - compressibility in chemistry, rate of growth and blood velocity in biology; marginal cost and marginal

Chapter 9 Limits and Continuity

profit in economics; rate of heat flow in geology; rate of improvement of performance in psychology
– these are all cases of a single mathematical concept, the derivative.
This is an illustration of the fact that part of the power of mathematics lies in its abstractness. A
single abstract mathematical concept (such as derivatives) can have different interpretations in each
of the sciences. When we develop the properties of the mathematical concept, we can then apply
these results to all of the sciences. This is much more efficient than developing properties of special
“Men pass away, but their deeds abide” concepts in each separate science.
- Augustin-Louis Cauchy One of the greatest creations of the ancient past was Euclidean geometry. This monumental work
was not matched in importance until the discovery of calculus almost two thousand years later.
Calculus was created independently in England by Sir Isaac Newton (1642 - 1727) and in
Germany by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz (1646 - 1716) in the last quarter of the seventeenth century.
9.1 Introduction Newton’s interest in mathematics began with his study of two of the great books on mathematics
Calculus is about rates of change. Rates of change occur in all the sciences. A mathematician at that time: Euclid’s Elements and Descartio La Geometric. He also became aware of the work of
is interested in measuring the rate of change of the deviations of a straight line at a point on a curve, the great scientists who preceded him, including Galileo and Fermat.
while a physicist is interested in the rate of change of displacement, and the velocity of a moving By the end of 1664, Newton seemed to have mastered all the mathematical knowledge of the
object. A chemist wants to know the rate of a chemical reaction that would result in the formation of time and had begun adding substantially to it. In 1665, he began his study of the rates of change or
one or more substances (called products) from one or more starting materials (called reactants). flexions, of quantities, such as distances or temperatures that varied continuously. The result of this
A biologist would like to analyse the changes that take study was what we today call differential calculus. All who study mathematics today stand on Isaac
place in the number of individuals in an animal population or
Normal Heart Newton’s shoulders.
plant population at any time; he would also want to know the to Lungs to Lungs
Many of Leibnitz’s mathematical papers appeared in the journal ‘Acta
rate at which blood flows through a blood vessel, such as a Pulmonary Pulmonary Veins Eruditorum’ which he cofounded in 1682. This journal contained his work
on calculus and led to the bitter controversy with Newton over who first
Veins from from Lungs

vein or artery and the part of the vessel / artery in which this Lungs

flow is lowest or highest. Superior Mitral Valve

discovered calculus. Leibnitz was the first to publish the important results
Vena Cava
on calculus and was the first to use the notation that has now become
An economists also studies marginal demand, marginal Atrial Septum
Aortic Valve
standard.
revenue, and marginal profit, which are drawn from rates
of change (that is, derivatives) of this demand, revenue and
Tricuspid
Valve
Ventricular
Augustin-Louis Cauchy (1789 - 1857), born in Paris in 1789 is
profit functions. Interior
Septum
considered to be the most outstanding mathematical analyst of the first half
Vena Cava
of the nineteenth century. Cauchy made many contributions to calculus.
A geologist is interested in knowing the rate at which Oxygen-rich Blood
In his 1829 text book ‘Lecons le calcul differential’, he gave the first
an intruded body of molten rock cools by conduction of heat Pulmonary Valve Oxygen-poor Blood

reasonably clear definition of a limit and was the first to define the derivative
Augustin – Louis Cauchy
into surrounding rocks. An engineer wants to know the rate (1789 - 1857)
as the limit of the difference quotient,
at which water flows into or out of a reservoir. An urban geographer is interested in the rate of
change of population density in a city with the expansion of the city. A meteorologist is concerned ∆y f ( x + ∆x) − f ( x)
= .
with the rate of change of atmospheric pressure with respect to height. ∆x ∆x
In psychology, those interested in learning theory, study the so called learning curve, which
graphs the performance of someone learning a skill as a function of the training time. Of particular Karl Weierstrass (1815-1897), a German mathematician gave the precise definition
interest is the rate at which performance improves as time passes. (∈ − δ definition) of the concepts of limit, continuity and differentiability.
When we enter a What is Calculus?
darkened room, our eyes Calculus is the mathematics of ratio of change of quantities. It is also the mathematics of tangent
adjust to the reduced level of lines, slopes, areas, volumes, arc lengths, centroids, curvatures and a variety of other concepts that
light by increasing the size of have enabled scientists, engineers and economists to model real-life situations.
our pupils, allowing more light
to enter the eyes and making Although pre calculus mathematics deals with velocities, accelerations, tangent lines, slopes and
objects around us easier to see. so on, there is a fundamental difference between pre calculus mathematics and calculus. Pre calculus
By contrast, when we enter a mathematics is more static, whereas calculus is more dynamic. Here are some examples:
brightly lit room, our pupils  An object travelling at a constant velocity can be analyzed with pre calculus mathematics.
contract, reducing the amount
of light entering the eyes, as too much light would overload our visual To analyse the velocity of an accelerating object, you need calculus.
system. Researchers study such mechanisms based on limits.  The slope of a line can be analysed with pre calculus mathematics. To analyse the slope of a
curve, you need calculus.
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  A tangent line to a circle can be analysed with pre calculus mathematics. To analyse a line It appears from the table that as x gets close to
y
tangential to a general graph, you need calculus. x = 2, f (x) = x2 + 3 gets close to 7. This is not surprising
11
 The area of a rectangle can be analysed with pre calculus mathematics. To analyze the area since if we now calculate f (x) at x = 2, we obtain
10
under a general curve, you need calculus. f (2) = 22 + 3 = 7.
9

Each of these situations involves the same general strategy, the reformulation of pre calculus In order to guess at this limit, we didn’t have to 8
mathematics through the use of a limit process. So, one way to answer the question ‘What is calculus?’ evaluate x2 + 3 at x = 2. 7
y= x2+ 3
is to say that calculus is a ‘limit machine’ that involves three stages. The first stage is pre calculus That is, as x approaches 2 from either the left 6
mathematics such as the slope of a line or the area of a rectangle. The second stage is the limit process (values lower than 2) or right (values higher than 2) 5
and the third stage is a new calculus formulation, such as a derivative or integral. the functional values f (x) are approaching 7 from 4
either side; that is, when x is near 2, f (x) is near 7. 3
Pre calculus Limit
⇒ ⇒
(0,3)
The above situation is described in a condensed
Calculus 2
Mathematics Process form: 1
x
It is cautioned that those who try to learn calculus as if it were simply a collection of new formulae The value 7 is the left limit of f (x) as x approaches
5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6
rather than as a process, will miss a great deal of understanding, self-confidence and satisfaction. 2 from the left as well as 7 is the right limit of
f (x) as x approaches 2 from the right and write :
Fig. 9.1
f ( x) ! 7 as x ! 2" and f ( x) ! 7 as x ! 2#
Learning Objectives or

On completion of this chapter, the students are expected to lim f (x) = 7 and lim+ f (x) = 7.
x →2 − x →2
• visualize the concept of limit / continuity through geometric process.
Note also that lim− f (x) = 7 = lim+ f (x). The common value is written as lim f (x) = 7.
• relate the concept of limit / continuity with every day life activities. x →2 x →2 x→2

• assimilate limit / continuity as the heart and spirit of calculus.

• understand limit / continuity as an operation (operator) to measure / quantify / mathmatize We also observe that the limit is a definite real number. Here, definiteness means that
changes in physical world.
• concretize the concept of limit / continuity via illustrations of real life related situations. lim f (x) and lim+ f (x) are the same and
x →2 − x →2

lim f (x) = lim− f (x) = lim+ f (x) is a unique real number.

9.2 Limits x→2 x →2 x →2

The figure in Fig. 9.1 explains the geometrical significance of the above discussion of the
9.2.1 The calculation of limits
The notion of a limit, which we will discuss extensively in this chapter, plays a central role in behaviour of f (x) = x2 + 3 as x → 2.
calculus and in much of modern mathematics. However, although mathematics dates back over three Illustration 9.2
thousand years, limits were not really understood until the monumental work of the great French 16 − x 2
Next, let us look at the rational function f (x) = .
mathematician Augustin – Louis Cauchy and Karl Weierstrass in the nineteenth century, the age of 4+ x
rigour in mathematics. The domain of this function is � \{-4}. Although f (- 4) is not defined, nonetheless, f (x) can be
In this section we define limit and show how limits can be calculated. ⎛ 16 − x 2 ⎞
calculated for any value of x near - 4 because the symbol xlim ⎜ ⎟ says that we consider values
Illustration 9.1 →−4
⎝ 4+x ⎠
We begin by looking at the function y = f ( x ) = x 2 + 3 . Note that f is a function from of x that are close to - 4 but not equal to - 4. The table below gives the values of f (x) for values of
→ .

Let us investigate the behaviour of this function near x = 2. We can use two sets of x values : one x that approach - 4.
set that approaches 2 from the left (values less than 2) and one set that approaches 2 from the right (x < - 4) (x > - 4)
(values greater than 2) as shown in the table. f (x) f (x)
( x ! "4" ) ( x ! "4# )
x approaches 2 from the left x approaches 2 from the right - 4.1 8.1 - 3.9 7.9
x 1.7 1.9 1.95 1.99 1.999 1.9999 2 2.0001 2.001 2.01 2.05 2.1 2.3 - 4.01 8.01 - 3.99 7.99
f(x) 5.89 6.61 6.8025 6.9601 6.99601 6.99960001 7 7.0040001 7.004001 7.0401 7.2025 7.41 8.29 - 4.001 8.001 - 3.999 7.999

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 For x ≠ - 4, f (x) can be simplified by y
|x| −x
Similarly, lim− = lim− =-1
cancellation : xx →−3x →−3 x
o 8 |x| −x
16 − x 2 lim = lim+ = - 1.
f (x) = x →−3+ x x →−3 x
4+ x
| x| | x|
(4 + x )(4 − x ) In fact, for any real number x0 ≠ 0, lim = −1 = lim+ if x0 < 0 and
x → x0 − x x
= = 4 - x. x → x0
(4 + x ) y = 4 -x | x| | x|
As seen in Fig.9.2, the graph of f (x) is essentially lim = 1 = lim+ if x0 > 0.
x
x → x0 − x → x0 x
the graph of y = 4 - x with the exception that the We call the attention of the reader to observe the differences reflected in Illustrations 9.1 to 9.3. In
o x
graph of f has a hole (puncture) at the point that Illustration 9.1, the function f (x) = x2 + 3 is defined at x = 2. i.e., 2 belongs to the domain of f namely
-4
corresponds to x = - 4. As x gets closer and closer  = (-∞, ∞). In Illustration 9.2, the function is not defined at x = - 4. In the former case we say the
to - 4, represented by the two arrow heads on the Fig. 9.2
limit, lim f (x) exists as x gets closer and closer to 2 to mean that lim− f (x) and lim+ f (x) stand for a
x-axis, the two arrow heads on the y-axis simultaneously get closer and closer to the number 8. x→2 x →2 x →2

Here, note that unique real number. In the later case, although it is not defined at x = - 4, lim f (x) exist as x gets
x→−4
16 − x 2 |x|
lim f (x) = 8 = lim+ f (x) and hence lim f (x) = lim = 8. closer and closer to - 4. In Illustration 9.3, lim does not exist to mean that the one sided limits
x →−4 − x →−4 x→−4 4+ x x→−4 x →0 x
In Illustration 9.2, note that the function is not defined at x = −4 and yet f (x) appears to be |x| |x|
lim and lim+ are different as x gets sufficiently close to 0. In the light of these observations
approaching a limit as x approaches - 4. This often happens, and it is important to realise that the x →0 − x x →0 x
existence or non-existence of f(x) at x = −4 has no bearing on the existence of the limit of f(x) we have the intuitive notion of limit as in
as x approaches −4 .
Definition 9.1
Illustration 9.3 Let I be an open interval containing x0 ∈ � . Let f : I → . Then we say that the limit of
Now let us consider a function different from Illustrations 9.1 and 9.2.
f (x) is L, as x approaches x0 [symbollically written as lim f ( x) = L ], if, whenever x becomes
| x| y
x → x0
Let f (x) = . sufficiently close to x0 from either side with x ≠ x0 , f ( x) gets sufficiently close to L.
x
x = 0 does not belong to the domain of
f ( x) = 1 The following (Fig 9.4 and 9.5) graphs depict the above narrations.
this function,  \ {0}. Look at the graph of 1 y y
this function. From the graph one can see that
for positive values of x,
|x| x x
= = + 1 and
x x
|x| −x f ( x) = −1
for negative x values, = = −1 . | x|
x x −1 f ( x) = x0
x x x0 x
This means that no matter how close x lim f ( x) exists lim f ( x) exists
x → x0 x → x0

gets to 0 (in a small neighbourhood of 0), there

will be both positive and negative x values that Fig. 9.4 Fig. 9.5
Fig. 9.3
yield f (x) = 1 and f (x) = - 1. 9.2.2 One sided limits
Definition 9.2
That is, lim− f (x) = - 1 and lim+ f (x) = +1.
x →0 x →0 We say that the left-hand limit of f (x) as x approaches x0 (or the limit of f (x) as x approaches x0
This means that the limit does not exist. Of course, for any other value of x, there is a limit. from the left) is equal to l1 if we can make the values of f (x) arbitrarily close to l1 by taking x to be
sufficiently close to x0 and less than x0. It is symbolically written as f ( x0− ) = lim− f ( x) = l1 .
|x| |x| x → x0
For example lim− = 1 and lim+ = 1.
x →2 x x →2 x Similarly, we define the right hand limit.

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 Definition 9.3 Thus, when we say lim f ( x ) exists, it is understood that L is a unique real number. If any one of
x → x0
We say that the right-hand limit of f (x) as x approaches x0 (or the limit of f (x) as x approaches x0 the above conditions fails then we say, the limit of f (x) as x approaches x0 does not exist.
from the right) is equal to l2 if we can make the values of f (x) arbitrarily close to l2 by taking x to
+
We remark that the existence of one sided limits is weaker than the existence of limits.
be sufficiently close to x0 and greater than x0. It is symbolically written as f ( x0 ) = lim+ f ( x) = l2 .
x → x0
Sometimes it is very useful to use the following in computing left and right limits. For h > 0,
Thus the symbols “ x → x0− ” and “ x → x0+ ” mean that we consider only x < x0 and x > x0
respectively. f ( x0 ! ) $ lim f ( x0 ! h) and f ( x0 # ) $ lim f ( x0 # h).
h "0 h "0

These definitions are illustrated in the following Fig. 9.6 to 9.9.

Note that f ( x0 ! ) and f ( x0 " ) stand for the left and right limiting values. But f ( x0 ) is the value
y y
of the function at x = x 0 .

Example 9.1

Calculate lim | x | . y
x →0
f(x) y = −x y=x
l1 l2 f(x) Solution
x Recall from the earlier chapter 1
x x0
⎧− x if x < 0
x ⎪ x<0 x>0
lim f ( x) = l1 = f ( x0 − ) x0 x that |x| = ⎨0 if x = 0 x
x → x0−
⎪ x if x > 0 0
Fig. 9.6 lim f ( x) = l2 = f ( x0 ) +
⎩
x → x0+
If x > 0, then |x| = x, which tends to 0 as
Fig. 9.7
y Fig. 9.10
y
x → 0 from the right of 0. That is, lim+ | x |= 0
x →0

If x < 0, then |x| = - x which again tends to 0 as x → 0 from the left of 0. That is, lim− | x |= 0 .
x →0

Thus, lim− | x |= 0 = lim+ | x | .

x →0 x →0

Hence lim | x | = 0.
x x x →0
O x0 O x0
lim f ( x) does not exist lim f ( x) does not exist Example 9.2 y
x → x0 x → x0

Consider the function f (x) = x , x ≥ 0.

Fig. 9.8 Fig. 9.9
(Different values are obtained as (Function not defined to the left of x0) Does lim f ( x ) exist?
x0 is approached from the x →0
f ( x) = x
left and from the right) Solution
From the above discussions we conclude that lim f ( x ) = L exists if the following hold : No. f (x) = x is not even defined for x < 0.
x → x0
x
(i) lim+ f ( x ) exists, 0
x → x0 Therefore as x → 0 − , lim− x does not exist.
x →0
(ii) lim− f ( x ) exists and However, lim+ x = 0 . Therefore lim x does not exist.
x → x0
x →0
Fig. 9.11
x →0

(iii) lim+ f ( x ) = lim− f ( x ) = L .

x → x0 x → x0
Does lim− log x exist?
From the definitions of one sided limits and that of the limit of f (x) as we have the following : x →0

lim f ( x ) = L iff lim− f ( x ) = L = lim+ f ( x ) . Look at the graph of log x for the answer.
x → x0 x → x0 x → x0

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 Example 9.3 Example 9.6
4 | x −1 | +x −1
Evaluate lim− ⎣⎢ x ⎦⎥ and lim+ ⎣⎢ x ⎦⎥ . Test the existence of the limit, lim , x ¹1.
x →2 x →2
x →1 | x −1 |
Solution
Solution
4( x − 1) + x − 1 5( x − 1)
For x > 1, |x - 1| = x - 1 and f (1+ ) = lim+ = lim+ = 5.
The greatest integer function f ( x ) = ⎣⎢ x ⎦⎥ is defined as the greatest integer lesser than or x →1 x −1 x →1 ( x − 1)
equal to x.
−4( x − 1) + ( x − 1) 3( x − 1)
For x < 1, |x - 1| = - (x - 1), and f (1− ) = lim− = lim− = 3.
From the graph (Fig. 1.25) of this function it is clear that lim− ⎣⎢ x ⎦⎥ = 1 and lim+ ⎣⎢ x ⎦⎥ = 2 . x →1 −( x − 1) x →1 ( x − 1)
x →2 x →2

Moreover, for any integer n, lim− ⎢⎣ x ⎦⎥ = n − 1 and lim+ ⎢⎣ x ⎦⎥ = n . Thus f (1− ) ≠ f (1+ ) and hence the limit does not exist.
x →n x →n

Does f (x) = lim ⎡⎢ x ⎤⎥ exist? Look at the graph of ⎡⎢ x ⎤⎥ (Fig.1.26) for the answer. EXERCISE 9.1
x→n
In problems 1-6, using the table estimate the value of the limit.
Example 9.4 y x −2
(1) lim
x2 − x − 2
+1
x →2
⎧ x + 1, x > 0 x
Let f (x) = ⎨ . =
⎩ x − 1, x < 0
3 x) x 1.9 1.99 1.999 2.001 2.01 2.1
2 f(
f (x) 0.344820 0.33444 0.33344 0.333222 0.33222 0.332258
Verify the existence of limit as x → 0 .
x x −2
-3 -2 -1 (2) lim
Solution 1 2 3 x →2 x2 − 4
-1
−1 -2
=x
The function is graphed in Fig.9.12. x 1.9 1.99 1.999 2.001 2.01 2.1
) -3
f (x
Clearly lim− f ( x ) = −1 and lim+ f ( x ) = 1 . Since f (x) 0.25641 0.25062 0.250062 0.24993 0.24937 0.24390
x →0 x →0
Fig. 9.12
these limits are different, lim f ( x ) does not exist. x +3 − 3
x →0 (3) lim
x →0 x

x - 0.1 - 0.01 - 0.001 0.001 0.01 0.1

Example 9.5
⎧| x + 5 | f(x) 0.2911 0.2891 0.2886 0.2886 0.2885 0.28631
⎪ , for x ≠ −5
Check if lim f ( x ) exists or not, where f (x) = ⎨ x + 5 1− x − 2
x →−5 (4) lim
⎩⎪ 0, for x = −5 x →−3 x +3
Solution x - 3.1 - 3.01 - 3.00 - 2.999 - 2.99 - 2.9
(i) f (−5− ) . f (x) – 0.24845 – 0.24984 – 0.24998 – 0.25001 – 0.25015 – 0.25158
For x < - 5, |x + 5| = - (x + 5) sin x
(5) lim
x →0 x
−( x + 5)
Thus f (−5− ) = lim− = −1 x - 0.1 - 0.01 - 0.001 0.001 0.01 0.1
x →−5 ( x + 5)
+
(ii) f (−5 ) . f (x) 0.99833 0.99998 0.99999 0.99999 0.99998 0.99833
For x > - 5, |x + 5| = (x + 5) cos x − 1
(6) lim
x →0 x
( x + 5)
Thus f (−5+ ) = lim+ =1
x →−5 ( x + 5) x - 0.1 - 0.01 - 0.001 0.0001 0.01 0.1
Note that f (−5− ) ≠ f (−5+ ) . Hence the limit does not exist. f (x) 0.04995 0.0049999 0.0004999 –0.0004999 –0.004999 –0.04995

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 In exercise problems 7 - 15, use the graph to find the limits (if it exists). If the limit does not
exist, explain why? (13) lim sin π x (14) lim sec x
x →1 x →0
(7) lim(4 − x ) . (8) lim( x 2 + 2) . y
x →3 x →1
y

y
9
y 8

5 7

6
4
5
x
3
4

3
2 x
2
1 • 1
x x
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1
-1

Fig. 9.13 Fig. 9.14 Fig. 9.19 Fig. 9.20

(15) lim tan x
(9) lim f ( x ) (10) lim f ( x ) x→
π y
x →2 x →1 2
⎧ 4 − x, x ≠ 2 ⎧ x 2 + 2, x ≠ 1
where f (x) = ⎨ . where f (x) = ⎨ .
⎩ 0, x = 2 ⎩ 1, x = 1
y x
9
-π /2 π /2 π 3π /2
8
y
7
5
6
4
5

3 4

3
2
2 Fig. 9.21
1

x 1
x
-2 -1 0 1
!
2 3 4 5
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
Sketch the graph of f, then identify the values of x0 for which lim f ( x ) exists.
x → x0
-1 -1
⎧ x2 , x≤2
Fig. 9.15 Fig. 9.16 ⎪
(16) f (x) = ⎨8 − 2 x, 2 < x < 4 .
1 | x −5| ⎪ 4, x≥4
(11) lim (12) lim ⎩
x →3 x − 3 x →5 x − 5

y ⎧sin x, x<0
y ⎪
3
2 (17) f (x) = ⎨1 − cos x, 0 ≤ x ≤ π
⎪ cos x, x >π
2
1 O
⎩
1 (18) Sketch the graph of a function f that satisfies the given values :
x
-2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
x -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 (i) f (0) is undefined (ii) f (- 2) = 0
-1
-1 O lim f ( x) = 4 f (2) = 0
-2 x!3 x →0

-3
-2 f (2) = 6 lim f ( x) = 0
x →−2

Fig. 9.17 Fig. 9.18 lim f ( x) = 3 lim f ( x) does not exist.

x→2 x→2

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 (19) Write a brief description of the meaning of the notation lim f ( x) = 25. Theorem 9.2
x →8
.
(20) If f (2) = 4, can you conclude anything about the limit of f (x) as x approaches 2? Let I be an open interval containing x0 ∈ � .
Let f , g : I → � .
(21) If the limit of f (x) as x approaches 2 is 4, can you conclude anything about f (2)? Explain
reasoning. Suppose that c is a constant and the limits lim f ( x ) and lim g( x ) exist. Then
x → x0 x → x0
x2 − 9
(22) Evaluate : lim if it exists by finding f (3− ) and f (3+ ) . f ( x)
x →3 x − 3 lim (cf ( x )), lim[ f ( x ) + g( x )] , lim [f (x) - g(x)], lim [ f ( x) g ( x)] and lim , g( x ) ≠ 0, all exist.
x → x0 x → x0 x → x0 x → x0 x → x0 g( x )
⎧ | x − 1| Moreover,
⎪ , for x ≠ 1
(23) Verify the existence of lim f ( x), where f (x) = ⎨ x − 1 .
x →1
⎪⎩0, for x = 1 (i) lim cf ( x ) = c lim f ( x ) ,
x → x0 x → x0
9.2.3 Theorems on limits
The intention of the informal discussion in the earlier section was to have an intuitive grasp of (ii) lim[ f ( x ) ± g( x )] = lim f ( x ) ± lim g( x ) ,
x → x0 x → x0 x → x0
existence or non existence of the limit. However, it is neither desirable nor practical in every instance,
to reach a conclusion about the existence of a limit based on a graph or table of functional values. We
(iii) lim[ f ( x).g ( x)] = lim f ( x) . lim g ( x) and
must be able to evaluate a limit, or discern its non existence, in a somewhat mechanical fashion. The x → x0 x → x0 x → x0
theorems that we shall consider in this section establish such a means. The proofs of these theorems
are more of technical and are beyond the scope of this textbook.
f ( x ) xlim
→ x0
f ( x)
(iv) lim = , provided lim g ( x) ≠ 0.
x → x0 g( x ) lim g( x ) x → x0
In Illustration 9.1, we concluded that lim( x + 3) = 2 + 3 = 7. That is, the limit of f (x) = x + 3 as
2 2 2
x → x0
x →2

x tends to 2 is equal to f (x) evaluated at x = 2. [That is, f (2)]. However, this process of evaluation, as These results can be extended to any finite number of functions.
noted earlier, will not always work because f (x) may not even be defined at x0. Nevertheless, it is true
that if f is a polynomial, then it is always possible to calculate the limit by evaluation. Example 9.9
Theorem 9.1 ⎛ 3 ⎞
Compute (i) : lim(5 x ) (ii) lim ⎜ − x ⎟ .
Let P(x) = a0 + a1x + a2x2 + ... + an xn be a polynomial, where a0, a1, ..., an are real numbers and n x →8 x →−2
⎝ 2 ⎠
is a fixed positive integer. Then
Solution
lim P( x) a0 a1 x0 a2 x02  an x0n P( x0 ) .
x x0
(i) lim(5 x ) = 5 lim( x ) = 5 × 8 = 40 .
x →8 x →8
Example 9.7
Calculate lim( x 3 − 2 x + 6) . ⎛ 3 ⎞ 3 ⎛ 3⎞
x →3 (ii) lim ⎜ − x ⎟ = − lim ( x) = ⎜ − ⎟ (−2) = 3 .
x →−2
⎝ 2 ⎠ 2 x →−2 ⎝ 2⎠
Solution
P( x ) = x 3 − 2 x + 6 is a polynomial. Example 9.10
Hence, lim P( x ) = P(3) = 3 − 2 × 3 + 6 = 27.
3 ⎡ x2 + x ⎤
x →3
Compute lim ⎢ + 4 x 3 + 3⎥ .
x →0
⎣ x ⎦
Example 9.8 Solution

Calculate lim (5) for any real number x0. ⎡ x2 + x ⎤ ⎛ x2 + x ⎞

x → x0
lim ⎢ + 4 x 3 + 3⎥ = lim ⎜ ⎟ + lim(4 x + 3)
3

Solution x →0
⎣ x ⎦ x →0
⎝ x ⎠ x →0
f (x) = 5 is a polynomial (of degree 0).
= lim( x + 1) + lim(4 x 3 + 3)
Hence lim (5) = f ( x0 ) = 5 . x →0 x →0
x → x0
= (0 + 1) + (0 + 3)
The limit of a constant function is that constant.
= 4.

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 Example 9.11 Example 9.14
x −1
Calculate lim ( x − 3) . 2 10 Compute lim .
x →−1 x →1 x −1
Solution Solution

lim ( x − 3) = 1 - 3 = - 2.
2 Here lim( x − 1) = 0 . In such cases, rationalise the numerator.
x →1
x →−1

x −1 ( x " 1) 1 lim(1) 1
Therefore, lim ( x 2 − 3)10 = lim ( x 2 − 3) ( x 2 − 3)...( x 2 − 3) (10 times) lim = lim = lim = x →1
= .
x →−1 x →−1 x →1 x −1 x !1 ( x " 1) ( x # 1) x →1
x +1 lim
x →1
( x +1 ) 2
= lim ( x 2 − 3) lim ( x 2 − 3)... lim ( x 2 − 3) (10 times)
x →−1 x →−1 x →−1
Example 9.15
10
= ⎡ lim ( x 2 − 3) ⎤ = (-2)10 = 210 = 1024. t2 + 9 − 3
⎣ x →−1 ⎦ Find lim .
t →0 t2
10
Note that xlim( x 2 " 3)10 = ⎡ lim ( x 2 − 3) ⎤ . Solution
!"1 ⎣ x →−1 ⎦
We can’t apply the quotient theorem immediately. Use the algebra technique of rationalising
Theorem 9.3 the numerator.

If lim f ( x ) exists then lim [ f ( x )]n exists and lim[ f ( x )]n = ⎡ lim f ( x ) ⎤ .
⎣⎢ x → x0 ⎦⎥
n
t2 + 9 − 3
=
( t2 + 9 − 3 )( t2 + 9 + 3 )= t2 + 9 − 9
( ) ( )
x → x0 x → x0 x → x0
t2 t 2
t +9 +3
2
t 2
t2 + 9 + 3
Example 9.12
t +9 −3
2
t 1 2
1 1
lim = lim = lim = = .
Calculate lim ( x 3 − 3 x + 6) (− x 2 + 15) . t →0 t2 t t 2 + 9 + 3 t →0 t 2 + 9 + 3
t →0 2
9 +3 6
x →−2

Solution
Theorem 9.4
lim ( x 3 − 3 x + 6) = (-2)3 - 3(-2) + 6 = - 8 + 6 + 6 = 4 x n − an
x →−2
lim = na n −1 .
x →a x−a
lim (− x 2 + 15) = -(- 2)2 + 15 = - 4 + 15 = 11 Proof
x →−2

We know that x n - a n ( x - a )( x n-1 x n- 2 a x n-3 a 2  xa n-2 a n-1 )

lim ( x 3 − 3 x + 6) (− x 2 + 15) = lim ( x 3 − 3 x + 6) lim (− x 2 + 15) = 4 × 11 = 44.
x →−2 x →−2 x →−2
n −1 n−2
x −a
n
( x − a )( x
n
+x a + x a +  + xa n − 2 + a n −1 )
n −3 2
lim = lim
Example 9.13 x→a x−a x→a ( x − a)
( x 2 − 6 x + 5) = lim( x n −1 + x n − 2 a + x n −3 a 2 +  + xa n − 2 + a n −1 )
Calculate lim . x→a
x →3 x 3 − 8x + 7
Solution = a n −1 + a n −1 +  + a n −1 (n times)
xn − an
lim( x 2 − 6 x + 5) = 32 - 6 × 3 + 5 = -4 lim = na n −1 .
x →3 x−a x→a

lim( x 3 − 8 x + 7) = 33 - 8 × 3 + 7 = 10 ≠ 0. It is also true for any rational number n.

x →3

( x 2 − 6 x + 5) lim( x 2 − 6 x + 5) −4 2 Example 9.16

Therefore, lim = x →3 3 = =− .
x →3 x − 8x + 7
3
lim( x − 8 x + 7) 10 5 x3 −1
x →3 Compute lim .
x →1 x −1
Caution Solution
x3 −1 x 3 − 13
Do not use the limit theorem for the quotient if lim g ( x) = 0 . lim = lim = 3(1)3−1 = 3 .
x → x0 x →1 x −1 x →1 x − 1

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 Example 9.17 1 1
t −1 − x − x2 x2 + 1 −1
Calculate lim . (6) lim x 2 (7) lim (8) lim
t →1 t −1 x →2 x − 2
x →1
1− x x →0
x 2 + 16 − 4
Solution 1 1
1+ x −1 3
7 + x3 − 3 + x 2 2− x+2
t −1 t −1 1 1 −1 1 (9) lim (11) lim
2 2
lim = lim = (1) 2 = . x →0 x (10) lim
x →1 x −1 x →2 3
2 − 3 4−x
x →1 t −1 x →1 t − 1 2 2
1 + x2 −1 1 − x −1 x −1 − 2
Example 9.18 (12) lim (13) lim (14) lim
x →0 x x →0 x2 x →5 x −5
(2 + x )5 − 25
Find lim . x −b − a−b
x →0 x (15) lim ( a > b)
Solution x →a x 2 − a2
Put 2 + x = y so that as y → 2 as x → 0 .
(2 + x )5 − 25 y 5 − 25 9.2.4 Infinite limits and limits at infinity
Therefore, lim = lim = 5(2 4 ) = 80 .
x →0 x y → 2 y−2 Infinite Limits
1
Let f :  \{0} →  be defined by f ( x) = .
Example 9.19 x2
1
x n − 3n Let us consider the problem of calculating lim 2 .
Find the positive integer n so that lim = 27 . x →0 x
x →3 x − 3
1
Solution The following table gives the values of 2 near 0.
x
x n − 3n x ! 0" x ! 0"
lim = n.3n −1 = 27
x →3x −3
That is n.3n −1 = 3 × 32 = 3 × 33−1 ⇒ n = 3 . 1 1
x x2 x x2
x2 x2
Example 9.20
⎧ax + b if x > 3 1 1 1 -1 1 1
Find the relation between a and b if lim f ( x ) exists where f (x) = ⎨ .
x →3
⎩3ax − 4b + 1 if x < 3
0.5 0.25 4 - 0.5 0.25 4
Solution

lim f ( x) = 9a - 4b + 1 0.1 0.01 100 - 0.1 0.01 100

x →3−

lim f ( x ) = 3a + b . Now the existence of limit forces us to have 0.01 0.0001 10,000 - .01 0.0001 10,000
x → 3+

lim f ( x) = lim+ f ( x) . 0.001 0.000001 10,00,000 - 0.001 0.000001 10,00,000

x →3− x →3

⇒ 9a - 4b + 1 = 3a + b
0.0001 0.00000001 10,00,00,000 - 0.0001 0.00000001 10,00,00,000
⇒ 6a - 5b + 1 = 0.

EXERCISE 9.2 1
The table values tell us that as x gets closer and closer to 0, f (x) = gets larger and larger. In
Evaluate the following limits : x2
1
fact, grows without bound as x approaches 0 from either side. In this situation we say that f (x)
x 4 − 16 xm −1 x2
(1) lim (2) lim n , m and n are integers. 1 1
x →2 x − 2 x →1 x − 1 tends to infinity as x approaches zero and write 2 → ∞ as x → 0− and 2 → ∞ as x → 0+
x x
x 2 − 81 x+h − x x + 4 −3
(3) lim (4) lim ,x >0 (5) lim 1
x →3 x −3 h →0 h x →5 x −5 and hence → ∞ as x → 0 .
x2
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 Geometrically, x = 0 namely the y-axis is Example 9.21
a vertical asymptote to the curve representing y
1
1 Calculate lim .
f (x) = 2 . x →0 (x2 + x3 )
x
Solution
1 1 1 1
The graph of the function f (x) = 2 is shown f ( x) ! ,x#0 f ( x) ! , x"0 One can tabulate values of x near 0 (from either side) and conclude f ( x ) = grows
x x2 x2
in Fig. 9.22. x2 + x3
x without bound and hence f ( x) → ∞ as x → 0 .
Remember that the limit is infinite and so
To calculate this limit without making a table, we first divide the numerator and denominator
1 Fig. 9.22 by x2. This division can be done, since in the calculation of the limit x ≠ 0 and hence x2 ≠ 0. We
lim does not exist. Students are cautioned can have
x →0x2 1
that ∞ is a symbol for this behaviour of f (x) = 2 and is 1 ⎛ 1 ⎞
x lim ⎜ 2 ⎟
y 1 x 2
⎝ ⎠.
x →0 x
not a new number. lim 2 = lim 2 =
x →0 x + x 3 x →0 x + x 3 lim(1 + x)
1 x →0
Similarly, if we look at f (x) = , x2
x 1 1
1 f ( x) !
x
, x"0 Now 2 → ∞ as x → 0 and lim(1 + x ) = 1 .
it is easy to see that, → −∞ as x → 0− x x →0
x x Thus the numerator grows without bound while the denominator approaches 1, implying
1
and → +∞ as x → 0+ 1
x 1 that 2 does tend to infinity.
f ( x) !
x
, x"0 (x + x3 )
which is geometrically clear from the graph
1 This example illustrates how a difficult calculation can be greatly simplified by a few algebraic
of f (x) = (Fig. 9.23) .
x Fig. 9.23 manipulations.
In general we have the following intuitive
definitions. Example 9.22
y
Definition 9.4 1
Evaluate lim .
x →2 ( x − 2)3
For a given M > 0, open intervals of the form (M, ∞) is called neighbourhood of ∞. 1
f ( x) !
Similarly, for given K < 0, open intervals of the form (-∞, K) is called neighbourhood of - ∞. Solution ( x " 2)3

1
Definition 9.5 From the graph of f(x) = , x
( x − 2)3
We say, f ( x) ! " as x approaches x0 if for given positive number M there is a neighbourhood
of x0, such that whenever x is in the neighbourhood of x0 , f ( x) ! M . i.e., f ( x) " ( M , #). 1 x! 2
clearly, → −∞ as x → 2− and
Similarly, f ( x) ! "# as x approaches x0 if for a given K < 0 there is a neighbourhood of x0 ( x − 2)3
such that whenever x is in the neighbourhood of x0 , f ( x) ! K . i.e., f ( x) " (#$, K ). 1
→ ∞ as x → 2+ .
( x − 2)3
To describe this situation symbolically, we write
Hence the limit does not exist. Fig. 9.24
f ( x) → ∞ as x → x0
f ( x) → −∞ as x → x0 In general
− (i) If n is an even positive integer then (ii) If n is an odd positive integer, then
f ( x) → ∞ as x → x0
1 1
→ ∞ as x → a → −∞ as x → a −
f ( x) → −∞ as x → x0 + ( x − a)n ( x − a)n
1 1
and f ( x) → ∞ as x → x0 + → ∞ as x → a − → +∞ as x → a + .
( x − a)n ( x − a)n
f ( x) → −∞ as x → x0 − 1
→ ∞ as x → a +
are called infinite limits. If any one of the foregoing conditions hold, then the line ( x − a)n
x = x0 is a vertical asymptote for the graph of f(x). The line x = a becomes a vertical asymptote.
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 9.2.5 Limits at infinity Illustration 9.5
In the previous section we investigated infinite limits and vertical asymptotes. There, we let x 2x2 − 2x + 3
Calculate lim .
approach a number and the result was that the values of y became arbitrarily large (very large positive x →∞ x2 + 4x + 4
Solution
or very large negative). In this section, we let x become arbitrarily large (positive or negative) and see
what happens to y. If we could try to use limit theorems to calculate this limit, we end up in the following situations.

Let’s begin by investigating the behaviour of f :  →  defined by (2 x 2 − 2 x + 3) → ∞ as x → ∞

x2 !1
f(x) = 2 as x becomes large. ( x 2 + 4 x + 3) → ∞ as x → ∞
x "1
We tabulate the values of this function ⎛ 2x2 − 2x + 3 ⎞ ∞
lim ⎜ 2 ⎟ = which is called an indeterminate form.
x f(x) x →∞
⎝ x + 4x + 3 ⎠ ∞
0 -1 But actual calculation and tabulation gives the following :
±1 0
±2 0.6000000 2x2 − 2x + 3
x 2x2 − 2x + 3 x2 + 4x + 4
±3 0.800000 x2 + 4x + 4
±4 0.882353
±5 0.923077 1 3 9 0.3333
±10 0.980198
±50 0.999200 10 183 144 1.27083
±100 0.999800 100 19803 10404 1.90340
±1000 0.999998
y 1000 1998003 1004004 1.99003
As x grows larger and larger (large positive or large negative)
you can see that the values of f(x) gets closer and closer to 1. In 10000 199980003 100040004 1.99900
fact, it seems that we can make the values of f(x) as close as to 1 by y !1
Table values show that as x becomes sufficiently large, f(x) becomes closer and closer to 2. Then,
taking x sufficiently large. This situation is expressed symbolically
by writing x ⎛ 2x2 − 2x + 3 ⎞
0
-1 0 1 lim ⎜ 2 ⎟ = 2.
x −1 2
f ( x) !
x2 "1 x →∞
⎝ x + 4x + 4 ⎠
lim = 1. x2 # 1
x2 + 1
x →±∞
Fortunately, we may simplify the problem by dividing the numerator and denominator by x2. We
If we look at the graph : have
Fig. 9.25
Geometrically, (see Fig. 9.25) this situation also leads us to have
⎛ 2 3 ⎞
Definition 9.6 2x2 − 2x + 3 ⎜ 2 − x + x2 ⎟
lim = lim ⎜ ⎟
The line y = l is called a horizontal asymptote of the curve y = f(x) if either
⎜ 1 + 4 + 42
x →∞ x + 4 x + 4
2 x →∞
⎟
⎝ x x ⎠
lim f ( x) = l or lim f ( x) = l.
x →−∞ x →+∞
2−0+0 1 1
y = (since ! 0 as x ! ", 2 ! 0 as x ! ")
Illustration 9.4 1+ 0 + 0 x x
⎡ p p⎤ "1 = 2.
If f : � → ⎢− , ⎥ is defined by f ( x) ! tan x, y = tan −1 x 3π / 2
⎢⎣ 2 2 ⎥⎦
π Note that the degree of both numerator and denominator expressions are the same.
find lim f ( x) and lim f ( x).
x !" x !# "
π /2 In general, the limits as x ! "# of rational expressions can be found by first dividing the numerator
Solution x
and denominator by the highest power of x that appears in the denominator, and then calculating the
If we look at the graph of y = tan-1x, 0 limit as x ! " (or x ! #") of both numerator and denominator.
−π / 2
p Example 9.23
lim tan −1 x = - , −π
x →−∞ 2
p −3π / 2 x3 + 2x + 3
lim tan −1 x = . Calculate lim .
x →+∞ 2
x →∞ (5 x 2 + 1)
Fig. 9.26
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 Solution 9.2.7 Applications of limits
Dividing by x 2 Example 9.25
2 3 Alcohol is removed from the body by the lungs, the kidneys, and by chemical processes in
x+ + 2 liver. At moderate concentration levels, the majority work of removing the alcohol is done by
x3 + 2x + 3 x x →∞
lim = lim the liver; less than 5% of the alcohol is eliminated by the lungs and kidneys. The rate r at which
x →∞ (5 x 2 + 1) x →∞ 1
5+ 2 the liver processes alcohol from the bloodstream is related to the blood alcohol concentration
x
αx
x by a rational function of the form r(x) = for some positive constants a and b. Find the
x3 + 2 x + 3 x+β
That is, → ∞ as x → ∞. maximum possible rate of removal.
(5 x 2 + 1)
Solution
In other words, the limit does not exist.
As the alcohol concentration x increases the rate of removal increases.
Note that the degree of numerator is higher than that of the denominator.
Therefore, the maximum possible rate of removal = lim r ( x)
x →∞

αx α
Example 9.24 = lim = lim = α.
x →∞ x+β x →∞ ⎛ β⎞
⎜ 1 + ⎟
1 − x3 ⎝ x⎠
Calculate lim .
x →∞ 3x + 2
Solution 9.2.8 Sandwich Theorem
Dividing by x, we get Sandwich theorem is also known as squeeze theorem. As
shown in the figure 9.27, if f(x) is ‘squeezed’ or ‘sandwiched’
1
− x2 between g(x) and h(x) for all x close to x0, and if we know that the
1 − x3
= x ! "# as x ! # . functions g and h have a common limit l as x → x0 , it stands to
3x + 2 2 y = h(x)
3+ reason that f also approaches l as x → x0 . y = f(x)
x
y = g(x)
Therefore the limit does not exist.
Theorem 9.5 (Sandwich Theorem) x
If f , g , h : I ! � "� such that g ( x) £ f ( x) £ h( x) for all x x0
in a deleted neighbourhood of x0 contained in I, and if
9.2.6 Limits of rational functions Fig. 9.27
lim g ( x) = lim h( x) = l , then lim f ( x ) = l .
x → x0 x → x0 x → x0
p( x )
If R (x) = and the degree of the polynomial p(x) is greater than the degree of q(x), then
q( x ) Example 9.26
According to Einstein’s theory of relativity, the mass m of a body moving with velocity v
p( x)
→ +∞ or − ∞ as x → ∞. m0
q( x) is m = , where m0 is the initial mass and c is the speed of light. What happens to m as
v2
If the degree of q(x) is greater than the degree of p(x), then 1− 2
c
p( x ) v ! c " . Why is a left hand limit necessary?
lim = 0.
x →∞ q( x ) Solution
Finally, if the degree of p(x) is equal to the degree of q(x), then m0 m0
lim (m) = lim− =
p( x ) coeffiecent of highest power of x in p( x )
ν →c − ν →c
ν2 v2
lim = . 1− lim- 1-
x →∞ q( x ) coefficient of highest power of x in q( x ) c2 v c c2
Remark
For h > 0, c − h < v < c. This implies, (c − h) 2 < v 2 < c 2 .
We reemphasize that statements such as f ( x) → ∞ as x → a, f ( x) → −∞ as x → a, and (c − h) 2 v 2 (c − h ) 2 v2
f ( x) → ∞ as x → ∞, f ( x) → −∞ as x → ∞ mean that the limits do not exist. The symbol ∞ does That is, < 2 < 1. That is, lim < lim 2 < lim 1.
c2 c h→ 0 c2 h→ 0 c h→ 0
not represent a number and should not be treated as a number.

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 v2 v2 EXERCISE 9.3
That is, 1 < lim < 1. That is, 1 < lim− 2 < 1. By Sandwich theorem, lim =1.
h→ 0 c2 v→c c v→ c−
x2 - 4
(1) (a) Find the left and right limits of f ( x) at x -2.
Therefore, lim− (m) → ∞. ( x2 4 x 4)( x 3)
v→c
π
That is, the mass becomes very very large (infinite) as v → c− . (b) f ( x) = tan x at x = .
v2 2
The left hand limit is necessary. Otherwise as ν → c + makes 1 − 2 < 0 and consequently Evaluate the following limits
c
we cannot find the mass.
x2 − 9 3 2 x + 11 x3 + x
Example 9.27 (2) lim (3) lim − (4) lim
x →3 x ( x 2 − 6 x + 9)
2 x →∞ x − 2 x2 + x − 6 x →∞ x − 3x 2 + 1
4

32 1 − e −2t 32 k
The velocity in ft/sec of a falling object is modeled by r (t ) = − , where k is
k 1 + e −2t 32 k x 4 − 5x 1 + x − 3x3 ⎛ x3 x2 ⎞
(5) lim (6) lim (7) lim ⎜ 2 − ⎟
a constant that depends upon the size and shape of the object and the density of the air. Find the x →∞ x 2 − 3x + 1 x →∞ 1 + x 2 + 3x3 x →∞ 2 x − 1
⎝ 2 x +1 ⎠
limiting velocity of the object, that is, find lim r (t ) .
t →∞
Solution (8) Show that
32 1 − e −2t 32 k
lim r (t ) = lim − 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n 1 12 + 22 + ... + (3n) 2 9
t →∞ t →∞ k 1 + e −2t 32 k (i) lim = (ii) lim =
n →∞ 3n 2 + 7 n + 2 6 n →∞ (1 + 2 + ... + 5n)(2n + 3) 25
32 1 − e −2t 32 k
=− lim 1 1 1 1
k t →∞ 1 + e −2t 32 k (iii) lim + + + ... + =1
n →∞ 1.2 2.3 3.4 n(n + 1)
32 (1 − 0) 32 (9) An important problem in fishery science is to estimate the number of fish presently spawning
=− =− ft/sec.
k (1 + 0) k in streams and use this information to predict the number of mature fish or “recruits” that will
return to the rivers during the reproductive period. If S is the number of spawners and R the
S
Example 9.28 number of recruits, “Beverton-Holt spawner recruit function” is R(S) = where a and
(α S + β )
160 x −0.4 + 90 b are positive constants. Show that this function predicts approximately constant recruitment
Suppose that the diameter of an animal’s pupils is given by f ( x) = , where
4 x −0.4 + 15 when the number of spawners is sufficiently large.
x is the intensity of light and f(x) is in mm. Find the diameter of the pupils with (a) minimum
(10) A tank contains 5000 litres of pure water. Brine (very salty water) that contains 30 grams of
light (b) maximum light. salt per litre of water is pumped into the tank at a rate of 25 litres per minute. The concentration
30t
Solution of salt water after t minutes (in grams per litre) is C(t) = .
200 + t
(a) For minimum light it is enough to find the limit of the function when x → 0+. What happens to the concentration as t ! " ?

160 x −0.4 + 90 160 + 90 x 0.4 Example 9.29

lim f ( x) = lim+ −0.4
= lim+
x → 0+ x →0 4 x + 15 x → 0 4 + 15 x 0.4 ⎛1⎞
Evaluate lim x 2 sin ⎜ ⎟ .
160 x →0
⎝x⎠
= = 40mm .
4 Solution
(b) For maximum light, it is enough to find the limit of the function when x → ∞ 1 1
We know that !1 " sin " 1 # ! x 2 " x 2 sin " x 2
x x
160 x −0.4 + 90 90
lim f ( x) = lim = = 6mm
x →∞ x →∞ 4 x −0.4 + 15 15 1
Take g(x) = -x2, f(x) = x 2 sin ; h( x ) = x 2
That is, the pupils have a limiting size of 6mm, as the intensity of light is very large. x
Then lim g( x ) = lim(− x 2 ) = 0 and
x →0 x →0

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 lim h( x ) = lim( x 2 ) = 0 . ⎡⎢ 1 ⎥ ⎢ 2 ⎥ ⎢15 ⎥ ⎤
x →0 x →0
lim (120 − 15 x) ≤ lim+ x ⎢ ⎢ ⎥ + ⎢ ⎥ +  + ⎢ ⎥ ⎥ ≤ lim+ (120 + 15 x)
By Sandwich theorem, x →0 + x →0
⎣⎣ x ⎦ ⎣ x ⎦ ⎣ x ⎦ ⎦ x →0
⎛1⎞ ⎡⎢ 1 ⎥ ⎢ 2 ⎥ ⎢15 ⎥ ⎤
lim x 2 sin ⎜ ⎟ = 0. 120 ≤ lim+ x ⎢ ⎢ ⎥ + ⎢ ⎥ +  + ⎢ ⎥ ⎥ ≤ 120
x →0
⎝x⎠ x →0
⎣⎣ x ⎦ ⎣ x ⎦ ⎣ x ⎦⎦
We could have wrongly concluded had we resorted to applying the limit theorems, namely ⎡⎢ 1 ⎥ ⎢ 2 ⎥ ⎢15 ⎥ ⎤
lim x ⎢ ⎢ ⎥ + ⎢ ⎥ +  + ⎢ ⎥ ⎥ = 120 .
⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
x → 0+
⎣⎣ x ⎦ ⎣ x ⎦ ⎣ x ⎦⎦
lim x 2 ⎜ sin ⎟ = lim( x 2 ) lim ⎜ sin ⎟
x →0
⎝ x ⎠ x →0 x →0
⎝ x⎠
9.2.9 Two special Trigonometrical limits
1 ⎛1⎞
Now, lim sin does not exist, lim x 2 = 0 and hence lim x 2 sin ⎜ ⎟ leading us into trouble.
x →0 x x →0 x →0
⎝x⎠ Result 9.1
sin ! 1 − cos θ
Note that, if a ! f ( x) ! a, then lim f ( x) " a. (a) lim #1 =0 . (b) lim
x # x0 ! "0 ! θ θ →0
Proof
Example 9.30 We use a circular sector to prove the result.
Consider the circle with centre (0, 0) and radius 1. Any point on this circle is
Prove that lim sin x = 0 .
Solution
x →0 P(cosq, sinq).
Since ! x " sin x " x for all x # 0 (cos !, sin !)

}
lim(− x ) = 0 and
x →0 y
lim( x ) = 0. tan !
x →0 ! sin !
By Sandwich theorem ! !
! x ! sin !
tan ! Area of sector Area of triangle
lim sin x = 0. (1,0) Area of triangle 2 2
x →0 2

Example 9.31
Fig. 9.28 Fig. 9.29 Fig. 9.30 Fig. 9.31
⎡⎢ 1 ⎥ ⎢ 2 ⎥ ⎢15 ⎥ ⎤
Show that lim+ x ⎢ ⎢ ⎥ + ⎢ ⎥ +  + ⎢ ⎥ ⎥ = 120 .
x →0
⎣⎣ x ⎦ ⎣ x ⎦ ⎣ x ⎦⎦ tan θ θ sin θ
By area property ≥ ≥ .
Solution 2 2 2
1 ⎢1⎥ 1 2 1 θ
−1 ≤ ⎢ ⎥ ≤ +1 Multiplying each expression by produces ≥ ≥ 1 and taking reciprocals
x ⎣x⎦ x sin θ cos θ sin θ
2 ⎢2⎥ 2 sin θ
−1 ≤ ⎢ ⎥ ≤ +1 cos θ ≤ ≤1 .
x ⎣x⎦ x θ
sin(−θ ) sin θ
Because cos (- q) = cosq and = one can conclude that this inequality is valid for
 −θ θ
15 ⎢15 ⎥ 15 ⎛ π π⎞
−1 ≤ ⎢ ⎥ ≤ +1 all non-zero q in the open interval ⎜ − , ⎟ .
Summing, we get,
x ⎣x⎦ x ⎝ 2 2⎠
sin θ
120 ⎢1⎥ ⎢2⎥ ⎢15 ⎥ 120 We know that lim cos θ = 1; lim(1) = 1 and applying Sandwich theorem we get lim =1 .
− 15 ≤ ⎢ ⎥ + ⎢ ⎥ +  + ⎢ ⎥ ≤ + 15 θ →0 θ →0 θ →0 θ
x ⎣x⎦ ⎣x⎦ ⎣x⎦ x
1 − cos θ
(b) lim = 0.
⎡⎢ 1 ⎥ ⎢ 2 ⎥ ⎢15 ⎥ ⎤ θ →0 θ
120 − 15x ≤ x ⎢ ⎢ ⎥ + ⎢ ⎥ +  + ⎢ ⎥ ⎥ ≤ 120 + 15 x θ
⎣⎣ x ⎦ ⎣ x ⎦ ⎣ x ⎦⎦ 1 - cosq = 2 sin 2
2

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 ⎛θ ⎞ Result 9.4
sin ⎜ ⎟ log(1 + x)
1 − cos θ ⎛ θ⎞ ⎝2⎠ lim = 1.
= ⎜ sin ⎟ x
⎛θ ⎞
x →0
θ ⎝ 2⎠
⎜2⎟ Proof
⎝ ⎠
Take log(1 + x) = y
⎛ sin θ ⎞
1 − cos θ ⎛ θ⎞ ⎜ ⎟ Then y → 0 as x → 0 and
Therefore, lim = lim ⎜ sin ⎟ .lim ⎜ 2 ⎟
θ →0 θ θ →0
⎝ 2 ⎠ θ →0 ⎜ θ ⎟ 1+ x = ey
⎝ 2 ⎠
= 0 × 1 = 0. x = e y −1

log(1 + x) y
9.2.10 Some important other limits Therefore, lim = lim
x →0 x y →0 e y −1
Result 9.2
ex −1 1 1
lim = 1. = lim = = 1.
x →0 x
y →0 ⎛ e y −1 ⎞ 1
⎜ ⎟
⎝ y ⎠
Proof
x x 2 x3 Some important limits without proof
e x =1 + + + + ... (from sequences and series)
1! 2 ! 3! Results 9.5 to 9.9
⎛x x x ⎞ 2 3
sin −1 x
ex − 1 ⎜ + + + ...⎟ (5) lim =1 (8) lim(1 + x)1/ x = e
= lim ⎜ 1! 2 ! 3! x
x →0
lim ⎟
x →0
x→0 x x→0
⎜ x ⎟ tan x−1
⎛ k⎞
x

⎝ ⎠ (6) lim =1 (9) lim ⎜1 + ⎟ = e k .

x →0 x x →∞
⎝ x⎠
⎛ x x2 ⎞ x
= lim ⎜1 + + + ...⎟ = 1. ⎛ 1⎞
x→0 ⎝ 2! 3 ! ⎠ (7) lim ⎜1 + ⎟ exists and this limit is e.
x →∞
⎝ x⎠
Result 9.3
This number e is also known as transcendental number in the sense that e never satisfies a
ax −1 polynomial (algebraic) equation of the form
lim = log a, a > 0
x →0 x
Proof a0 x n ! a1 x n #1 !  ! an #1 x ! an " 0.

We know that a x , log a x are inverses of each other. Example 9.32

Evaluate : lim(1 + sin x )2 cosec x
Since log f ( x) is the inverse of exp( f ( x)), exp(log f ( x)) = f ( x). x →0
Solution
1
Therefore, a x = exp(log a x ) Let sin x =
y
As x ! 0, y ! " and
= e x log a 2
⎛ 1⎞
2y
⎡ ⎛ 1⎞ ⎤
y

lim(1 + sin x )2 cosec x = lim ⎜ 1 + ⎟ = ⎢ lim ⎜ 1 + ⎟ ⎥ = e2 .

a −1
x
e −1 x log a
x →0 y →∞
⎝ y⎠ ⎢⎣ y →∞ ⎝ y⎠ ⎥
Therefore, = × log a ⎦
x x log a
Example 9.33
x
Now as x → 0, y = x log a → 0 Evaluate : lim ⎛⎜ x + 2 ⎞⎟ .
x →∞ x − 2
⎝ ⎠
ax −1 e y −1 ⎛ e y −1 ⎞ Solution
Therefore, lim = lim × log a = log a lim ⎜ ⎟ = log a x x −2 + 2 ( x − 2) + 2
x →0 x y → 0 y y → 0
⎝ y ⎠ ⎛ x+2⎞ ⎛ x −2+4⎞ ⎛ 4 ⎞
ex −1 lim ⎜ ⎟ = lim ⎜ ⎟ = lim ⎜ 1 + ⎟
x →∞ x − 2
(since lim = 1). ⎝ ⎠ x →∞
⎝ x − 2 ⎠ x →∞
⎝ x − 2 ⎠
x →0 x
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 Let y ! x " 2, as x # $, y # $ and (Let y ! x " 2, Then as x # $, y # $) Hence the limit does not exist. Note that f (0− ) ≠ f (0+ ) .
x y+2 y 2 ⎧ sin( x)
⎛ x+2⎞ ⎛ 4⎞ ⎛ 4⎞ ⎛ 4⎞ ⎪⎪ − x if − 1 < x < 0
lim ⎜
x →∞ x − 2
⎟ = lim ⎜1 + ⎟ = lim ⎜ 1 + ⎟ .lim ⎜ 1 + ⎟
(ii)
sin x
= ⎨
⎝ ⎠ y →∞
⎝ y⎠ y →∞
⎝ y ⎠ y→∞ ⎝ y⎠
| x| ⎪ sin x if 0 < x < 1
= e .1 = e .
4 4
⎪⎩ x

Example 9.34 Therefore, lim− f ( x) = -1

x →0

4 2 − (cos x + sin x ) 5
lim f ( x) = 1
Evaluate : lim . x → 0+
x→
π 1 − sin 2 x
4 Hence the limit does not exist.
Solution 5 5

4 2 − (cos x + sin x ) 2 − ⎡⎣(cos x + sin x )2 ⎤⎦ 2

5 2 ⎧ −x
= x ⎣⎢ x ⎦⎥ ⎪⎪ sin(− x) if − 1 < x < 0
1 − sin 2 x 1 − sin 2 x (iii) f ( x) = = ⎨
sin | x | ⎪ x.0
5 5 if 0 < x < 1
2 − (1 + sin 2 x )
2 2 ⎪⎩ sin x
=
2 − (1 + sin 2 x ) ⎧ x
⎪ if − 1 < x < 0
5 5 = ⎨ sin x
2 − (1 + sin 2 x )
2 2
⎪⎩0 if 0 < x < 1
=
2 − (1 + sin 2 x )
Therefore, lim− f ( x ) = +1
x →0
5 5 5
2 − [(cos x + sin x) ]
2 2 5/2
2 − [1 + sin 2 x ) ]
2 2 lim f ( x ) = 0.
Therefore, lim = lim . x →0 +
x→
π 2 − [1 + sin 2 x] x→
π 2 − (1 + sin 2 x ) Hence the limit does not exist.
4 4
π ⎧ sin( x − (−1))
Take y = 1 + sin2x. As x → , y→2 if − 1 < x < 0
4 sin ( x − ⎣⎢ x ⎦⎥ ) ⎪⎪ x − (−1)
5 5 (iv) = ⎨
2 −y
2 2 x − ⎢⎣ x ⎥⎦ ⎪ sin( x − 0)
= lim if 0 < x < 1
y →2 2−y ⎩⎪ x − 0

5 25 −1 5 23 ⎧ sin( x + 1)
= .2 = × 2 = 5 2 . ⎪ if − 1 < x < 0
2 2 f ( x) = ⎪⎨ ( x + 1)
⎪ sin x if 0 < x < 1
Example 9.35 ⎪⎩ x
Do the limits of following functions exist as x → 0? State reasons for your answer.
sin1
lim f ( x) = = sin1
sin | x | sin x x ⎣⎢ x ⎦⎥ sin ( x − ⎣⎢ x ⎦⎥ ) x → 0− 1
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) .
x |x| sin | x | x − ⎢⎣ x ⎥⎦ lim+ f ( x) = 1.
x →0
Solution Hence the limit does not exist.
⎧ sin(− x)
⎪⎪ x if − 1 < x < 0
(i) f ( x) = ⎨ EXERCISE 9.4
⎪ sin x if 0 < x < 1 Evaluate the following limits :
⎪⎩ x
7x
⎛ 1⎞
Therefore, lim− f ( x ) = −1 and (1) lim ⎜1 + ⎟ (2) lim(1 + x)1/3 x
x →0 x →∞
⎝ x⎠ x →0
m 8 x2 +3
lim+ f ( x ) = +1 . ⎛ k ⎞x ⎛ 2x2 + 3 ⎞
x →0 (3) lim ⎜1 + ⎟ (4) lim ⎜ 2 ⎟
x →∞ 2 x + 5
x →∞
⎝ x⎠ ⎝ ⎠
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 ⎛x⎞ have a favourable limit”. In order to formulate the concept of continuity in terms of limit we must
x+2 sin 3 ⎜ ⎟
⎛ 3⎞ ⎝2⎠ focus our attention at a point. Both continuity and limit are primarily concepts defined at a point, but
(5) lim ⎜1 + ⎟ (6) lim
x →∞
⎝ x⎠ x →0 x3 continuity acquires a global character in a pointwise way.
sin α x tan 2 x For motivation, consider
(7) lim (8) lim the following physical situation. 75 F 250 F
x →0 sin β x x →0 sin 5 x Thermometer
A thermometer T measures
T reading
sin(α n ) sin(a + x ) − sin(a − x ) temperatures along a given hot
(9) lim (10) lim
α →0 (sin α ) m x →0 x wire L.
To each point x on the hot
x 2 + a2 − a 2 arcsin x wire L is assigned a temperature
(11) lim (12) lim
x +b −b
x →0 2 2 x →0 3x readings t(x) on thermometer, hot wire
1 − cos x tan 2 x T. Suppose, to fix ideas, the
(13) lim (14) lim temperature recordings are x0 x L
x →0 x2 x →0 x
observed to be the same, 250°F,
2 −3
x x
3x − 1 as one moves along the wire L Fig. 9.32
(15) lim (16) lim
x →0 x x →0
x +1 −1 until a point x0 is reached on L.
Then suppose that at x0 the temperature drops suddenly to near room temperature, say 75°F, as
1 − cos2 x ⎡ 1 ⎛1⎞
1
⎤
(17) lim (18) lim x ⎢3 x + 1 − cos ⎜ ⎟ − e x ⎥ if an insulation were at x0. But, beyond x0 suppose readings of 250°F are again observed. In function
x →0 x sin 2 x x →∞
⎣ ⎝x⎠ ⎦ notation we are assuming that
sin 3 x
(19) lim{x[log( x + a ) − log( x)]} (20) lim ⎪⎧250 F if x ≠ x0

x →∞ x →π sin 2 x
t(x) = ⎨ 
⎪⎩75 F if x = x0
2 − 1 + cos x
(21) lim(1 + sin x )2 cosec x (22) lim Thus the point x0 stands out as singular point (“singular” means “special” or “unusual”).
x →π x →0 sin 2 x Analyzing the range of temperature readings, we should say that the approach of x to x0 had no
x bearing on the approach of the corresponding t(x) values to t(x0). Briefly, a jump occurs at x0. Thus
1 + sin x − 1 − sin x ⎛ x2 − 2x + 1 ⎞
(23) lim (24) lim ⎜ 2 ⎟ we would be led to say that the temperature function “lacks continuity at x0”. For, we would have
x →0 tan x x →∞ x − 4 x + 2
⎝ ⎠ expected t(x0) to be 250°F since the x values neighbouring x0 showed t(x) = 250°F. We now abstract
e x − e− x e ax − ebx the notion of continuity, and demand that images be “close” when pre-images are “close”. In our
(25) lim (26) lim example the points on the hot wire were the pre-images, while the temperature readings there were
x →0 sin x x →0 x
the corresponding images.
sin x (1 − cos x ) tan x − sin x
(27) lim (28) lim The students should reflect on the intuitive idea of continuity by considering instead the
x →0 x3 x →0 x3
contrasting idea of lack of continuity, or more simply “discontinuity” as manifested in every day
experiences of abrupt changes which could be headed “then suddenly!”. A few that come readily to
9.3 Continuity mind are listed below along with functions which correspond as mathematical models:
One of the chief features in the behaviour of functions is the property known as continuity. It (1) Switching on a light : light intensity as a function of time.
reflects mathematically the general trait of many phenomena observed by us in nature. For instance,
(2) Collision of a vehicle : Velocity as a function of time.
we speak of the continuous expansion of a rod on heating, of the continuous growth of an organism,
of a continuous flow, or a continuous variation of atmospheric temperature etc. (3) Switching off a radio : Sound intensity as a function of time.
The idea of continuity of a function stems from the geometric notion of “no breaks in a graph”. (4) Busting of a balloon: Radius as a function of air input.
In fact, the name itself derives from the Latin continuere, “to hang together”. Nevertheless, to identify (5) Breaking of a string : Tension as a function of length.
continuity with “no breaks in a graph” or “a hanging together” has serious drawbacks, at least from (6) Cost of postage : Postage as a function of weight.
the point of view of applying the concept to the analysis of functions. Accordingly, a premature use (7) Income tax : Tax-rate as a function of taxable income.
of the graph to gain insight into the meaning of continuity is advised against as gravely misleading.
(8) Age count in years : Age in whole years as a function of time.
However, we will realise later that for functions with interval domains, continuity means essentially
that the graph may be traced without lifting the point of the pencil. (9) Cost of insurance premium : Premium as a function of age.
The proper and effective way of attitude which allows us to put the concept to work is to Actually, examples (1) - (5) are not quite accurate. For example, light intensity has a transparent
correlate continuity with limit. Loosely speaking, to possess the property of continuity will mean “to but continuous passage from zero luminosity to positive luminosity. Indeed, nature appears to abhor

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 discontinuity. On the other hand, (6) - (9) are in fact discontinuous and really show jumps at certain Note that although lim f ( x ) exists, the function value at - 4, namely f(- 4) is not defined.
x →−4
points.
Thus the existence of lim f ( x ) has no bearing on the existence of f(- 4).
Students are advised to relate the mathematical definition of continuity corresponds closely x →−4

with the meaning of the word continuity in everyday language. A continuous process is one that takes Now we formally define continuity as in
place gradually, without interruption or abrupt change. That is, there are no holes, jumps or gaps.
Following figure identifies three values of x at which the graph of a function f is not continuous. At all Definition 9.7
other points in the interval (a, b), the graph of f is uninterrupted and continuous. Let I be an open interval in  containing x0. Let f : I → � . Then f is said to be continuous
y y y at x0 if it is defined in a neighbourhood of this point and if the limit of this function, as the
f(x0) independent variable x tends to x0, exists and is equal to the value of the function at x = x0.
Thus three requirements have to be satisfied for the continuity of a function y = f(x) at x = x0 :
(i) f(x) must be defined in a neighbourhood of x0 (i.e., f ( x0 ) exists);

( ) x ( ) x ( ) x (ii) lim f ( x ) exists ;

x0 x → x0
a x0 b a x0 b a b
− +
both f ( x0 ) and f ( x0 ) lim f ( x) ≠ f ( x0 ) (iii) f(x0) = lim f ( x ) .
f ( x0 ) is not defined x → x0 x → x0
exist, but not equal
Fig. 9.33 Fig. 9.34 Fig. 9.35 The condition (iii) can be reformulated as lim [ f ( x0 + ∆x ) − f ( x0 ) ] = 0 and the continuity of f
∆x →0
at x0 can be restated as follows :
Looking at the above graphs (9.33 to 9.35), three conditions exist for which the graph of f is not
continuous at x = x0. Definition 9.8
It appears that continuity at x = x0 can be destroyed by any one of the following three conditions: A function y = f(x) is said to be continuous at a point x0 (or at x = x0) if it is defined in some

(1) The function is not defined at x = x0. neighbourhood of x0 and if !lim

x "0
% f (x 0 # !x ) $ f (x 0 )& ' 0 .
(2) The limit of f(x) does not exist at x = x0.
(3) The limit of f(x) exists at x = x0, but, it is not equal to f(x0). x → x0 ( )
The condition (iii) can also be put in the form lim f ( x ) = f lim x . Thus, if the symbol of the
x → x0

Now let us look at the illustrative examples limit and the symbol of the function can be interchanged, the function is continuous at the limiting
value of the argument.
Illustration 9.6
16 − x 2
(i) f(x) = x2+3 (ii) f(x) =
4+ x 9.3.1 Examples of functions Continuous at a point
(i) As x → 2 , the one sided limits are (1) Constant function is continuous at each point of  .

lim f ( x ) = 7 Let f ( x) = k , k ∈  is constant. If x0 ∈ , then f ( x0 ) = k .

x →2 −

lim f ( x ) = 7
x →2 + lim f ( x) = lim(k ) = k .
x → x0 x → x0

and hence lim f ( x ) = 7 and moreover f(2) is defined and f(2) = 7 = lim f ( x ) . In this case f(x) (2) Power functions with positive integer exponents are continuous at every point of 
x →2 x →2
is continuous at x = 2.
If f(x) = xn, domain of f is  = (- ∞, ∞) and lim x n = xon , x0 ∈  by the limit theorem.
x → x0
(ii) The one sided limits are : lim f ( x ) = 8 n n #1
x →−4 − (3) Polynomial functions, p(x) = a0 x ! a1 x !  ! an #1 x ! an , a0 " 0
lim f ( x ) = 8 are continuous at every point of  . By limit theorem,
x →−4 +

and therefore lim f ( x ) = 8 but f(- 4) does not exist. n n #1

lim p( x ) = a0 x0 ! a1 x0 !  ! an #1 x0 ! an " p ( x0 ) .
x →−4
x → x0

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 (4) Quotients of polynomials namely rational functions of the form (10) The modulus function
p( x ) ⎧− x if x < 0
R(x) = , are continuous at every point where q(x) ≠ 0, and ⎪
q( x ) f(x) = |x| = ⎨0 if x = 0
p( x ) ⎪ x if x > 0
lim R( x ) = lim ⎩
x → x0 x → x0 q( x ) is continuous at all points of the real line  .

lim p( x ) In particular,
x → x0 p( x0 )
= = = R( x 0 ) . lim | x | = lim− (− x ) = 0,
lim q( x ) q( x 0 ) x →0 − x →0
x → x0

(5) The circular functions sin x and cos x are continuous at every point of their domain lim+ | x | = lim+ (x) = 0, and
x →0 x →0

 = (- ∞, ∞) since lim sin x = sin x0, lim cos x = cos x0 . lim f ( x ) = 0 = lim+ f ( x ) = 0 = f(0).
x → x0 x → x0
x →0 − x →0

As a consequence, tan x, cot x, cosec x, sec x are continuous on their proper domains in view of (11) The exponential function f(x) = ex is continuous on  .
the reciprocal and quotient rules in the algebra of limits.
(12) The logarithmic function f(x) = log x (x > 0) in continuous in (0, ∞)
1
⎛ ⎞ 1 1

(6) The nth root functions, f ( x ) = x are continuous in their proper domain since lim ⎜ x ⎟ = x .
n n n
0 9.3.2 Algebra of continuous functions
x → x0
⎝ ⎠
If f and g are continuous at x0 then
1
(7) The reciprocal function f ( x ) = is not defined at 0 and hence it is not continuous at 0. It is (1) f + g is continuous at x = x0,
x
(2) f - g is continuous at x = x0,
continuous at each point of  − {0} .
(3) f . g is continuous at x = x0, and
⎧ x + 1, x ≤ 0 f
(8) h(x) = ⎨ 2 (4) is continuous at x = x0 (g(x) ≠ 0).
⎩ x + 1, x > 0 g
The domain of h is all of real numbers and
(5) Composite function theorem on continuity.
lim− h(x) = lim− ( x + 1) = 1 = h(0) If f is continuous at g(x0) and g is continuous at x0 then fog is continuous at x0.
x →0 x →0

lim h(x) = lim+ ( x 2 + 1) = 1 = h(0) . Continuity in a closed interval

x →0 + x →0

Thus h(x) is continuous at x = 0. Definition 9.9

A function f :[a, b] →  is said to be continuous on the closed interval [a, b] if it is
Indeed, h(x) is continuous at each point of (- ∞, 0) and each point of (0, ∞) and hence h is
continuous on the open interval (a, b) and
continuous in the whole of (- ∞, ∞).
lim f ( x ) = f (a) and lim− f ( x ) = f(b).
x →a+ x →b
(9) The greatest integer function f(x) = ⎣⎢ x ⎥⎦ is not continuous at x = 0.
That is, the function f is continuous from the right at a and continuous from the left at b,
For, lim ⎢⎣ x ⎥⎦ = - 1 and and is continuous at each point x0 ∈ (a, b) .
x →0 −

lim ⎣⎢ x ⎦⎥ = 0 Illustration 9.7

x →0 +

It is discontinuous at each integer point. In fact, Discuss the continuity of f(x) = 1 − x 2 .

The domain of definition of f is the closed interval [-1,1].
lim ⎣⎢ x ⎦⎥ = n - 1 and
x →n− (f is defined if 1 - x2 ≥ 0)
For any point c ! ("1,1)
lim ⎣⎢ x ⎦⎥ = n.
x →n+

XI - Mathematics 122 123 Limits and Continuity

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 1
y
lim f(x) = lim 1 − x 2 = ⎡ lim(1 − x 2 ) ⎤ 2 1
x →c x →c ⎣ x →c ⎦ g(x) = − x, f ( x) = x sin , h( x) = x
1
1
x
= (1 − c ) = f (c) .
2 2
f ( x) ! 1 " x 2 lim g ( x) = 0, lim h( x) = 0
x →0 x →0
1

lim+ f ( x ) = xlim (1 − x ) = 0 = f (1) .

2 2
1
x →−1
→−1 +
and have lim x sin = 0.
x →0 x
1
x
lim f ( x ) = ⎡⎢ lim− (1 − x 2 ) ⎤⎥ = 0 = f(-1). By Sandwich theorem
2
-1 1
x →−1− ⎣ x →−1 ⎦
⎛ 1⎞
Thus f is continuous on [-1, 1]. One can also solve lim ⎜ x sin ⎟ = 0 = h(0).
this problem using composite function theorem.
o x →0
⎝ x⎠
Fig. 9.36 Therefore h(x) is continuous in the entire real line.
Example 9.36
Describe the interval(s) on which each function is continuous. Example 9.37
(i) f(x) = tan x A tomato wholesaler finds that the price of a newly harvested tomatoes is ₹ 0.16
per kg if he purchases fewer than 100 kgs each day. However, if he purchases at least 100 kgs
⎧ 1
⎪sin , x ≠ 0 daily, the price drops to ₹ 0.14 per kg. Find the total cost function and discuss the cost when the
(ii) g(x) = ⎨ x
purchase is 100 kgs.
⎩⎪0, x=0
⎧ 1
Solution
24 y
⎪ x sin , x ≠ 0 22
(iii) h(x) = ⎨ x 20
⎩⎪0, x=0 18
16 .14
m=
Solution 14
p
(i) The tangent function f(x) = tanx is undefined at x = (2n + 1) , n ∈ Z . 12
2 10
At all other points it is continuous, so f(x) = tan x is continuous on each of the open 8
.16
intervals 6 m=
4
⎛ 3π π ⎞ ⎛ π π ⎞ ⎛ π 3π ⎞ 2
... ⎜ − , − ⎟ , ⎜ − , ⎟ , ⎜ ,
⎝ 2 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 2 ⎟⎠
,...
100
x
-2
1 -4
(ii) The function y = is continuous at all points of  except at x = 0 where it is
x -6
undefined. -8
1
The function g( x ) = sin is continuous at all points except x = 0, where lim g( x ) Fig.9.37
x x →0

does not exist. So, g is continuous on the intervals (- ∞, 0) and (0, ∞)

Let x denote the number of kilograms bought per day and C denote the cost. Then,
(iii) The function h(x) is defined at all points of the real line  = (- ∞, ∞) ; for any
x0 ≠ 0,
⎧0.16 x, if 0 ≤ x < 100
⎛ 1⎞ C(x) = ⎨ .
lim h( x ) = ⎜ lim x sin ⎟
x⎠ ⎩0.14 x, if x ≥ 100
x → x0
⎝ x → x0
1 The sketch of this function is shown in Fig. 9.37.
= x0 sin = h(x0)
x0 It is discontinuous at x = 100 since lim − C ( x ) = 16 and lim + C ( x ) = 14 .
For x0 = 0 x →100 x →100
1
h(x) = [Link] Note that C(100) = 14. Thus, lim − C ( x ) = 16 ≠ 14 = lim + C ( x ) = C (100) .
x x →100 x →100
1 Note also that the function jumps from one finite value 14 to another finite value 16.
- x ≤ x sin ≤ x
x
XI - Mathematics 124 125 Limits and Continuity

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 9.3.3 Removable and Jump Discontinuities Example 9.38
Let us look at the following functions :
⎧ 2 1
sin x ⎪ x sin , if x ≠ 0
(i) f ( x) = Determine if f defined by f(x) = ⎨ x is continuous in  .
x ⎪⎩0, if x = 0
(ii) g ( x) = C ( x), where C(x) is as defined in Example 9.38. Solution
The function f(x) is defined at all points of the real line except x = 0. That is, f(0) is undefined, but 1
By Sandwitch theorem lim x 2 sin = 0 and f(0) = 0 by the definition of f(x). Hence it is
sin x
x →0 x
lim = 1 exists. If we redefine the function f(x) as continuous at x = 0. For other values it is clearly continuous and hence continuous in  .
x →0 x
⎧ sin x
⎪ ,x ≠ 0
h(x) = ⎨ x EXERCISE 9.5
⎪⎩1, x=0
(1) Prove that f(x) = 2x + 3x - 5 is continuous at all points in  .
2

h is defined at all points of the real line including x = 0. Moreover, h is continuous at (2) Examine the continuity of the following :
x =0 since
(i) x + sin x (ii) x 2 cos x (iii) e x tan x
sin x
lim h( x) = lim = 1 = h(0) . sin x
x →0 x →0 x (iv) e2 x + x 2 (v) [Link] x (vi)
x2
Note that h(x) = f(x) for all x ≠ 0. Even though the original function f(x) fails to be continuous at x 2 − 16 | x −2|
x = 0, the redefined function became continuous at 0. That is, we could remove the discontinuity by (vii) (viii) |x + 2| + |x - 1| (ix)
x+4 | x +1 |
redefining the function. Such discontinuous points are called removable discontinuities. This example
(x) cot x + tan x
leads us to have the following.
(3) Find the points of discontinuity of the function f, where
Definition 9.10
A function f defined on an interval I ⊆ � is said to have removable discontinuity at x0 ∈ I if ⎧4 x + 5, if x ≤ 3 ⎧ x + 2, if x ≥ 2
(i) f(x) = ⎨ (ii) f(x) = ⎨ 2
&$ f ( x), if x # x0 ⎩4 x − 5, if x > 3 ⎩ x , if x < 2
there is a function h : I ! � such that h( x) " % .
lim f ( x), if x " x0 ⎧ π
&' x ! x0
⎪⎧ x − 3, if x ≤ 2
3
⎪⎪sin x, 0 ≤ x ≤ 4
Note that for removable discontinuity, lim f ( x) must exist. (iii) f(x) = ⎨ 2 (iv) f(x) = ⎨
x → x0 ⎪⎩ x + 1, if x > 2 ⎪cos x, π < x < π
Now if we examine the function g(x) = C(x) (see Example 9.38) , eventhough it is defined at all points ⎪⎩ 4 2
(4) At the given point x0 discover whether the given function is continuous or discontinuous
of [0, ∞), lim g ( x) does not exist and it has a jump of height lim + g ( x) − lim − g ( x) = 16 − 14 = 2,
x →100 x →100 x →100 citing the reasons for your answer :

which is finite. Since lim g ( x) does not exist, it is not continuous at x = 100. Such discontinuities are ⎧ x2 −1 ⎧ x2 − 9
x →100 ⎪ , x ≠1 ⎪ , if x ≠ 3
(i) x0 = 1, f(x) = ⎨ x − 1 (ii) x0 = 3, f(x) = ⎨ x − 3
called jump discontinuities. Thus we have the following :
⎪2, x =1 ⎪5, if x = 3
⎩ ⎩
Definition 9.11
⎧ x3 − 1
Let f be a function defined on an interval I ⊆ � . Then f is said to have jump discontinuity at a ⎪ , if x ≠ 1
(5) Show that the function ⎨ x − 1 is continuous on (- ∞, ∞)
point x0 ∈ I if f is defined at x0, ⎪3,
⎩ if x = 1

lim f ( x) and lim+ f ( x) exist but ⎧ x4 −1

x → x0 − x → x0 ⎪ , if x ≠ 1
(6) For what value of a is this function f(x) = ⎨ x − 1 continuous at x = 1 ?
lim f ( x) ≠ lim+ f ( x). ⎪α, if x = 1
x → x0 − x → x0
⎩

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 ⎧0, if x < 0 (15) State how continuity is destroyed at x = x0 for each of the following graphs.
⎪
(7) Let f(x) = ⎨ x 2 , if 0 ≤ x < 2 .Graph the function. Show that f(x) continuous on (- ∞, ∞). y
⎪4, if x ≥ 2
⎩
(a) (b) y
(8) If f and g are continuous functions with f(3) = 5 and lim [ 2 f ( x ) − g( x ) ] = 4 , find g(3).
x →3

(9) Find the points at which f is discontinuous. At which of these points f is continuous from the
right, from the left, or neither? Sketch the graph of f.
x
O x0
⎧2 x + 1, if x ≤ −1 x
⎪⎧( x − 1) , if x < 0 x0
3
⎪ O
(i) f(x) = ⎨3 x if − 1 < x < 1 (ii) f(x) = ⎨
⎪⎩( x + 1) , if x ≥ 0
3
⎪2 x − 1, if x ≥ 1 Fig. 9.38 Fig. 9.39
⎩

(10) A function f is defined as follows : y y

(c) 3
(d)
⎧0 for x < 0; 2

⎪x for 0 ≤ x < 1;
⎪
1

f(x) = ⎨ 2 x
⎪− x + 4 x − 2 for 1 ≤ x < 3;
-2 -1 1 2 3 4 5

-1

⎪⎩4 − x for x ≥ 3 -2
x ! x0
x
-3

O x0
Is the function continuous?
Fig. 9.40 Fig. 9.41
(11) Which of the following functions f has a removable discontinuity at x = x0? If the discontinuity
is removable, find a function g that agrees with f for x ≠ x0 and is continuous on  .
EXERCISE 9.6
x2 ! 2 x ! 8 Choose the correct or the most suitable answer from the given four alternatives.
(i) f (x) = , x0 # !2.
x"2
sin x
(1) lim
x3 + 64 x →∞ x
(ii) f (x) = , x0 = −4 .
x+4 (1) 1 (2) 0 (3) ∞ (4) −∞
2x − π
3− x (2) lim
(iii) f (x) = , x0 = 9 . x →π /2 cos x
9− x
(1) 2 (2) 1 (3) −2 (4) 0
(12) Find the constant b that makes g continuous on (−∞, ∞) .
1 − cos 2 x
⎧ x 2 − b 2 if x < 4 (3) lim
g ( x) = ⎨
x →0 x
⎩bx + 20 if x ≥ 4 (1) 0 (2) 1 (3) 2 (4) does not exist

π
(13) Consider the function f ( x) = x sin . What value must we give f (0) in order to make the sin θ
x (4) lim
function continuous everywhere?
θ →0 sin θ
(1) 1 (2) - 1 (3) 0 (4) 2
x2 −1 x
(14) The function f ( x) = 3 is not defined at x = 1. What value must we give f (1) inorder to $ x # 5x # 3 '
2
x −1 (5) lim & 2 ) is
make f (x) continuous at x = 1 ?
x !"
% x # x#3 (
(1) e 4 (2) e 2 (3) e3 (4) 1
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 esin x − 1
x2 −1 (17) lim =
(6) lim = x →0 x
x →∞ 2x +1
1 1
(1) 1 (2) 0 (3) - 1 (4) (1) 1 (2) e (3) (4) 0
2 e
ax − bx e tan x − e x
(7) lim = (18) lim =
x→0 x x →0 tan x − x
⎛a⎞ ⎛b⎞ a
(1) 1 (2) e (3)
1
(4) 0
(1) log ab (2) log ⎜ ⎟ (3) log ⎜ ⎟ (4)
⎝b⎠ ⎝a⎠ b 2
8 − 4 − 2 +1
x x x x
sin x
(8) lim = (19) The value of lim is
x →0 x2 x →0
x2
(1) 2 log 2 (2) 2(log 2) 2 (3) log 2 (4) 3 log 2 (1) 1 (2) - 1 (3) 0 (4) limit does not exist
$1&
$ &
(9) If f ( x) ! x("1) %x'
, x # 0 , then the value of lim f ( x) is equal to
x →0
(20) The value of lim− x − ⎢⎣ x ⎥⎦ , where k is an integer is
(1) - 1 (2) 0 (3) 2 (4) 4 x→k

(1) - 1 (2) 1 (3) 0 (4) 2

(10) lim "# x $% &
x !3

(1) 2 (2) 3 (3) does not exist (4) 0 3 | 2x - 3 |

(21) At x = the function f ( x) is
2 2x - 3
⎧3 x 0 ≤ x ≤1 (1) continuous (2) discontinuous (3) differentiable (4) non-zero
(11) Let the function f be defined by f ( x) = ⎨ , then
⎩−3 x + 5 1 < x ≤ 2
(1) lim f ( x) = 1 (2) lim f ( x) = 3 ⎧x x is irrational
x →1 x →1 (22) Let f :  →  be defined by f ( x) = ⎨ then f is
⎩1 − x x is rational
(3) lim f ( x) = 2 (4) lim f ( x) does not exist
x →1 x →1
1 1
(1) discontinuous at x = (2) continuous at x =
(12) If f :  →  is defined by f ( x) ! #$ x " 3%& ' | x " 4 | for x ( � , then lim− f ( x) is equal to 2 2
x →3 (3) continuous everywhere (4) discontinuous everywhere
(1) - 2 (2) - 1 (3) 0 (4) 1
⎧ x2 −1
xe x − sin x ⎪ x ≠ −1
(13) lim is (23) The function f ( x) = ⎨ x 3 + 1 is not defined for x = −1 . The value of f (−1) so that the
x →0 x ⎪P
⎩ x = −1
(1) 1 (2) 2 (3) 3 (4) 0
function extended by this value is continuous is
sin px 2 2
(14) If lim = 4 , then the value of p is (1) (2) − (3) 1 (4) 0
tan 3 x
x →0
3 3
(1) 6 (2) 9 (3) 12 (4) 4
(24) Let f be a continuous function on [2, 5]. If f takes only rational values for all x and f (3) = 12 ,
sin α − cos α then f (4.5) is equal to
(15) lim is
α→π / 4 π
α−
4 f (3) + f (4.5) f (4.5) − f (3)
1 (1) (2) 12 (3) 17.5 (4)
(1) 2 (2) (3) 1 (4) 2 7.5 1.5
2
x− | x |
⎛ 1 2 3 n ⎞ (25) Let a function f be defined by f ( x) = for x ≠ 0 and f (0) = 2 . Then f is
(16) lim ⎜ 2 + 2 + 2 + ... + 2 ⎟ is x
⎝
n →∞ n n n n ⎠
(1) continuous nowhere (2) continuous everywhere
1
(1) (2) 0 (3) 1 (4) ∞ (3) continuous for all x except x = 1 (4) continuous for all x except x = 0
2
XI - Mathematics 130 131 Limits and Continuity

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 SUMMARY ICT CORNER 9(a)
In this chapter we have acquired the knowledge of
Limits and continuity
• Limit of a function y = f ( x) as x approaches x0 from the lower values of x0 .

• Limit of y = f ( x) as x approaches x0 from the higher values of x0 .

• Limit of a function as x approaches x0 , in the deleted neighbourhood of x0 exists if and

only if lim− f ( x) = L = lim+ f ( x) = lim f ( x) = L.

x → x0 x → x0 x → x0
Expected Outcome

• lim f ( x) = L also means that f (x) converges to L as x approaches x0 from either side of
x → x0
x0 except at x = x0 .

• If lim f ( x) and lim g ( x) exist then

x → x0 x → x0
Step 1
(i) lim [ f ( x) ± g ( x) ] = lim f ( x) ± lim g ( x) Open the Browser type the URL Link given below (or) Scan the QR Code.
x → x0 x → x0 x → x0

GeoGebra Workbook called “XI Standard Limits” will appear. In that there
(ii) lim [ f ( x).g ( x) ] = lim f ( x). lim g ( x)
x → x0 x → x0 x → x0 are several worksheets related to your lesson.
Step 2
⎡ f ( x) ⎤ xlim
→x
f ( x)
Select the work sheet “Limits basic”. A continuous function is given. You
(iii) lim = 0 if g ( x) ≠ 0 and lim g ( x) ≠ 0 .
x → x0 ⎢ g ( x ) ⎥
⎣ ⎦ xlim
→x
g ( x) x → x0
can select the limit at a desired point by moving the slider “a”. Then move
0

the lines x=h(nearest to a point ) both left and right side to check f (h) by
• Limit of f (x) as x approaches x0 does not exist if either f ( x) → ±∞ as x → x0 −
moving the slider “h”
or f ( x) → ±∞ as x → x0 + or lim− f ( x) = l1 ≠ l2 = lim+ f ( x) Compare this with the definition given in book.
x → x0 x → x0

• ( M , ∞) is the neighborhood of +∞ , M >0

(−∞, K ) is the neighborhood of −∞, K < 0.

• If f ( x) → ±∞ as x → x0 then x = x0 is a vertical asymptote.

• The line y = l1 (or l2 ) is a horizontal asymptote of the curve y = f (x) if either

f ( x) → l1 as x → ∞ or f ( x) → l2 as x → −∞ .

• f ( x) is continuous at x0 if and only if Step1 Step2

(i) lim f ( x) = f ( x0 )
x → x0

(ii) lim[ f ( x0 + ∆x) − f ( x0 )] = 0

∆x → 0 Browse in the link:
(iii)
x → x0 ( )
lim f ( x) = f lim x .
x → x0
Matrices and Determinants: [Link]

• Jump and removable discontinuities.

XI - Mathematics 132 133 Limits and Continuity

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 Differential Calculus-
ICT CORNER 9(b) Chapter 10 Differentiability and Methods of Differentiation
Limits and continuity

“Take what you need,

do what you should, you will get what you want”
- Leibnitz
Expected Outcome

10.1 Introduction
In this chapter we discuss the concept of derivative and related concepts and develop tools
necessary for solving real life problems. In this connection, let us look at the following problem of
finding average velocity.
Step 1 Almost everyone has an intuitive notion of speed or velocity as a rate at which a distance is
Open the Browser type the URL Link given below (or) Scan the QR Code. covered in a certain length of time. When, say, a bus travels 60 km in one hour, the average velocity
GeoGebra Workbook called “XI Standard Limits” will appear. In that there of the bus must have been 60 km h. f course, it is difficult to maintain this rate of 60 km h for the
are several worksheets related to your lesson. entire trip because the bus slows down for towns and speeds up when it passes cars. In other words,
Step 2 the velocity changes with time. If a bus company’s schedule demands that the bus travel 60 km from
Select the work sheet “Piece-wise limit”. Piece-wise function is given. Move one town to another in one hour, the driver knows instinctively that he must compensate for velocities
the lines x=h(nearest to x = 1 ) both left and right side to check f (h) by moving or speeds greater than this at other points in the journey. Knowing that the average velocity is 60 km/h
the slider “h” does not, however, answer the question: What is the velocity of the bus at a particular instant?
Compare this with the definition given in book. In general, this average
velocity or average speed of a
moving object is the time rate
of change of position defined
by
distance travelled
vave =
time of travel
Consider a runner who
finishes a 10 km race in an
elapsed time of 1 h 15 min
(1.25 h). The runner’s average
velocity or average speed for
this race is
Step1 Step2 Usain Bolt’s average speed
10
vave = = 8. !y 100m
1.25 " " 10.4
!x 9.58s
But suppose we now wish How fast is Usain Bolt right now? → Calculus
Browse in the link: to determine the runner’s exact
Matrices and Determinants: [Link] velocity v at the instant the runner is one-half into the race. If the distance run in the time interval
5
from 0 h to 0.5 h is measured to be 5 km, then vave = = 10 .
0.5

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 Again this number is not a measure or necessarily such a good indicator, of the instantaneous For a general curve, however, the problem is more difficult, y
rate v at which the runner is moving 0.5 h into the race. If we determine that rate at 0.6 h the runner for example, how would you define the tangent lines shown in the
P
following figures 10.2 to 10.4.
is 5.7 km from the starting line, then the average velocity from 0 h to 0.6 h is
5.7 − 5 You might say that a line is tangent to a curve at a point P if
vave = = 7 km / h
0.6 − 0.5 it touches, but does not cross, the curve at point P. This definition
would work for the first curve (Fig. 10.2), but not for the second x
The latter number is a more realistic measure of the rate v. By “shrinking” (Fig. 10.3). r you might say that a line is tangent to a curve if
the time interval between 0.5 h and the time that corresponds to a measured the line touches or intersects the curve exactly at one point. This
position close to 5 km, we expect to obtain even better approximations to the definition would work for a circle but not for more general curves, Fig. 10.1
runner’s velocity at time 0.5 h. as the third curve shows (Fig. 10.4).
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz y y
This problem of finding velocities leads us to deal with the general (1646 - 1716) y
problem of finding the derivative of a general mathematical model represented by the analytic
equation, y = f ( x) Consequently, we will move towards in achieving the following objectives and P
subsequently deal with the analysis of derivatives. y = f ( x)
P

y=
f (x
P
y = f ( x)

)
Learning Objectives x
x x

On completion of this chapter, the students are expected to Fig. 10.2 Fig. 10.3 Fig. 10.4
• acquire the concept of a derivative as limit of quotients.
• visualise the concept of derivative geometrically. Essentially, the problem of finding the tangent line at a point P boils down to the problem of
• understand derivative as a process of measuring changes. finding the slope of the tangent line at point P. You can approximate this slope using a secant line
• realise derivative as a tool to measure slopes of tangents to curves / rates of changes. through the point of tangency and a second point on the curve as in the following Fig. 10.5.
• understand different methods of differentiation.
Let P(x0, f(x0)) be the point of tangency and Q(x0 + x, f(x0 + x)) be the second point.
• apply calculus as a tool to solve everyday real life problems.
The slope of the secant line through the two points is given by substitution into the slope
10.2 The concept of derivative formula
y x)
Calculus grew out of four major problems that mathematicians were working on during the y2 − y1 y= f(
m = e
seventeenth century. x2 − x1 t lin
an Q( x0 + ∆x, f ( x0 + ∆x))
sec
(1) The tangent line problem f ( x0 + ∆x) − f ( x0 ) change in y ∆y ∆y = f ( x0 + ∆x) − f ( x0 )
msec = = = .
(2) The velocity and acceleration problem ( x0 + ∆x) − x0 change in x ∆x P( x0 , f ( x0 ))
∆x
(3) The minimum and maximum problem f ( x0 + ∆x) − f ( x0 ) x
That is, msec = , which is the slope of the
(4) The area problem ∆x
secant line. Fig. 10.5
We take up the above problems 1 and 2 for discussion in this chapter while the last two problems
are dealt with in the later chapters.
The right hand side of this equation is a difference uotient. The denominator x is the change
in x (increment in x), and the numerator y = f(x0 + x) - f(x0) is the change in y.
10.2.1 The tangent line problem
What does it mean to say that a line is tangent to a curve at a point? For a circle, the tangent line The beauty of this procedure is that you can obtain more and more accurate approximations of
at a point P is the line that is perpendicular to the radial line at a point P, as shown in fig. 10.1. the slope of the tangent line by choosing points closer and closer to the point of tangency.

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 Tangent line approximation Illustration 10.1 y
Let us make an attempt to find the slope of
2
the tangent line to the graph of f ( x) = x at (1, 1).
2
y=x
( x0 , f ( x0 )) As a start, let us take x = 0.1 and find the slope
of the secant line through (1,1) and (1.1, (1.1) 2 ).
∆y mtan = 2
(i) f(1.1) = (1.1) 2 = 1.21
∆y
( x0 , f ( x0 )) (ii) y = f(1.1) - f(1)
∆x x
= 1.21 - 1 = 0.21
∆x ∆y 0.21
(iii) = = 2.1 Fig. 10.14
∆x 0.1
( x0 , f ( x0 ))
Tabulate the successive values to the right and left of 1 as follows :
∆y
∆y x 1+ x f(1) f(1 + x) y y/ x
( x0 , f ( x0 ))
0.1 1.1 1 1.21 0.21 2.1
∆x
∆x 0.01 1.01 1 1.0201 1.0201 2.01
0.001 1.001 1 1.002001 0.002001 2.001
- 0.1 0.9 1 0.81 - 0.19 1.9
- 0.01 0.99 1 0.9801 - 0.0199 1.99
( x0 , f ( x0 ))
- 0.001 0.999 1 0.998001 - 0.001999 1.999
∆y ∆y ∆y
∆y Clearly, lim− = 2 ; lim+ = 2.
( x0 , f ( x0 )) ∆x∆x → 0 ∆x → 0 ∆x
∆x
∆x ∆y
This shows that lim =2.
∆x → 0 ∆x

Thus the slope of the tangent line to the graph of y = x2 at (1, 1) is mtan = 2.

n the basis of the Fig.10.6 to 10.13, Illustration 10.1, and our intuition, we are prompted to say
that if a graph of a function y = f(x) has a tangent line L at a point P, then L must be the line that is the

( x0 , f ( x0 )) limit of the secants PQ through P and Q as Q → P ( x → 0). oreover, the slope mtan of L should
( x0 , f ( x0 )) be the limiting value of the values msec as x → 0. This is summarised as follows:

Definition 10.1 an ent line it slo e m)

Let f be defined on an open interval containing x0, and if the limit
∆y f ( x0 + ∆x) − f ( x0 )
lim = lim = mtan exists, then the line passing through (x0, f(x0)) with
∆x → 0 ∆x ∆x → 0 ∆x
slope m is the tangent line to the graph of f at the point (x0, f(x0)).
∆x → 0 ∆x → 0
The slope of the tangent line at (x0, f(x0)) is also called the slope of the curve at that point.
The definition implies that if a graph admits tangent line at a point (x0, f(x0)) then it is unique
Fig. 10.6 to 10.13 since a point and a slope determine a single line.

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 The conditions of the definition can be formulated in 4 steps : Example 10.2
(i) Evaluate f at x0 and x0 + x : f(x0) and f(x0 + x) Find the slope of tangent line to the graph of f(x) = - 5x2 + 7x at (5, f(5)).
Solution
(ii) Compute y : y = f(x0 + x) - f(x0) Step (i) f(5) = - 5(5)2 + 7 5 = - 125 + 35 = - 90.
∆y f ( x0 + ∆x) − f ( x0 ) For any !x " 0 ,
(iii) Divide y by x (≠ 0) : =
∆x ∆x f(5 + x) = - 5(5 + x)2 + 7(5 + x) = - 90 - 43 x - 5( x)2.
∆y Step (ii) y = f(5 + x) - f(5)
(iv) Compute the limit as !x " 0(# 0) : mtan = ∆lim .
x →0 ∆x = - 90 - 43 x - 5( x)2 + 90 = - 43 x - 5( x)2
The computation of the slope of the graph in the Illustration 10.1 can be facilitated using the = x [- 43 - 5 x].
definitions.
∆y
(i) f(1) = 12 = 1. For any !x " 0 Step (iii) = - 43 - 5 x
∆x
f(1 + x) = (1 + x)2 = 1 + 2 x + ( x)2 ∆y
Step (iv) mtan = lim = - 43.
∆x → 0 ∆x

(ii) y = f(1 + x) - f(1) = 2 x + ( x)2 = x (2 + x)

10.2.2 elocity of Rectilinear motion
∆y ∆x(2 + ∆x)
(iii) = Suppose an object moves along a straight line according to an equation of motion s = f(t), where
∆x ∆x
s is the displacement (directed distance) of the object from the origin at time t. The function f that
=2+ x. describes the motion is called the position function of the object. In the time interval from t = t0 to
∆y t = t0 + t, the change in position is f(t0 + t) - f(t0). The average velocity over this time interval is
(iv) mtan = lim
∆x
∆x → 0
displacement f (t0 + ∆t ) − f (t0 ) Change in s ∆s
= lim (2 + ∆x) = 2 + 0 = 2 . vavg = = = = which is same as the slope of the
∆x → 0 time ∆t Change in t ∆t
Example 10.1 secant line PQ in fig. 10.16. S
Find the slope of the tangent line to the graph of f(x) = 7x + 5 at any point (x0, f(x0)). Q(t0 + ∆t , f (t0 + ∆t ))
Solution Position at Position at
Step (i) f(x0) = 7x0 + 5.
t = t0 t = t0 + ∆t
For any !x " 0 ,
f(x0 + x) = 7(x0 + x) + 5 P(t0 , f (t0 ))
= 7x0 + 7 x + 5 o f (t0 + ∆t ) − f (t0 )
Step (ii) y = f(x0 + x) - f(x0) f (t0 )
= (7 x0 + 7 ∆x + 5) − (7 x0 + 5)
=7 x f (t0 + ∆t ) T
O t0 t0 + ∆t
∆y f (t0 + ∆t ) − f (t0 )
Step (iii) =7 Slope of PQ = mPQ =
∆x ∆t
Thus, at any point on the graph of f(x) = 7x + 5, we have Fig. 10.15 Fig. 10.16
S
∆y In this time interval t (from t0 to t0 + t) the motion may be of
Step (iv) mtan = lim
∆x → 0 ∆x entirely different types for the same distance covered (traversed). C1 Q

= lim (7) This is illustrated graphically by the fact that we can draw entirely C2
∆x → 0 C3
different curves C1, C2, C3 ... between the points P and Q in the P
= 7.
plane. These curves are the graphs of quite different motions in
t0 t0 + ∆t T
∆y the given time intervals, all the motions having the same average
Note that for a linear graph, is a constant, depends neither on x0 nor on the
increment x. ∆x ∆s Fig. 10.17
velocity .
∆t
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 Now suppose we compute the average velocities over shorter and shorter time intervals Be sure you see that the derivative of a function of x is also a function of x. This “new” function
[t0, t0 + t]. In other words, we let t approach 0. Then we define the velocity (or instantaneous
gives the slope of the tangent line to the graph of f at the point (x, f(x)), provided the graph has a
velocity) v(t0) at time t = t0 as the limit of these average velocities.
tangent line at this point.
f (t0 t ) - f (t0 ) ∆s
v(t0) = lim = lim . The process of finding the derivative of a function is called differentiation. A function is
t 0 t ∆t → 0 ∆t

This means that the velocity at time t = t0 is equal to the slope of the tangent line at P. differentia le at x if its derivative exists at x and is differentia le on an o en inter al a, b) if it is
Illustration 10.2 differentiable at every point in (a, b).
The distance s travelled by a body falling freely in a vacuum and the time t of descent are In addition to f ′( x) , which is read as ‘f prime of x’ or ‘f dash of x’, other notations are used to
variables. They depend on each other. This dependence is expressed by the law of the free fall : denote the derivative of y = f(x). The most common notations are

1 2 dy d d
s= gt (absence of initial velocity), g is the gravitational constant. f ′( x), , y′, [ f ( x) ] , Dx [ y ] or Dy or y1 . Here or D is the differential operator.
2 dx dx dx
1 1 dy
Step (i) f(t0 + t) = g (t0 + ∆t ) 2 = g ( t02 + 2t0 ∆t + (∆t ) 2 ) The notation is read as “derivative of y with respect to x” or simply “dy - dx”, or we should
2 2 dx
Step (ii) s = f(t0 + t) - f(t0) dy
rather read it as “Dee y Dee x” or “Dee Dee x of y”. But it is cautioned that we should not regard
dx
dy
1 1 as the quotient dy ÷ dx and should not refer it as “dy by dx”. The symbol is known as Leibnitz
= g ⎡(t02 + 2t0 ∆t + (∆t ) 2 ⎤⎦ − gt02 dx
2 ⎣ 2 symbol.
⎡ 1 ⎤
= g ∆t ⎢t0 + ∆t ⎥ 10.2.4 One sided derivatives left hand and right hand derivatives
⎣ 2 ⎦
For a function y = f(x) defined in an open interval (a, b) containing the point x0, the left hand and
⎡ 1 ⎤
g ∆t ⎢t0 + ∆t ⎥
∆s ⎣ 2 ⎦ ⎡ 1 ⎤ right hand derivatives of f at x = x0 are respectively denoted by f ′( x0− ) and f ′( x0+ ), are defined as
Step (iii) = = g ⎢t0 + ∆t ⎥
∆t ∆t ⎣ 2 ⎦
f ( x0 + ∆x) − f ( x0 )
∆s f ′( x0 − ) = lim−
Step (iv) = gt0 .
v(t0) = lim ∆x → 0 ∆x
∆t → 0 ∆t

It is clear from this that the velocity is completely defined by the instant t0. It is proportional to f ( x0 + ∆x) − f ( x0 )
and f ′( x0 + ) = lim+ , provided the limits exist.
the time of motion (of the fall). ∆x → 0 ∆x

10.2.3 The derivative of a unction That is, the function is differentiable from the left and right. As in the case of the existence
We have now arrived at a crucial point in the study of calculus. The limit used to define the slope f ( x0 + ∆x) − f ( x0 )
of a tangent line or the instantaneous velocity of a freely falling body is also used to define one of the of limits of a function at x0, it follows that f ′( x0 ) = lim exists if and only
∆x → 0 ∆x
two fundamental operations of calculus – differentiation.
f ( x0 + ∆x) − f ( x0 ) f ( x0 + ∆x) − f ( x0 )
Definition 10.2 if both f ′( x0 − ) = lim− and f ′( x0 + ) = lim+ exist and
∆x → 0 ∆x ∆x → 0 ∆x
Let f be defined on an open interval I ⊆ � containing the point x0, and suppose that
f ′( x0 ) = f ′( x0 ) .
− +

f ( x0 + ∆x) − f ( x0 ) f ( x0 + ∆x) − f ( x0 )
lim exists. Then f is said to be differentiable at x0 and the derivative of f at x0, Therefore f ′( x0 ) = lim if and only if f ′( x0 − ) = f ′( x0 + ) .
∆x → 0 ∆x ∆x
∆x → 0

denoted by f ′( x0 ) , is given by If any one of the condition fails then f is not differentiable at x0 .
∆y f ( x0 + ∆x) − f ( x0 ) In terms of h = x > 0,
f ′( x0 ) = lim = lim .
∆x → 0 ∆x ∆x → 0 ∆x f ( x0 + h) − f ( x0 )
f ′( x0+ ) = lim and
For all x for which this limit exists, h →0 h
!y f ( x $ !x) % f ( x) f ( x0 − h) − f ( x0 )
f ′( x) = lim # lim is a function of x. f ′( x0 − ) = lim .
!x " 0 !x !x "0 !x h→ 0 h
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 Definition 10.3 Illustration 10.4
1
A function f is said to be differentiable in the closed interval [a, b] if it is differentiable on Examine the differentiability of f ( x) = x 3 at x = 0.
the open interval (a, b) and at the end points a and b,
Solution
1
y
f (a + ∆x) − f (a ) f ( a + h) − f ( a ) Let f ( x) = x 3 . Clearly, there is no hole (or break) in the
f ′(a ) = lim+ = lim , h>0
∆x → 0 ∆x h →0 h 3
graph of this function and hence it is continuous at all points of
f (b + ∆x) − f (b) f (b − h) − f (b) 2 1/3
x
f ′(b) = lim− = lim , h > 0. its domain. f (x
)=
∆x → 0 ∆x h→ 0 −h 1
Let us check whether f ′(0) exists.
x
1 -3 -2 -1
f ( x) − f ( x0 ) f ( x) − f (0) x −0
3
If f is differentiable at x = x0, then f ′( x0 ) = lim , where x = x0 + x and !x " 0 is Now f ′(0) = lim = lim
x → x0 x − x0 x →0 x−0 x →0 x
equivalent to x → x0 . This alternative form is some times more convenient to be used in computations.
−2
f ( x + h) − f ( x ) 1
As a matter of convenience, if we let h = ∆x, then f ′ ( x) = lim , provided the = lim x 3 = lim !"
h→ 0 h x →0 2 x !0 Fig. 10.19
limit exists. x3
Therefore, the function is not differentiable at x = 0. From the Fig. 10.19, further we conclude that the
10.3 Differentiability and Continuity tangent line is vertical at x = 0. So f is not differentiable at x = 0.
If a function is continuous at a point, then it is not necessary that the function is
Illustration 10.3
y
differentia le at t at oint.
Test the differentiability of the function f(x) = x - 2 at x = 2.
Solution 3
Example 10.3
We know that this function is continuous at x = 2. 2

f ( x) − f (2) 1
Show that the greatest integer function f ( x) = ⎣⎢ x ⎦⎥ is not differentiable at any integer
But f ′(2− ) = lim−
x→2 x−2 x Solution
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3
| x − 2 | −0 The greatest integer function f ( x) = ⎣⎢ x ⎦⎥ is not continuous at every integer point n, since
= lim− Graph of y=|x-2|
x→2 x−2
Fig. 10.18 lim ⎣⎢ x ⎦⎥ = n − 1 and lim+ ⎢⎣ x ⎦⎥ = n . Thus f ′(n) does not exist.
| x−2| −( x − 2) x →n− x→n
= lim− = lim− = −1 and
x→2 x−2 x → 2 ( x − 2)
What can you say about the differentiability of this function at other points
f ( x) − f (2) Illustration 10.5
f ′(2+ ) = lim+
x→2 x−2 ⎧x x≤0
Let f(x) = ⎨
| x − 2 | −0 ( x − 2)
=1 ⎩1 + x x > 0
= xlim = xlim
→ 2+ ( x − 2)
→ 2+ x−2 y
Compute f ′(0) if it exists.
Since the one sided derivatives f ′(2− ) and f ′(2+ ) are not equal, f ′ (2) does not exist. That is, f Solution
is not differentiable at x = 2. At all other points, the function is differentiable.
Look at the graph drawn.
If x0 ¹ 2 is any other point then
f (0 + ∆x) − f (0)
| x − x0 | ⎧1 if x > x0 f ′(0− ) = lim−
f ′( x0 ) = lim = ⎨ ∆x → 0 ∆x O
x → x0 x − x
⎩−1 if x < x0
x
0 f (∆x) ⎧ x, ≤ 0
= lim− f ( x) = ⎨
#1 if x ! 2 ∆x → 0 ∆x ⎩1 + x, x > 0
Thus f ′(2) = $
%"1 if x < 2 f ′(0− ) = lim−
∆x
=1
∆x → 0 ∆x
The fact that f ′ (2) does not exist is reflected geometrically in the fact that the curve y = x - 2
does not have a tangent line at (2, 0). Note that the curve has a sharp edge at (2, 0). 1 + ∆x
f ′(0+ ) = lim+ Fig. 10.20
∆x → 0 ∆x
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 $ 1 '
lim &1 #
= )"*
% !x ( !x " 0# ⎡ f ( x0 + ∆x) − f ( x0 ) ⎤
= lim ⎢
∆x ⎥ × ∆lim (∆x)
Therefore f ′ (0) does not exist.
∆x → 0
⎣ ⎦ x →0
= f ′( x0 ) × 0 = 0 .
Here we observe that the graph of f has a jump at x = 0. That is x = 0 is a jump discontinuity. This implies, f is continuous at x = x0.
The above illustrations and examples can be summarised to have the following conclusions. Deri ati es rom first rinci le
A function f is not differentiable at a point x0 belonging to the domain of f if one of the following The process of finding the derivative of a function using the conditions stated in the definition of
situations holds: derivatives is known as derivatives from first principle.
(i) f has a vertical tangent at x0.
(ii) The graph of f comes to a point at x0 (either a sharp edge or a sharp peak )
EXERCISE 10.1
(iii) f is discontinuous at x0. (1) Find the derivatives of the following functions using first principle.
A function fails to be differentiable under the following situations :
y y (i) f ( x) = 6 (ii) f(x) = - 4x + 7 (iii) f(x) = - x2 + 2
y
(2) Find the derivatives from the left and from the right at x = 1 (if they exist) of the following
functions. Are the functions differentiable at x = 1
O
⎧ x, x ≤ 1
(i) f(x) = x - 1 (ii) f ( x) = 1 − x 2 (iii) f(x) = ⎨ 2
⎩x , x > 1
(3) Determine whether the following function is differentiable at the indicated values.
x x (i) f(x) = x x at x = 0 (ii) f(x) = | x 2 ! 1 | at x " 1
O
x O x0 O x0
x0 Vertical tangent
-
Vertical tangent
Discontinuity (iii) f(x) = x + x - 1 at x = 0, 1 (iv) f ( x) = sin | x | at x = 0

Fig. 10.21 Fig. 10.22 Fig. 10.23 (4) Show that the following functions are not differentiable at the indicated value of x.

1 ⎧− x + 2, x≤2 ⎧3 x, x<0
(i) f(x) = ⎨ ; x=2 (ii) f(x) = ⎨ ' x=0
We have seen in illustration 10.3 and 10.4, the function f ( x) = | x − 2 | and f ( x) = x 3 are ⎩2 x − 4, x>2 ⎩−4 x, x≥0
respectively continuous at x = 2 and x = 0 but not differentiable there, whereas in Example 10.3 and (5) The graph of f is shown below. State with reasons that x values (the numbers), at which f is not
⎧x x≤0 differentiable.
Illustration 10.5, the functions f ( x) = ⎢⎣ x ⎦⎥ and f ( x) = ⎨ are respectively not continuous y
⎩1 + x x > 0
at any integer x = n and x = 0 respectively and not differentiable too. The above argument can be

condensed and encapsuled to state: Discontinuity im lies non differentia ility.

eorem 10.1 Differentia ility im lies continuity

If f is differentiable at a point x = x0, then f is continuous at x0. 11 x
-4 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Proof
Let f(x) be a differentiable function on an interval (a, b) containing the point x0. Then
Fig. 10.24
f ( x0 + ∆x) − f ( x0 )
f ′( x0 ) = lim exists, in the sense that f ′( x0 ) is a unique real number.
∆x → 0 ∆x (6) If f(x) = x + 100 + x2, test whether f ′(−100) exists.
f ( x0 + ∆x) − f ( x0 )
Now lim [ f ( x0 + ∆x) − f ( x0 ) ] = lim × ∆x (7) Examine the differentiability of functions in  by drawing the diagrams.
∆x → 0 ∆x → 0 ∆x
(i) | sin x | (ii) | cos x | .
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 10.4 Differentiation Rules Theorem 10.3
d dv du
If f is a real valued function of a real variable defined on an open interval I and if y = f(x) is a Let u and v be two differentiable functions. Then (uv) ! u " v .
dx dx dx
dy f ( x + ∆x) − f ( x) Proof
differentiable function of x, then = f ′( x) = lim . In general finding such direct Let u and v be the given two differentiable functions so that
dx ∆x → 0 ∆x
derivatives using first principle is extremely laborious and difficult operation in the majority of cases.
u ( x + ∆x) − u ( x) du v( x + ∆x) − v( x) dv
But if we know, once and for all, the derivatives of all the basic elementary functions, together with lim = and lim = .
rules of differentiating the algebra of functions and functions of a function, we can find the derivative
∆x → 0 ∆x dx ∆x → 0 ∆x dx
of any element – any function without carrying out limit process each time. Hence the operation of Let y = f(x) = u.v
differentiation can be made automatic for the class of functions that concern us. Then f(x + x) = u(x + x) v(x + x), and
Now we divert our attention to the rules for differentiation of a sum, product and quotient. f(x + x) - f(x) = u(x + x) v(x + x) - u(x).v(x)
Theorem 10.2
The derivative of the sum of two (or more) differentiable functions is equal to the sum of their = v(x + x) [u ( x + ∆x) − u ( x) ] + u ( x) [ v( x + ∆x) − v( x) ] .
d d d
(u + v) = u + v
derivatives. That is, if u and v are two differentiable functions then
dx dx dx This implies,
f ( x + ∆x) − f ( x)
= u ( x)
[v( x + ∆x) − v( x)] + v( x + ∆x) [u ( x + ∆x) − u ( x)] .
Proof ∆x ∆x ∆x
Let u and v be two real valued functions defined and differentiable on an open interval I ⊆ � .
Let y = u + v, then y = f(x) is a function defined on I, and by hypothesis f ( x + ∆x) − f ( x) v( x + ∆x) − v( x) u ( x + ∆x) − u ( x)
lim = u ( x) lim + lim v( x + ∆x) lim
∆x → 0 ∆x ∆x → 0 ∆x ∆x → 0 ∆x → 0 ∆x
du u ( x + ∆x) − u ( x) = u ( x)v!( x) " v( x)u!( x) (since v is continuous, #lim v( x " #x) $ v( x) .
u ′( x) = = lim x %0
dx ∆x →0 ∆x
d dv du
That is, f ′( x) = (uv) ! u " v .
dv v( x + ∆x) − v( x) dx dx dx
v′( x) = = lim exist.
dx ∆x →0 ∆x
or (uv)′ = uv′ + vu ′
Now, f ( x + ∆x) = u ( x + ∆x) + v( x + ∆x)
f ( x + ∆x) − f ( x) = u ( x + ∆x) − u ( x) + v( x + ∆x) − v( x) . Similarly (uvw)′ = uvw′ + uv′w + u ′vw .
This can be extended to a finite number of differentiable functions u1, u2, ... un, using induction :
f ( x + ∆x) − f ( x) u ( x + ∆x) − u ( x) v( x + ∆x) − v( x)
= + . (u1.u2 ..., un )′ = u1u2 ...un −1un′ + u1u2 ...un′ −1un +  + u1′u2  un .
∆x ∆x ∆x

f ( x + ∆x) − f ( x) u ( x + ∆x) − u ( x) ( x + ∆x) − v( x) eorem 10.4 uotient ule

This implies, lim = lim + lim .
∆x → 0 ∆x ∆x → 0 ∆x ∆x du dv
∆x → 0
v )u
d "u% dx dx .
Let u and v be two differentiable functions with v( x) ! 0. Then $ '(
f ( x + ∆x) − f ( x) dx # v & v2
That is, lim = u ′( x) + v′( x) .
∆x → 0 ∆x Proof
That is, f ′( x) = u ′( x) + v′( x) . u
Let y = f ( x) = , u and v are differentiable functions of x and where v( x) ¹ 0 .
v
or ( u + v )′ ( x) = u ′( x) + v′( x) . Now f ( x + ∆x) =
u ( x + ∆x)
v( x + ∆x)
d d d
That is, (u + v) = u + v . u ( x + ∆x) u ( x)
dx dx dx This implies, f ( x + ∆x) − f ( x) = −
v( x + ∆x) v( x)
This can be extended to finite number of differentiable functions u1 , u2 , ..., un and
v( x)u ( x + ∆x) − u ( x)v( x + ∆x)
= .
(u1 + u2 + ... + un )′ = u1′ + u2′ + ... + un′ . v( x + ∆x)v( x)

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 Thus, to differentiate a function of a function y = f ( g ( x) ) , we have to take the derivative of the
v( x) [u ( x + ∆x) − u ( x) ] u ( x) [ v( x + ∆x − v( x) ] outer function f regarding the argument g(x) = u, and multiply the derivative of the inner function g(x)
− with respect to the independent variable x. The variable u is known as intermediate argument.
f ( x + ∆x) − f ( x) ∆x ∆x
This implies, =
∆x v( x + ∆x)v( x) Theorem 10.6
d d
Let f(x) be a differentiable function and let y ! k f ( x), k " 0. Then (k f ( x)) = k f ( x).
u ( x + ∆x) − u ( x) v( x + ∆x) − v( x) dx dx
v( x) lim − u ( x) lim Proof
f ( x + ∆x) − f ( x) ∆x → 0 ∆x ∆x → 0 ∆x
This implies, lim =
∆x → 0 ∆x v( x) lim v( x + ∆x) f ( x + ∆x) − f ( x)
∆x → 0 Since f is differentiable, lim = f ′( x) .
∆x → 0 ∆x
=
v( x)u ′( x) − u ( x)v′( x)
v ( x )v ( x )
( lim v( x + ∆x) = v( x)
∆x → 0
) Let y = h(x) = k f (x)
h(x + x) = k f (x + x)
v( x)u ′( x) − u ( x)v′( x)
This implies, f ′( x) = . h(x + x) - h(x) = kf (x + x) - k f(x)
[ v( x)]
2

d vu ′ − uv′ = k [ f ( x + ∆x) − f ( x) ] .
That is,(f) =
dx v2
du dv h( x + ∆x) − h( x)
= k
[ f ( x + ∆x) − f ( x)] .
v (u
d !u$ dx dx . ∆x ∆x
or # &'
dx " v % v2
h( x + ∆x) − h( x) [ f ( x + ∆x) − f ( x)]
This implies, lim = lim k
eorem 10.5 ain ule om osite unction ule or unction o a unction ule ∆x → 0 ∆x ∆x → 0 ∆x
Let y = f(u) be a function of u and in turn let u = g(x) be a function of x so that y = f ( g ( x) ) = ( fog )( x). [ f ( x + ∆x) − f ( x)]
d = k lim
Then ( f ( g ( x)) ! f "( g ( x)) g "( x). ∆x → 0 ∆x
dx
d
Proof = kf ′( x) = k f ( x)
dx
In the above function u = g(x) is known as the inner function and f is known as the outer function.
Note that, ultimately, y is a function of x. d d
( h( x ) ) = k f ( x ) .
Now ∆u = g ( x + ∆x) − g ( x) dx dx
d d
∆y ∆y ∆u f (u + ∆u ) − f (u ) g ( x + ∆x) − g ( x) That is, ! kf ( x) " # k f ( x) .
Therefore, = × = × . dx dx
∆x ∆u ∆x ∆u ∆x

Note that ∆u → 0 as ∆x → 0 10.4.1 Derivatives of basic elementary functions

We shall now find the derivatives of all the basic elementary functions; we start with the constant
∆y ⎛ ∆y ∆y ⎞
Therefore, lim = lim ⎜ × ⎟ function.
∆x → 0 ∆x ∆x → 0 ∆u
⎝ ∆x ⎠
1 e deri ati e o a constant unction is ero.
⎛ ∆y ⎞ ⎛ ∆y ⎞ Let y = f (x) = k, k is a constant.
= lim ⎜ ⎟ . ∆lim ⎜ ⎟
∆u → 0 ∆u
⎝ ⎠ x →0 ⎝ ∆x ⎠ Then f (x + x) = k and
f (u + ∆u ) − f (u ) g ( x + ∆x) − g ( x) f (x + x) - f (x) = k - k = 0.
= lim × lim
∆u → 0 ∆u ∆x → 0 ∆x
= f ′(u ) × u ′( x) f ( x + ∆x) − f ( x)
This implies, = 0
∆x
d
= f ′ ( g ( x) ) g ′( x) or ( f ( g ( x) ) = f ′ ( g ( x) ) g ′( x) . f ( x + ∆x) − f ( x)
dx
This implies, lim = 0.
∆x → 0 ∆x
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 3 Deri ati e o t e lo arit mic unction
That is, f ′( x) = 0. The natural logarithm of x is denoted by log e x or logx or ln x
d
or (k ) = 0 . Let y = f ( x) = log x
dx
2 e o er unction y = xn, n > 0 is an integer. Now f ( x + ∆x) = log (x + x) and

Let f(x) = xn. f(x + x) - f(x) = log (x + x) - log x

Then, f(x+ x) = (x + x) and n
⎛ x + ∆x ⎞
= log ⎜ ⎟ .
f(x + x) - f(x) = (x + x)n - xn. ⎝ x ⎠
⎛ ∆x ⎞
= log ⎜1 + ⎟ .
f ( x + ∆x) − f ( x) ( x + ∆x) n − x n ⎝ x ⎠
This implies, =
∆x ( x + ∆x) − x
⎛ ∆x ⎞
f ( x + ∆x) − f ( x) ( x + ∆x) n − x n log ⎜1 + ⎟
This implies, lim = lim f ( x + ∆x) − f ( x) ⎝ x ⎠
∆x → 0 ∆x ∆x → 0 ( x + ∆x ) − x = .
∆x ∆x
y n − x n nx n −1 , where y ! x " #x and y $ x as #x $ 0. log(1 + αk ) log(1 + k α)
= lim = We know that lim = k lim =k
y−x
y→x α→ 0 α α→ 0 kα
d d n
That is, f ( x) = nx n −1 or ( x ) ! nx n "1 . ⎛ ∆x ⎞
dx dx log ⎜1 + ⎟
Corollary 10.1 f ( x + ∆x) − f ( x) ⎝ x ⎠ 1
Therefore, lim = lim = .
∆x → 0 ∆x ∆x → 0 ∆x x
d ⎛ q ⎞ p q −1
p p
p d
When n = , ( p, q ) = 1, ⎜⎜ x ⎟⎟ = x . That is,
1
(log x) = .
q dx ⎝ ⎠ q dx x
Corollary 10.2 Corollary 10.3
d α
For any real number α, ( x ) = αx α−1 . 1
dx If y = f ( x) = log a x then f ′( x) = .
(log a ) x
For instance,
We have f(x) = log a x = log a e × log e x = (log a e) log x
d
(1) (5) = 0 since 5 is a constant.
dx d d
Therefore, ( f ( x) ) = dx (log a e × log x)
dx
d 3
(2) ( x ) = 3x 2 , by power function rule.
dx d
= (log a e) (log x) (by constant multiple rule)
dx
d ⎛ 32 ⎞ 3 32 −1 3 12
(3) ⎜x ⎟ = x = x , by power function rule. 1 1
dx ⎝ ⎠ 2 2 = log a e. (or) .
x (log a ) x

(4)
d
dx
( )=
x 2
2x 2 −1
, by power function rule. 4 Deri ati e o t e e onential unction
Let y = ax.
d ⎛ 23 ⎞ 2 23 −1 2 −31
(5) ⎜ x ⎟ = x = x , ( x ≠ 0), by power function rule. Then f ( x + ∆x) - f ( x) = a x +∆x − a x
dx ⎝ ⎠ 3 3
d d = a x (a ∆x − 1) and
(6) (100 x9 ) = 100 ( x9 ) = 100 × 9 x 9−1 = 900 x8 by theorem 10.6.
dx dx
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 ii e cosine unction cos x
f ( x + ∆x) − f ( x) ⎛ a ∆x − 1 ⎞
= ax ⎜ ⎟.
∆x ⎝ ∆x ⎠ ⎛ π⎞
Let y = cosx = sin ⎜ x + ⎟ .
⎝ 2⎠
a ∆x − 1
We know that lim = log a .
∆x → 0 ∆x dy d ⎛ π⎞
Then, = sin ⎜ x + ⎟
dx dx ⎝ 2⎠
f ( x + ∆x) − f ( x) ⎛ a ∆x − 1 ⎞
Therefore, lim = a x lim ⎜ ⎟ π
∆x → 0 ∆x ∆x → 0
⎝ ∆x ⎠ Let u = x +
2
= a x × log a du
= 1+0=1
dx
d x
or (a ) = a x log a . dy d d du
dx Therefore, = (sin u ) = (sin u ) by Chain rule
dx dx dx dx
d x
In particular, (e ) = e x log e ⎛ π⎞
dx = cos u ×1 = cos u = cos ⎜ x + ⎟ = − sin x .
⎝ 2⎠
d x d
(e ) = e x . That is, (cos x) ! " sin x .
dx dx

5 e deri ati es o t e ri onometric unctions

iii e tan ent unction tan x
i e sine unction sinx.
Let y = f ( x) = tan x .
Let y = f ( x) = sin x .
sin x
=
Then f ( x + ∆x) = sin( x + ∆x) and cos x
d d ⎛ sin x ⎞
∆x ⎛ x⎞ Therefore, (tan x) = ⎜ ⎟
f ( x + ∆x) − f ( x) = sin( x + ∆x) − sin x = 2sin cos ⎜ x + ⎟ . dx dx ⎝ cos x ⎠
2 ⎝ 2⎠
d d
cos x (sin x) − sin x (cos x)
⎛ ∆x ⎞ = dx dx (by quotient rule)
sin ⎜ ⎟
f ( x + ∆x) − f ( x) ⎝ 2 ⎠ cos ⎛ x + ∆x ⎞ . cos 2 x
Now = ⎜ ⎟
∆x ⎛ ∆x ⎞ ⎝ 2 ⎠ cos x(cos x) − sin x(− sin x)
⎜ ⎟ =
⎝ 2 ⎠ cos 2 x

⎛ ∆x ⎞ cos 2 x + sin 2 x
sin ⎜ ⎟ =
f ( x + ∆x) − f ( x) ⎝ 2 ⎠ . lim cos ⎛ x + ∆x ⎞ cos 2 x
This implies, lim = lim ⎜ ⎟
∆x ∆x → 0 ⎛ ∆x ⎞
∆x → 0 ∆x → 0
⎝ 2 ⎠ 1
⎜ ⎟ = .
⎝ 2 ⎠ cos 2 x

= 1 cosx (Since cos x is continuous, lim cos( x + ∆x) = cos x) . d

∆x → 0
That is, (tan x) = sec 2 x .
dx
= cosx
i e secant unction sec x
d
That is (sin x) = cos x . 1
dx Let y = sec x = = (cos x) −1 .
cos x

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 dy x + x = sin (y + y).
Then = (−1)(cos x) −2 (− sin x) (by chain rule)
dx 1
sin x 1 sin x ∆y ∆y sin( y + ∆y ) − sin y
= = . = sec [Link] x . Therefore, = =
cos 2 x cos x cos x ∆x sin( y + ∆y ) − sin y ∆y
As !x " 0, !y " 0 also, so that
d
That is, (sec x) = sec x tan x .
dx dy ∆y
= lim
dx ∆x → 0 ∆x

e cosecant unction cosec x

1
1 sin( y + ∆y ) − sin y
Let y = cosec x = = (sin x) −1 . = lim
sin x ∆y → 0 ∆y
dy
= (−1)(sin x) −2 (cos x) (by chain rule) 1
dx =
cos y
cos x 1 cos x
= − = − . = −cosec x cot x . 1 1
sin 2 x sin x sin x = =
1 − sin 2 y 1 − x2
d
That is, (cosecx) ! "cosecx cot x . d 1
dx That is, (sin 1 x) .
dx 1 x2
i e cotan ent unction cot x
ii e deri ati e o arccos x or cos −1 x
cos x
Let y = cot x = . We know the identity :
sin x
π
dy d ⎛ cos x ⎞ sin −1 x + cos −1 x = .
= ⎜ ⎟ 2
dx dx ⎝ sin x ⎠
d d ⎛π⎞
d d This implies, (sin −1 x + cos −1 x) = ⎜ ⎟=0
sin x (cos x) − cos x (sin x) dx dx ⎝ 2 ⎠
= dx dx
sin 2 x d d
This implies, (sin −1 x) + (cos −1 x) = 0
sin x(− sin x) − cos x(cos x) dx dx
=
sin 2 x
1 d
Therefore, + (cos −1 x) = 0
− sin 2 x − cos 2 x 1 1 − x2 dx
= = − 2 = −cosec 2 x
sin 2 x sin x
d d
That is, (cot x) ! "cosec 2 x . or (cos !1 x) " !
1
.
dx dx 1 ! x2

6 e deri ati es o t e in erse tri onometric unctions

iii e deri ati e o arctan x or tan −1 x
i e deri ati e o arcsin x or sin −1 x
Let y = f ( x) = tan −1 x . ... (1)
Let y = f ( x) = sin −1 x .
This implies, y + y = f(x + x) = tan −1 (x + x) ... (2)
Then y + ∆y = f ( x + ∆x) = sin −1 ( x + ∆x) x = tan y and
x + x = tan (y + y)
This implies, x = sin y and
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 This implies, x = tan (y + y) - tan y Example 10.7
Differentiate the following with respect to x :
∆y ∆y
Therefore, =
∆x tan( y + ∆y ) − tan y (i) y = x 3 + 5 x 2 + 3 x + 7 (ii) y = e x + sin x + 2
2
1 ⎛ 1⎞
(iii) y = 4cosec x − log x − 2e x (iv) y = ⎜ x − ⎟ (v) y = xe x log x
= tan( y + ∆ y ) − tan y . ⎝ x⎠
∆y cos x log x
As !x " 0, !y " 0 also, so that (vi) y = (vii) y = x
x3 e
1 (viii) Find f '(3) and f '(5) if f ( x) !| x " 4 | .
∆y lim tan( y + ∆y ) − tan y 1
∆y → 0 Solution
lim = =
∆x → 0 ∆x ∆y d dy dy
(tan y ) (i) = 3 x 2 + 10 x + 3. (ii) = e x + cos x.
dy dx dx
1
=
sec 2 y dy 1
(iii) = −4 cosec [Link] x − − 2e x .
1 1 dx x
= =
1 + tan 2 y 1 + x 2 1
d 1 (iv) y = x 2 + − 2 = x 2 + x −2 − 2
T hat is, (tan −1 x) = . x2
dx 1 + x2
dy 2
= 2 x − 2 x −2−1 = 2 x − 3 .
dx x
i e deri ati e o arccot x or cot −1 x
dy ⎛1⎞
We know the identity (v) = xe x ⎜ ⎟ + e x .log x(1) + x log x(e x )
dx ⎝x⎠
π
tan −1 x + cot −1 x = . = e x + e x log x + xe x log x = e x (1 + log x + x log x).
2
cos x
(vi) y =
d d ⎛π⎞ x3
This implies, (tan −1 x + cot −1 x) = ⎜ ⎟=0
dx dx ⎝ 2 ⎠ dy x3 (− sin x) − cos x(3 x 2 ) − x 2 ( x sin x + 3cos x) ( x sin x + 3cos x)
= = =− .
d d dx x6 x6 x4
This implies, (tan −1 x) + (cot −1 x) = 0
dx dx log x
(vii) y = = e − x .log x
d d 1 ex
That is, (cot −1 x) = − (tan −1 x) = −
dx dx 1 + x2 dy ⎛1⎞
= e − x ⎜ ⎟ + log x(e − x )(−1)
dx ⎝x⎠
d 1
That is, (cot !1 x) " ! . ⎡1 ⎤
dx 1 # x2 = e − x ⎢ − log x ⎥ .
⎣x ⎦

d 1 ⎧−( x − 4) ; x < 4
e deri ati e o arcsec x or (sec !1 x) " . (viii) f ( x) =| x − 4 |= ⎨
dx x x2 !1 ⎩( x − 4) ; x ≥ 4
⎧−1 if x < 4
d !1 f ′( x) = ⎨
i e deri ati e o arccosec x or (cosec !1 x) " . ⎩+1 if x ≥ 4
dx x x2 !1
Therefore, f ′(3) = −1
The proofs of (v) and (vi) are left as exercises.
f ′(5) = 1 .

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 = cos u (2x)
EXERCISE 10.2
= cos(x2).2x
Find the derivatives of the following functions with respect to corresponding independent variables:
= 2x cos(x2).
(1) f(x) = x - 3 sinx (2) y = sin x + cos x
(ii) u = sin x
(3) f(x) = x sin x (4) y = cos x - 2 tan x
(5) g(t) = t3cos t (6) g(t) = 4 sec t + tan t Then, y = u2

tan x dy dy du
(7) y = ex sin x (8) y = and = ×
x dx du dx
sin x x = 2u cos x
(9) y = (10) y =
1 + cos x sin x + cos x = 2 sin x . cos x
tan x − 1 sin x = sin 2x.
(11) y= (12) y = 2
sec x x
(13) y = tan (sin + cos ) (14) y = cosec x . cot x Example 10.10
(15) y = x sin x cos x (16) y = e-x. log x Differentiate : y = ( x 3 − 1)100 .
(17) y ! ( x 2 " 5) log(1 " x)e #3 x (18) y = sin x° Solution
Take u = x3-1 so that
(19) y = log10 x (20) Draw the function f '( x) if f ( x) = 2 x 2 − 5 x + 3 y = u100
10.4.2 Examples on Chain Rule dy dy du
and = ×
dx du dx
Example 10.8
= 100u100−1 × (3 x 2 − 0)
Find F ′( x) if F ( x) = x 2 + 1 .
= 100( x 3 − 1)99 × 3 x 2
Solution
= 300 x 2 ( x 3 − 1)99 .
Take u = g ( x) = x 2 + 1 and f (u ) = u
∴ F ( x) = ( fog )( x) = f ( g ( x)) Example 10.11
1
Find f ′( x) if f ( x) = .
1 − 12 1 3
x2 + x + 1
Since f ′(u ) = u = and
2 2 u Solution −1

g ′( x) = 2x, we get First we write : f(x) = ( x 2 + x + 1) 3

−1
F ′( x) = f ′( g ( x)) g ′( x) 1 −1 d
Then, f ′( x) = − ( x 2 + x + 1) 3 ( x 2 + x + 1)
3 dx
1 x
= .2 x = . 1 −4

2 x2 + 1 x2 + 1 = − ( x 2 + x + 1) 3 × (2 x + 1)
3
−4
Example 10.9 1
= − (2 x + 1)( x 2 + x + 1) 3 .
Differentiate : (i) y = sin(x2) (ii) y = sin2x 3
Solution Example 10.12
(i) The outer function is the sine function and the inner function is the squaring function. ⎛ t −2 ⎞
9

Find the derivative of the function g (t ) = ⎜ ⎟ .

Let u = x ⎝ 2t + 1 ⎠
2
Solution
That is, y = sin u.
9 −1
⎛ t −2 ⎞ d ⎛ t −2 ⎞
dy dy du g ′(t ) = 9 ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
Therefore, = × ⎝ 2t + 1 ⎠ dt ⎝ 2t + 1 ⎠
dx du dx
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 ⎡
8 (2t + 1)
d d ⎤ Take u = (log 2)x so that
(t − 2) − (t − 2) (2t + 1) ⎥
⎛ t −2 ⎞ ⎢ dt dt y = eu
= 9⎜ ⎟ ⎢ ⎥
⎝ 2t + 1 ⎠ ⎢ (2t + 1) 2 ⎥
⎣ ⎦ dy dy du
= × = eu × log 2 = log 2 e x log 2
8
dx du dx
⎛ t − 2 ⎞ ⎡ (2t + 1) ×1 − (t − 2) × 2 ⎤
= 9⎜ ⎟ ⎢ ⎥ = (log2)2x.
⎝ 2t + 1 ⎠ ⎣ (2t + 1) 2 ⎦ x
By using the differentiation formula for a , one can find the derivative directly.
8
⎛ t − 2 ⎞ ⎡ 2t + 1 − 2t + 4 ⎤ Example 10.16
= 9⎜ ⎟ ⎢ ⎥
⎝ 2t + 1 ⎠ ⎣ (2t + 1)
2
⎦
45(t − 2)8 ⎛ 1+ x ⎞
= . If y = tan-1 ⎜ ⎟ , find y′ .
(2t + 1)10 ⎝ 1− x ⎠
Solution
Example 10.13 ⎛ 1+ x ⎞
y = tan-1 ⎜ ⎟
Differentiate (2x + 1)5 (x3 - x + 1)4. ⎝ 1− x ⎠
Solution 1+ x
Let =t
Let y = (2x + 1)5 (x3 - x + 1)4 1− x
Take u = 2x + 1 ; v = x3 - x + 1 so that Then, y = tan-1t
y= u .v
5 4
dy d dt
= (tan −1 t ).
dy d d dx dt dx
u 5 . (v 4 ) + v 4 (u 5 )
dx = dx dx by Product Rule
1 (1 − x).1 − (1 + x)(−1)
= .
4 −1 dv 5 −1 du 1+ t2 (1 − x) 2
= u .4v dx + v .5u dx
5 4
by Chain Rule
1 (1 − x) + (1 + x) 1
= 4u 5 .v 3 × (3 x 2 − 1) + 5v 4u 4 × 2 = . = .
⎛ 1+ x ⎞
2
(1 − x) 2 1 + x2
1+ ⎜ ⎟
= 4(2 x + 1)5 ( x 3 − x + 1)3 (3 x 2 − 1) + 10( x3 − x + 1) 4 (2 x + 1) 4 ⎝ 1− x ⎠

= (2 x + 1) 4 ( x3 − x + 1)3 ⎡⎣ 4(2 x + 1)(3 x 2 − 1) + 10( x3 − x + 1) ⎤⎦

EXERCISE 10.3
= 2(2 x + 1) 4 ( x3 − x + 1)3 (17 x3 + 6 x 2 − 9 x + 3) . Differentiate the following :

Example 10.14 (1) y = ( x 2 + 4 x + 6)5 (2) y = tan3x (3) y = cos (tanx)

Differentiate : y = esin x. (4) y = 1 + x 3 3
(5) y = e x
(6) y = sin(e x )
Solution 3
Take u = sin x so that ⎛ 1⎞ 2
(7) F ( x) = ( x 3 + 4 x)7 (8) h(t ) = ⎜ t − ⎟ (9) f (t ) = 3 1 + tan t
y = eu ⎝ t⎠
dy d (eu ) du (10) y = cos(a 3 + x3 ) (11) y = e − mx (12) y = 4 sec 5x
= × = eu cos x = cos x esin x.
dx du dx −x 2
y = ( x + 1) x + 2 (15) y = xe
−3 2 3 2
(13) y = (2 x − 5) (8 x − 5)
4 2
(14)
Example 10.15
t3 +1 x
Differentiate 2x . (16) s (t ) = 4
(17) f ( x) = (18) y = tan(cos x)
t3 −1 7 − 3x
Solution
sin 2 x −1
Let y = 2 x = e x log 2 . (19) y = (20) y=5 x
(21) y = 1 + 2 tan x
cos x
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 as im licit differentiation. This process consists of differentiating both sides of an equation with
(24) y = (1 + cos x)
2 6
(22) y = sin 3 x + cos3 x (23) y = sin 2 (cos kx)
3x dy
e respect to x, using the rules of differentiation and then solving for . Since we think of y as being
(25) y= (26) y = x+ x (27) y = e
x cos x
dx
1 + ex
determined by the given equation as a differentiable function, the chain rule, in the form of the power
( ( )) "1 $ 1 " x '
2

(28) y = x+ x+ x (29) y = sin tan sin x (30) y ! sin & 2 ) rule for functions, gives the result.
% 1 # x (
d n dy
( y ) = n yn −1 , where n is an integer.
10.4.3 Implicit Differentiation dx dx

A function in which the dependent variable is expressed solely in terms of the independent variable Example 10.17
1
x, namely, y = f(x), is said to be an explicit function. For instance, y = x3 − 1 is an explicit function, dy
2 Find if x 2 + y 2 = 1 .
whereas an equivalent equation 2 y − x + 2 = 0 is said to define the function implicitly or y is an
3
dx
implicit function of x. Solution
Now, as we know, the equation We differentiate both sides of the equation,
x2 + y 2 = 4 (1)
d 2 d 2 d
describes a a circle of radius 2 centered at the origin. Equation (1) is not a function since for any (x ) (y ) = (1)
dx dx dx
choice of x in the interval - 2 x 2 there correspond two values of y, namely
dy
f ( x) = 4 − x 2 , −2 ≤ x ≤ 2 (2) 2x + 2 y =0
dx
Solving for the derivative yields
g ( x) = − 4 − x 2 , −2 ≤ x ≤ 2 (3)
dy x
(2) represents the top half of the circle (1) and (3) represents the bottom half of the circle (1). =−
dx y
By considering either the top half or bottom half, of the circle, we obtain a function. We say that (1)
defines at least two implicit functions of x on the interval - 2 ≤ x ≤ 2. Example 10.18
y
y
Find the slopes of the tangent lines to the graph of x 2 + y 2 = 4 at the points corresponding
to x = 1.
x 2 + y 2 = 4, y ≥ 0 Solution
x Substituting x = 1 into the given equation yields y 2 = 3 or y = ± 3.
–2 –1 1 2

–2 –1 1 2
x x 2 + y 2 = 4, y ≤ 0 ( ) ( )
Hence, there are tangent lines at 1, 3 and 1, − 3 . Although 1, 3 and 1, − 3 are ( ) ( )
points on the graphs of two different implicit functions, we got the correct slope of each point.
We have
Fig. 10.25 Fig. 10.26

Note that both equations

dy
dx
(
at 1, 3 = −
1
)
3
and
dy
dx
at (1, − 3 ) = −−13 = 1
3
.

x 2 + [ f ( x) ] = 4 and x 2 + [ g ( x) ] = 4 are identities on the interval −2 ≤ x ≤ 2 .

2 2

Example 10.19
In general, if an equation F ( x, y ) = 0 defines a function f implicitly on some interval, then
dy
F ( x, f ( x)) = 0 is an identity on the interval. The graph of f is a portion (or all) of the graph of the Find if x 4 + x 2 y 3 − y 5 = 2 x + 1 .
dx
equation F ( x, y ) = 0 . Solution
A more complicated equation such as x 4 + x 2 y 3 − y 5 = 2 x + 1 may determine several implicit Differentiating implicitly, we have
functions on a suitably restricted interval of the x-axis and yet it may not be possible to solve for
dy d 4 d d d
y in terms of x. However, in some cases we can determine the derivative by a process known ( x ) + ( x2 y3 ) − ( y5 ) = (2 x + 1)
dx dx dx dx dx

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 The operation consists of first taking the logarithm of the function f(x) (to base e) then differentiating
⎛ dy ⎞ dy
This implies, 4 x3 + x 2 ⎜ 3 y 2 ⎟ + (2 x) y 3 − 5 y 4 =2+0 is called lo arit mic differentiation and its result
⎝ dx ⎠ dx
d f "( x)
dy dy (log f ( x)) ! .
This implies, 4 x 3 + 3 x 2 y 2 + 2 xy 3 − 5 y 4 =2 dx f ( x)
dx dx
dy is called the logarithmic derivative of f(x).
This implies, (3 x 2 y 2 - 5 y 4 ) = 2 − 4 x3 − 2 xy 3
dx The advantage in this method is that the calculation of derivatives of complicated functions
dy 2 − 4 x3 − 2 xy 3 involving products, quotients or powers can often be simplified by taking logarithms.
or = .
dx 3x 2 y 2 − 5 y 4
Example 10.21
Example 10.20 Find the derivative of y = x 2 + 4 . sin 2 x .2 x

dy Solution
Find if sin y = y cos 2 x .
dx Taking logarithm on both sides and using the law of logarithm,
Solution
1
We have sin y = y cos 2 x . we have, log y = log( x 2 + 4) + 2 log(sin x) + x log(2).
2
d d y′ 1 2x cos x
Differentiating, sin y = ( y cos 2 x) This implies, = + 2. + log 2
dx dx y 2 x2 + 4 sin x
dy dy x
That is, cos y = y (−2sin 2 x) + cos 2 x = + 2 cot x + log 2
dx dx x2 + 4
dy
This implies, (cos y − cos 2 x) = −2 y sin 2 x dy ⎛ x ⎞
dx Therefore, y′ = = y⎜ 2 + 2 cot x + log2 ⎟ .
dx ⎝ x +4 ⎠
dy −2 y sin 2 x
or = .
dx cos y − cos 2 x Example 10.22
3
x 4 x2 + 1
10.4.4 Logarithmic Differentiation Differentiate : y = .
(3 x + 2)5
By using the rules for differentiation and the table of derivatives of the basic elementary
functions, we can now find automatically the derivatives of any elementary function, except for one Solution
type, the simplest representative of which is the function y = xx. Such functions are described as Taking logarithm on both sides of the equation and using the rules of logarithm we have,
power-exponential and include, in general, any function written as a power whose base and index
3 1
both depend on the independent variable. log y = log x + log( x 2 + 1) − 5log (3 x + 2).
4 2
In order to find by the general rules the derivative of the power-exponential function y = x , we x
Differentiating implicitly
take logarithms on both sides to get
log y = x log x, x > 0 y′ 3 1 2x 5×3
= + −
y 4 x 2 ( x 2 + 1) 3 x + 2
Since this is an identity, the derivative of the left-hand side must be equal to the derivative of the
right, we obtain by differentiating with respect to x (keeping in mind the fact that the left hand side is 3 x 15
a function of function) : = + −
4 x ( x 2 + 1) 3 x + 2
1 dy
= log x + 1 3
y dx dy x 4 x2 + 1 ⎡ 3 x 15 ⎤
Therefore, = y′ = + − .
dy dx (3 x + 2)5 ⎢⎣ 4 x x 2 + 1 3 x + 2 ⎥⎦
Hence = y (log x + 1) = x x (log x + 1)
dx
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 te s in Lo arit mic Differentiation Take x = tan
(1) Take natural logarithm on both sides of an equation y = f(x) and use the law of logarithms to 2x 2 tan!
Then = = tan2 and
simplify. 1 − x2 1 " tan2 !
(2) Differentiate implicitly with respect to x. f ( x) = tan −1 (tan 2θ ) = 2θ
(3) Solve the resulting equation for y . = 2 tan-1x

In general there are four cases for exponents and bases. 2

f ′( x) = .
1 + x2
d b Example 10.24
(1) (a ) = 0 (a and b are constants).
dx
⎛ 1+ x ⎞
If y = tan-1 ⎜ ⎟ , find y′ .
d ⎝ 1− x ⎠
[ f ( x)] = b [ f ( x)] f ′( x)
b b −1
(2) Solution
dx
Let x = tan
d g ( x) 1+ x 1 + tan θ ⎛π ⎞
(3) [a ] = a g ( x ) (log a ) g ′( x) Then = = tan ⎜ + θ ⎟ .
dx 1− x 1 − tan θ ⎝4 ⎠
d ⎡ g ( x) f ′( x) ⎤ ⎛ 1+ x ⎞ −1 ⎡ ⎛π ⎞⎤ π π
[ f ( x)] = [ f ( x)]g ( x ) ⎢
g ( x)
(4) + log f ( x).g ′( x) ⎥ tan-1 ⎜ ⎟ = tan ⎢ tan ⎜ + θ ⎟ ⎥ = + θ = + tan x
−1
dx ⎣ f ( x) ⎦ ⎝ 1− x ⎠ ⎣ ⎝4 ⎠⎦ 4 4
π
Example 10.23 y= + tan −1 x
4
Differentiate y = x x
.
1
y′ = .
Solution 1 + x2
Take logarithm :
Example 10.25
log y = x log x
Find f ′( x) if f ( x) = cos −1 (4 x 3 − 3 x) .
Differentiating implicitly,
Solution
y′ 1 1 Let x = cos
= x. + .log x
y x 2 x
Then 4 x 3 − 3 x = 4 cos3 θ − 3cos θ = cos 3θ and
log x + 2
= f(x) = cos −1 (cos 3θ ) = 3θ = 3cos −1 x
2 x
⎛ −1 ⎞ −3
d ⎛ log x + 2 ⎞ Therefore, f ′( x) = 3 ⎜ ⎟= .
Therefore, ( x x ) = y′ = x x ⎜ ⎟. ⎝ 1− x
2
⎠ 1 − x2
dx ⎝ 2 x ⎠

10.4.5 Substitution method 10.4.6 Derivatives of variables defined by parametric e uations

It is very much useful in some processes of differentiation, in particular the differentiation involving Consider the equations x = f (t), y = g (t).
inverse trigonometrical functions. These equations give a functional relationship between the variables x and y. Given the value of t
" 2x % in some domain [a, b , we can find x and y.
Consider f(x) = tan $# 1 ! x 2 '& .
-1
If two variables x and y are defined separately as a function of an intermediating (auxiliary) variable
For this function f ′( x) can be found out by using function of a function rule. But it is laborious. t, then the specification of a functional relationship between x and y is described as parametric and
Instead we can use the substitution method. the auxiliary variable is known as parameter.

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 The operation of finding the direct connection between x and y without the presence of the 10.4.7 Differentiation of one function with respect to another function
auxiliary variable t is called elimination of the parameter. The question as to why should we deal
If y = f ( x) is differentiable, then the derivative of y with respect to x is
with parametric equations is that two or more variables are reduced to a single variable, t.
For example, the equation of a circle with centre (0, 0) and radius r is x + y = r 2 2 2
This equation dy f ( x + h) − f ( x )
describes the relationship between x and y and the equations = lim .
dx h→0 h
x = r cos t ; y = r sin t are parametric equations.
dg
If f and g are differentiable functions of x and if = g '( x) ≠ 0, then
Conversely, if we eliminate t, we get x 2 + y 2 = r 2 dx
dy
df
dy dt g ′(t )
If y is regarded as a function of x then = = . df f '( x)
dx dx f ′(t ) = dx = .
dg dg g '( x)
dt
dx
If we regard x as a function of y, then the derivative of x with respect to y is,
dx Example 10.28
dx dt f ′(t ) Find the derivative of x x with respect to x log x.
= = .
dy dy g ′(t )
Solution
dt
dy Take u= x x , v = x log x
In the case of the circle, then is the slope of the tangent to the circle namely
dx
log u = x log x
dy
dy dt r cos t 1 du 1
= = = − cot t . = x. + [Link] x = 1 + log x
dx dx −r sin t u dx x
dt
du
Example 10.26 = u (1 + log x) = x x (1 + log x)
dx
dy
Find if x = at 2 ; y = 2at, t ≠ 0. dv
dx = 1 + log x
dx
Solution
du
We have x = at 2 ; y = 2at d (xx ) du dx
= = = xx .
dy y′(t ) 2a 1 d ( x log x) dv dv
= = = . dx
dx x′(t ) 2at t
df df
Note that when g is the identity function g ( x) = x then reduces to = f ′( x).
Example 10.27 dg dx

dy Example 10.29
Find if x = a(t - sin t), y = a(1 - cos t).
dx
Find the derivative of tan −1 (1 + x 2 ) with respect to x 2 + x + 1.
Solution Solution :
We have x = a(t - sin t), y = a(1 - cos t). Let f ( x) = tan −1 (1 + x 2 )
dx dy g ( x) = x 2 x 1
Now = a(1 - cos t) ; = a sin t
dt dt
df f '( x)
dy =
dy a sin t sin t dg g '( x)
Therefore, = dt = = .
dx dx a (1 − cos t ) (1 − cos t ) 2x
f '( x) = x 4 + 2 x 2 + 2
dt ( )
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 ( f ′( x) ) = ⎛⎜ f ( x) ⎞⎟
d d d
g '( x) = 2 x + 1 =
dx dx ⎝ dx ⎠
df 2x
=
dg (2 x + 1)( x 4 + 2 x 2 + 2) . d2 f d2y
= =
dx 2 dx 2
Other notations are D f ( x) = D y = y2 = y′′
2 2
Example 10.30
We can interpret a second derivative as a rate of change of a rate of change. But its geometrical
Differentiate sin(ax 2 + bx + c) with respect to cos(lx 2 + mx + n) interpretation is not so simple. However, there is a close connection exists between the second
Solution
derivative f ′′( x) and the radius of curvature of the graph of y = f ( x) which you will learn in higher
Let u = sin(ax 2 + bx + c) classes.

v = cos(lx 2 + mx + n) Similarly, if f ′′ exists, it might or might not be differentiable. If it is, then the derivative of f ′′ is
called third derivative of f and is denoted by
du u '( x)
= d3y
dv v '( x) f ′′′( x) = = y′′′ = y3 .
u '( x) = cos(ax 2 + bx + c)(2ax + b) dx3
We can interpret the third derivative physically in case when the function is the position function
v '( x) = − sin(lx 2 + mx + n)(2lx + m) f(t) of an object that moves along a straight line. Because s′′′ = ( s′′)′ = a′(t ) , the third derivative of the
position function is the derivative of the acceleration function and is called the jerk:
du u '( x) (2ax + b) cos(ax 2 + bx + c)
= = . da d 3 s
dv v '( x) −(2lx + m) sin(lx 2 + mx + n) j= = .
dt dt 3
10.4.8 igher order Derivatives Thus, jerk is the rate of change of acceleration.
If s = s(t) is the position function (displacement) of an object that moves in a straight line, we It is aptly named because a large jerk means a sudden change in acceleration, which causes an
know that its first derivative has the simple physical interpretation as the velocity v(t) of the object as abrupt movement in a vehicle.
a function of time :
f (t + ∆t ) − f (t ) ds Example 10.31
v ( t ) = s′(t ) = lim = .
∆t → 0 ∆t dt Find y′, y′′ and y′′′ if y = x3 − 6 x 2 − 5 x + 3 .
The instantaneous rate of change of velocity with respect to time is called the acceleration a(t) of Solution
the object. Then, the acceleration function is the derivative of the velocity function and is therefore We have, y = x3 − 6 x 2 − 5 x + 3 and
the second derivative of the position function:
y′ = 3 x 2 − 12 x − 5
v(t + ∆t ) − v(t )
a (t ) = v′(t ) = lim y′′ = 6x - 12
∆t → 0 ∆t
d y′′′ = 6.
= (v(t ))
dt
Example 10.32
d ⎛ ds ⎞ d 2 s
= ⎜ ⎟= = s′′(t ) Find y′′′ if y =
1
.
dt ⎝ dt ⎠ dt 2 x
f ( x + ∆x) − f ( x) Solution
Thus, if f is a differentiable function of x, then its first derivative f ′( x) = lim has
∆x
∆x → 0 1
We have, y = = x −1
a very simple geometrical interpretation as the slope of a tangent to the graph of y = f(x). Since f ′ is also x
a function of x, f ′ may have a derivative of its own, and if it exists, denoted by ( f ′)′ = f ′′ is, 1
y′ = −1x −2 = −
f ′( x + ∆x) − f ′( x) x2
f ′′( x) = lim . (−1) 2 2!
∆x → 0 ∆x y′′ = (−1)(−2) x −3 = .
x3

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 ( −1)3 3!
Solution
and y′′′ = ( −1)( −2)( −3)x −4 = . Differentiating the function implicitly with respect to x, we get
x4
dy
Example 10.33 dy a cos t cos t
= dt = =−
Find f ′′ if f(x) = x cos x. dx dx −a sin t sin t
Solution dt
We have, f(x) = x cos x.
d2y d ⎛ dy ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟
Now f ′( x) = - x sin x + cos x, and dx 2 dx ⎝ dx ⎠
f ′′( x) = - (x cos x + sin x) - sin x d ⎛ − cos t ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟
= - x cos x - 2 sin x. dx ⎝ sin t ⎠

Example 10.34 d ⎛ − cos t ⎞ dt 1

= ⎜ ⎟ = −[−cosec 2t ] ×
dt ⎝ sin t ⎠ dx x′(t )
Find y′′ if x + y = 16 .
4 4

Solution 1
= cosec 2t ×
We have x + y = 16 .
4 4 −a sin t

Differentiating implicitly, 4 x3 + 4 y 3 y′ = 0 cos ec 3t

= − .
a
Solving for y′ gives
x3 Example 10.36
y′ = − .
y3
To find y′′ we differentiate this expression for y′ using the quotient rule and remembering d2y
Find if x 2 + y 2 = 4 .
that y is a function of x. dx 2
⎡ d d ⎤ Solution
− ⎢ y 3 ( x3 ) − x3 ( y 3 ) ⎥
d ⎛ − x3 ⎞ ⎣ dx dx ⎦ We have x 2 + y 2 = 4
y′′ = ⎜ 3 ⎟ =
dx ⎝ y ⎠ ( y 3 )2
dy x
As before, = −
⎡ y 3 .3 x 2 − x 3 (3 y 2 y′) ⎤⎦ dx y
= −⎣ Hence, by the quotient rule
y6
⎛ x ⎞ 3
d2y d ⎛x⎞
3x 2 y 3 − 3x3 y 2 ⎜ − 3 ⎟ = − ⎜ ⎟
= − ⎝ y ⎠ dx 2 dx ⎝ y ⎠
y6
dy
3( x 2 y 4 + x 6 ) −3 x 2 [ x 4 + y 4 ] y.1 − x.
= − = = - dx
y7 y7 y2
−3 x (16) −48 x
2 2
= = . ⎛ x⎞
y7 y7 y − x⎜− ⎟
= − ⎝ y⎠
Example 10.35 y2
Find the second order derivative if x and y are given by
x2 + y 2 4
x = a cos t = - =− 3 .
y3 y
y = a sin t.

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 EXERCISE 10.4 EXERCISE 10.5
Find the derivatives of the following (1 - 18) : Choose the correct or the most suitable answer from the given four alternatives.
(1) y = xcos x (2) y = xlogx + (log x)x d ⎛2 ⎞
(1) ⎜ sin x° ⎟ is
(x - y) dx ⎝ π ⎠
(3) xy = e (4) x = y
y x

π 1 π 2
x2 y 2 (1) cos x° (2) cos x° (3) cos x° (4) cos x°
(5) (cos x) log x
(6) + =1 180 90 90 π
a 2 b2
⎛ y⎞ dy
(7) x 2 + y 2 = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ (8) tan (x + y) + tan (x - y) = x (2) If y = f ( x 2 + 2) and f '(3) = 5, then at x = 1 is
⎝x⎠ dx
(1) 5 (2) 25 (3) 15 (4) 10
dy − (1 + y sin( xy ) ) 1 − cos x
(9) If cos (xy) = x, show that = (10) tan-1
dx x sin xy 1 + cos x 1 2 dy
(3) If y = u 4 , u = x3 + 5, then is
4 3 dx
⎛ 6x ⎞ ⎛ 1− x ⎞
(11) tan-1 ⎜ 2 ⎟
(12) cos ⎜⎜ 2 tan −1 ⎟ 1 2 2
⎝ 1− 9x ⎠ ⎝ 1 + x ⎟⎠ (1) x (2 x3 + 15)3 (2) x(2 x3 + 5)3
27 27
(13) x = a cos3t ; y = a sin3t (14) x = a (cos t + t sin t) ; y = a (sin t - t cos t)
2 2 2
x (2 x3 + 15)3 (4) ! x(2 x " 5)
3 3
(3)
27 27
1− t 2
2t ⎛ 1− x ⎞ 2
(15) x = ,y= (16) cos −1 ⎜ 2 ⎟
(4) If f ( x) = x 2 − 3 x , then the points at which f ( x) = f '( x) are
1+ t2 1+ t2 ⎝ 1+ x ⎠
(1) both positive integers (2) both negative integers
−1 ⎛ cos x + sin x ⎞ −1 (3) both irrational (4) one rational and another irrational
(17) sin (3 x − 4 x ) 3
(18) tan ⎜ ⎟ .
⎝ cos x − sin x ⎠
(19) Find the derivative of sin x 2 with respect to x 2 . 1 dz
(5) If y = , then is
# 2x & a−z dy
!1
(20) Find the derivative of sin % 2 (
with respect to tan -1 x. (1) (a − z ) 2
(2) −( z − a ) 2 (3) ( z + a ) 2 (4) −( z + a ) 2
$ 1" x '
#1 1 " x # 1 du
2

(21) If u ! tan and v ! tan #1 x, find . dy π

x dv (6) If y = cos(sin x 2 ), then at x = is
dx 2
!1 # sin x & !1 # cos x &
(22) Find the derivative with tan % ( with respect to tan % (.
$ 1 " cos x ' $ 1 " sin x ' π
(1) - 2 (2) 2 (3) −2 (4) 0
2
(23) If y = sin-1x then find y′′ . (7) If y = mx + c and f (0) = f '(0) = 1, then f (2) is
−1 (1) 1 (2) 2 (3) 3 (4) - 3
(24) If y = e
tan x
, show that (1 + x 2 ) y′′ + (2 x − 1) y′ = 0 .
−1
(8) If f ( x) = x tan x, then f '(1) is
sin −1 x π 1 π 1 π
(25) If y = , show that (1 − x ) y2 − 3 xy1 − y = 0.
2
(1) 1 + (2) + (3) − (4) 2
1 − x2 4 2 4 2 4
π 1 d x +5log x
(26) If x = a ( + sin ), y = a (1 - cos ) then prove that at θ = , y′′ = . (9) (e ) is
2 a dx
dy sin 2 (a + y ) 5 5
(27) If sin y = x sin(a + y ) , then prove that = , a ≠ nπ . (1) e x .x 4 ( x + 5) (2) e x .x( x + 5) (3) e x + (4) e x -
dx sin a x x
(10) If the derivative of (ax − 5)e3 x at x = 0 is - 13, then the value of a is
−1 d2y dy
(28) If y = (cos x) , prove that (1 − x ) 2 − x − 2 = 0 . Hence find y2 when x = 0
2 2
(1) 8 (2) - 2 (3) 5 (4) 2
dx dx
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 1− t2 2t dy ⎧ x + 2, −1 < x < 3
(11) x = ,y= then is ⎪
1+ t2 1+ t2 dx (21) If f ( x) = ⎨5 x=3 , then at x = 3, f '( x) is
⎪8 − x x>3
y y x x ⎩
(1) − (2) (3) − (4)
x x y y (1) 1 (2) - 1 (3) 0 (4) does not exist

d2y (22) The derivative of f ( x) = x | x | at x = −3 is

(12) If x = a sin θ and y = b cos θ , then is
dx 2 (1) 6 (2) - 6 (3) does not exist (4) 0
2
a b b b
sec 2 θ
(1) (2) − sec 2 θ (3) − 2 sec3 θ (4) − 2 sec3 θ ⎧ 2 a − x, for − a < x < a
b2 a a a (23) If f ( x) = ⎨ , then which one of the following is true?
⎩3 x − 2a for x ≥ a
(13) The differential coefficient of log10 x with respect to log x 10 is
(1) f(x) is not differentiable at x = a (2) f(x) is discontinuous at x = a
x2
(1) 1 (2) −(log10 x) 2 (3) (log x 10) 2 (4) (3) f(x) is continuous for all x in  (4) f(x) is differentiable for all x ≥ a
100
(14) If f ( x) = x + 2, then f '( f ( x)) at x = 4 is ⎧ax − b, 2
−1 < x < 1
⎪
(24) If f ( x) = ⎨ 1 is differentiable at x = 1, then
(1) 8 (2) 1 (3) 4 (4) 5
⎪| x | , elsewhere
⎩
(1 − x) 2 dy 1 −3 −1 3 1 3 1 3
(15) If y = , then is (1) a = , b = (2) a = , b = (3) a = − , b = − (4) a = , b =
x2 dx 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 (25) The number of points in  in which the function f ( x) =| x − 1| + | x − 3 | + sin x is not
(1) + (2) − + (3) − − (4) − +
x 2 x3 x 2 x3 x 2 x3 x3 x 2 differentiable, is
(1) 3 (2) 2 (3) 1 (4) 4
dp
(16) If pv = 81, then at v = 9 is
dv
(1) 1 (2) - 1 (3) 2 (4) -2
SUMMARY
⎧x − 5 if x ≤ 1 In this chapter we have acquired the knowledge of
⎪
(17) If f ( x) = ⎨4 x 2 − 9 if 1 < x < 2 , then the right hand derivative of f(x) at x = 2 is • Derivative as a rate of change. If y = f ( x) then the derivative of y with respect to x
⎪3 x + 4 if x ≥ 2
⎩
f ( x0 + ∆x) − f ( x0 )
(1) 0 (2) 2 (3) 3 (4) 4 at x0 is lim , provided the limit exists, where existence means
∆x → 0 ∆x
f ( x0 ! "x) % f ( x0 ) f ( x0 ! "x) % f ( x0 )
xf (a ) − af ( x) f '( x0 ! ) $ lim! $ lim% $ f '( x0 % )
(18) It is given that f '(a ) exists, then lim is "x # 0 "x "x # 0 "x
x→a x−a
is a unique real number.
(1) f (a ) − af '(a ) (2) f '(a ) (3) − f '(a ) (4) f (a ) + af '(a )
⎛ dy ⎞ f ( x) − f ( x0 )
• Derivative of y = f ( x) at x = x0 is ⎜ ⎟ = f '( x0 ) = lim .
⎝ dx ⎠ x = x0 x → x0 x − x0
⎧ x + 1, when x < 2
(19) If f ( x) = ⎨ , then f '(2) is • Geometrical meaning of the derivative of y = f ( x) is the slope of the tangent to the
⎩2 x − 1 when x ≥ 2
(1) 0 (2) 1 (3) 2 (4) does not exist curve y = f ( x) at ( x, f ( x)).
• Physical meaning of the derivative of s = f (t ) with respect to t is the rate of change
f ( x) − 5 of displacement, that is velocity. The second derivative is acceleration and the third
(20) If g ( x) = ( x 2 + 2 x + 1) f ( x) and f (0) = 5 and lim =4, then g '(0) is
x→0 x derivative is jerk.
(1) 20 (2) 14 (3) 18 (4) 12 • Discontinuity of y = f ( x) at x = x0 implies non-differentiability of f ( x) at x = x0 .

XI - Mathematics 178 179 Differentia ility and et ods o Differentiation

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 • Non-existence of the derivative of y = f ( x) at x = x0 implies that the graph of y = f ( x)
fails to admit tangent at ( x0 , f ( x0 )). ICT CORNER 10(b)
• Geometrically, if the graph of y = f ( x) admits cups ( ) or caps ( ) at x = x0 then Differential Calculus
derivative at x = x0 does not exist.
• Derivative should be understood as a process not as a set of rules.
• Differentiability implies continuity, but the converse is not true.
• The sum, difference, product and composite of differentiable function is differentiable,
and the quotient of two differentiable function is differentiable wherever it is defined.
Expected Outcome
d d d
(i) ( f ( x) ± g ( x)) = f ( x) ± g ( x)
dx dx dx
d dg df
(ii) ( f ( x) g ( x)) = f ( x) + g ( x)
dx dx dx
d
(iii) (( fog )( x)) = f ′( g ( x)) g ′( x)
dx Step 1
pen the Browser type the RL Link given below (or) Scan the R Code.
d ⎛ f ( x) ⎞ g ( x) f ′( x) − f ( x) g '( x)
(iv) ⎜ ⎟= , where g ( x) ≠ 0 . GeoGebra Workbook called “Derivatives” will appear. In that there are several
dx ⎝ g ( x) ⎠ g 2 ( x)
worksheets related to your lesson.
Step 2
Select the work sheet “Derivatives in graph”. Some basic functions and their
Differential Calculus ICT CORNER 10(a) derivatives are given one under another
You can change “a” value by moving the slider and observe the changes in
each function and its derivatives.
Expected Outcome

Step 1
pen the Browser type the RL Link given below (or) Scan the R Code.
GeoGebra Workbook called “Derivatives” will appear. In that there are several worksheets related
to your lesson.
Step 2
Select the work sheet “Tracing the derivative of a function”. ou can enter any function in f(x) box.
You can see the function in blue colour and derivative in orange colour. Click play trace button to
get animation of the locus of derivative(x, slope at x)
bserve the trace and find that derivative is the path of slope at each point on f(x).

Step1 Step2

Browse in the link:

Step1 Step2
Derivatives: https: [Link] fk3w5g8y
Browse in the link:
Derivatives: https: [Link] fk3w5g8y

XI - Mathematics 180 181 Differentia ility and et ods o Differentiation

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 A A
Integral
Chapter 11 Calculus
B B

e s ortest distance e s ortest time

at et een A and B route et een A and B
Fig. 11.1 (a) Fig. 11.1 (b)
It is worth noting that the notation facilitates discovery.
This, in most wonderful way, reduces the minds labour. Certainly this route is not the shortest time route joining the points A and B, because the velocity
- Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz of the motion in the straight line (Fig. 11.1(a)) will be comparatively slow; whereas it take a curve
that is steeper near A (Fig. 11.1(b)), even though the path becomes longer, a considerable portion of
the distance will be covered at a greater speed. The solution to this problem is solved by Inte ral
calculus. This is called Brachistochrone problem which initiates the study of calculus of variation
using integral tool.
11.1 Introduction
ituation 2
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz (1646-1716) and In elementary geometry we have learnt to evaluate the measure of the following regular shape of
Sir Isaac Newton (1643-1727) independently the figures given below by using known formulae.
discovered calculus in the mid-17th century. Leibnitz,
a German philosopher, mathematician, and political r
adviser, importantly both as a metaphysician and as r
b h
a logician, was a distinguished independent inventor
of the Differential and Integral Calculus. Sir Isaac l
l b
Newton had created an expression for the area under a
Newton curve by considering a momentary increase at a point. Perimeter Area Surface Area Volume
Leibnitz 2(l+b) (1/2)bh π rl (4 / 3)π r 3
In effect, the fundamental theorem of calculus was built
into his calculations. His work and discoveries were not limited to mathematics; he also developed Fig. 11.2 (a)
theories in optics and gravitation.
How can the measure of the following figures given by functions be calculated
ne cannot imagine a world without differentiation and integration. In this century, we witnessed
remarkable scientific advancement owing to the ingenious application of these two basic components
of athematics. Calculus serve as unavoidable tool for finding solutions to the variety of problems
f g
that arise in physics, astronomy, engineering, chemistry, geology, biology, and social sciences.
Calculus deals principally with two geometric problems. f
f
f
(i) The problem of finding SLOPE of the tangent line to the curve, is studied by the limiting Length of
process known as differentiation and the curve Area Surface Area Volume
(ii) Problem of finding the AREA of a region under a curve is studied by another limiting process
called Inte ration. Fig. 11.2 (b)

In chapters 9 and 10, we have studied the differential calculus. In this chapter let us study some Though the problems look so difficult, integral calculus solves it without any difficulties.
fundamentals of integration. ituation 3
Consider some simple situations illustrated below. At a particular moment, a student needs to stop his speedy bike
to avoid a collision with the barrier ahead at a distance 40 metres
ituation 1 away from him. Immediately he slows (acceleration) down the bike
The shortest distance between two points A and B in a plane is the line segment joining the straight applying brake at a rate of 8 meter/second 2 . If the bike is moving
line A and B. Suppose it is required to find the line connecting two points A and B that do not lie at a speed of 24m/s, when the brakes are applied, will it stop before
on a vertical line such that a moving particle slides down on this line from A to B in the shortest collision
time (minimum time). Most of us believe that the shortest distance path in Fig. 11.1(a) will take the Also look at the following problems that occur naturally in our
shortest time. life. Fig. 11.3
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 What speed has to be applied to fire a satellite upward so that it never returns to the earth Illustration 11.1

+5
x 2
+2

=
If F ( x) = x 2 + 5 then y

x)
What is the radius of the smallest circular disk that can cover every isosceles triangle of given
2
=x

F(
x)
Q( 2
perimeter P )=
x
F ′( x) = 2 x . P(
x

What volume of material is removed from a solid sphere of radius 2r if a hole of radius r is 2 −1
drilled through the centre Thus if f ( x) is defined by )=
x
(x
H
f ( x) = 2 x, then
If a strain of bacteria grows at a rate proportional to the amount present and if the population
doubles in one hour, how much will it increase at the end of two hours we say that f ( x) is the derivative of F ( x) and that F ( x) is x

Integration will answer for all the above problems. an antiderivative of f ( x)

Fig. 11.5
Consider the following table
Learnin ecti es
F ( x) F ′( x) = f ( x) Antiderivative of f ( x) = 2 x
On completion of this chapter, the students are expected to
• understand the definition of an indefinite integral as a result of reversing the process of P( x) = x + 02 P′( x) = 2 x !
#
differentiation Q( x) = x 2 + 2 Q′( x) = 2 x " f ( x) = 2 x F ( x) = x 2 + ?
#
• find the indefinite integrals of sums, differences and constant multiples of certain elementary H ( x) = x − 12 H ′( x) = 2 x $
functions.
We can see that the derivative of F ( x) , P( x) , Q( x) and H ( x) is f ( x) , but in reverse the
• use the appropriate techniques to find the indefinite integrals of composite functions. antiderivatives of f ( x) = 2 x is not unique. That is the antiderivatives of f ( x) is a family of infinitely
• apply integration to find the function, when the rate of change of function is given. many functions.
eorem 11.1
If F ( x) is a articular antideri ati e o a unction f ( x) on an inter al I t en e ery
11.2 Newton-Leibnitz Integral antideri ati e o f ( x) on I is i en y
Integral calculus is mainly divided into indefinite integrals and definite integrals. In this chapter,
we study indefinite integration, the process of obtaining a function from its derivative.
# f ( x)dx ! F ( x) " c
ere c is called an ar itrary constant and all antideri ati es o f ( x) on I can e o tained
%
We are already familiar with inverse operations. (!, "), (#, $), ( ) n , n & are some pairs of inverse y assi nin articular alue to c.
operations. Similarly differentiation and integrations (d , ∫ ) are also inverse operations. In this section The function f(x) is called Inte rand.
The variable x in dx is called aria le o inte ration or inte rator.
we develop the inverse operation of differentiation called ‘antidifferentiation’.
The process of finding the integral is called inte ration or antidifferentiation (Newton-Leibnitz
integral).
The peculiar integral sign ∫ originates in an elongated S (like Σ ) which stands for sum.
ften in applications involving differentiation it is desired to find a particular integral antiderivative
that satisfies certain conditions called initial condition or boundary conditions.
dy
For instance, if an equation involving is given as well as the initial condition that
dx
y = y1 when x = x1 , then after the set of all antiderivatives is found, if x and y are replaced by
Fig. 11.4 x1 and y1 , a particular value of the arbitrary constant is determined. With this value of c a particular
Definition 11.1 antiderivative is obtained.
A function F ( x) is called an antiderivative (Newton-Leibnitz integral or primitive) of a Illustration 11.2
Suppose we wish to find the particular antiderivative satisfying the equation
function f ( x) on an interval I if
F ′( x) = f ( x) , for every value of x in I dy
= 2x
dx
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 and the initial condition that y = 10 when x = 2.
∫ cosec x dx = − cot x + c
2
d
From the given equation ( − cot x ) = cosec2 x
dy dx
= 2x
dx
d
y = ∫ 2 x dx ( sec x ) = sec x tan x ∫ sec x tan x dx = sec x + c
dx
y = x2 + c
We substitute y = 10 when x = 2 , in the above equation d
" !cosecx # $ cosecx cot x
10 = 22 + c ⇒ c = 6 dx ∫ cosecx cot x dx = −cosecx + c
When this value c =6 is substituted we obtain
d x
(e ) = ex ∫ e dx = e +c
x x
y = x2 + 6
dx
which gives the particular antiderivative desired.

11.3 Basic Rules of Integration d ⎛ ax ⎞ ax

∫ a dx = log a + c
x
⎟=a
x
⎜
dx ⎝ log a ⎠
tandard results
Since integration is the reverse process of differentiation, the basic integration formulae given 1
below can be derived directly from their corresponding derivative formulae from earlier chapter. d
( sin −1 x ) = 1 2 ∫ 1 − x2
dx = sin −1 x + c
dx 1− x
Deri ati es ntideri ati es
d
d ( tan −1 x ) = 1 +1x 2 ∫ 1+ x
1
dx = tan −1 x + c
∫ 0 dx = c , where c is a constant
2
(c) = 0, where c is a constant dx
dx
am le 11.1
d
dx
(kx) = k , where k is a constant ∫ k dx = kx + c where c is a constant Integrate the following with respect to x.
1 1
(i) x10 (ii) 10 (iii) x (iv)
x x
olution
d ⎛ x n +1 ⎞ x n +1
∫ x dx = n + 1 + c, n ≠ −1 (Power rule)
n
⎜ ⎟=x
n
x n!1
∫ x dx ! c, n " #1.
n
dx ⎝ n + 1 ⎠ (i) We know that =
n !1
Putting n = 10, we get
d ⎛1⎞ 1
(log x) = ⎜ ⎟ ∫x dx = log x + c x10+1 x11
∫x +c = +c
10
dx ⎝x⎠ dx =
10 + 1 11

1 x −10+1 1
d
( − cos x ) = sin x ∫ sin x dx = − cos x + c (ii) ∫x dx = ∫ x −10 dx = +c = − 9 +c
dx
10
−10 + 1 9x
1 3
1 +1
x2 x2 2 3
d
( sin x ) = cos x ∫ cos x dx = sin x + c (iii) ∫ xdx = ∫ x 2 dx =
1
+c =
3
+ c = x2 + c
dx +1 3
2 2
1
− +1
∫ sec x dx = tan x + c
2 1
d 1 − x 2
( tan x ) = sec2 x (iv) ∫ dx = ∫ x 2 dx =
1
= 2 x +c
dx x − +1
2

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 It is clear that whenever a constant is added or subtracted with the independent variable x, the
am le 11.2
fundamental formulae remain the same.
Integrate the following with respect to x.
But
1 cot x sin x 1
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) d "1 lx ! m % 1
cos 2 x sin x cos 2 x 1 − x2 (e ) ' = elx ! m " $ elx ! m dx # e(lx ! m ) ! c
dx $# l & l
olution
d "1 % 1
1 sin(ax ! b)]' = cos(ax ! b) " $ cos(ax ! b)dx # sin(ax ! b) ! c
(i) ∫ cos 2
x
dx = ∫ sec 2 x dx = tan x + c dx $# a & a
cot x Here, if any constant is multiplied with the independent variable x, then the same fundamental
(ii) ∫ sin x dx = ∫ cosec x cot x dx = −cosecx + c formula can be used after dividing it by the coefficient of x
sin x sin x 1 1
(iii) ∫ cos 2
x
dx = ∫ .
cos x cos x
dx = ∫ tan x sec x dx = sec x + c That is, if # f ( x)dx ! g ( x) " c, then # f (ax " b)dx ! a g (ax " b) " c
1 The above formula can also be derived by using substitution method, which will be studied later.
∫ 1 − x 2 dx = sin x + c
−1
(iv)
am le 11.4
am le 11.3 Evaluate the following with respect to x:
Integrate the following with respect to x: 1
∫ ( 4 x + 5) ∫ (15 − 2x ) dx ∫ ( 3x + 7 )
6
(i) dx (ii) (iii) 4
dx
1 x2 1 1
(i) − x (ii) 3 (iii) 3 (iv) olution
e x x 1 + x2
1 ( 4 x + 5) ( 4 x + 5)
6 +1 7

∫ ( 4 x + 5)
6
olution (i) dx = = +c
4 6 +1 28
1 x2 1
(i) ∫ − x dx = ∫ e x dx = e x + c (ii) ∫ 3 dx = ∫ dx = log x + c 1 3
⎛ 1 ⎞ (15 − 2 x ) 2 (15 − 2 x ) 2 + c
+1
e x x 1

1 x −3+1 1 1
(ii) ∫ (15 − 2 x ) dx = ∫ (15 − 2 x ) 2 dx = ⎜ ⎟
−
⎝ ⎠2 (1 2 ) + 1
=−
3
(iii) ∫x 3
dx = ∫ x −3 dx =
−3 + 1
+c = − 2 +c
2x
(iv) ∫ 1+ x 2
dx = tan −1 x + c
1 ( 3x + 7 )
−4 +1
1 1
dx = ∫ ( 3 x + 7 ) dx =
−4
(iii) ∫ ( 3x + 7 ) 4
3 −4 + 1
=−
9 ( 3x + 7 )
3
+c
EXERCISE 11.1
am le 11.5
Integrate the following with respect to x:
Integrate the following with respect to x:
1 1
(1) (i) x11 (ii) 7 (iii) 3
x4 (iv) ( x )
5 8
(i) sin(2 x + 4) (ii) sec 2 (3 + 4 x) (iii) cosec(ax + b) cot(ax + b)
x
1 tan x cos x 1 olution
(2) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) #1& 1
sin 2 x sin 2 x ! 4) dx " % ( * ) cos(2 x ! 4) + ! c " ) cos( 2 x ! 4) ! c
cos x cos 2 x (i) , sin(2 x $2' 2
x 24
(3) (i) 123 (ii) 25 (iii) e x 1
x (ii) ∫ sec (3 + 4 x) dx = tan(3 + 4 x) + c
2
1 4
(ii) ( 1 − x 2 )
−
(4) (i) (1 + x 2 ) −1 2
⎛1⎞ 1
(iii) ∫ cosec(ax + b) cot(ax + b) dx = ⎜ ⎟ ( −cosec(ax + b) ) + c = − cosec(ax + b) + c
⎝a⎠ a
11.4 Integrals of the Form ∫ f (ax + b)dx am le 11.6
We know that Integrate the following with respect to x:
1 1
d ⎡ ( x − a )10 ⎤ ( x − a )10 (i) e3x (ii) e5− 4 x (iii) (iv)
⎢ ⎥ = ( x − a )9 ⇒ ∫ ( x − a )9 dx = +c (3 x − 2) (5 − 4 x)
dx ⎣ 10 ⎦ 10 olution
d 1 e5− 4 x
[sin( x + k )] = cos( x + k ) ⇒ ∫ cos( x + k )dx = sin( x + k ) + c (i) ∫e
3x
dx = e3 x + c (ii) ∫e
5− 4 x
dx = − +c
dx 3 4

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 1 1 1 1 olution
(iii) ∫ (3x − 2) dx = 3 log (3x − 2) + c (iv) ∫ (5 − 4 x) dx = − 4 log (5 − 4 x) + c
x 4+1 x5
(i) ∫ 5x 4 dx = 5 ∫ x 4 dx = 5 = 5 = x 5 + c.
am le 11.7 4 +1 5
Integrate the following with respect to x:
⎛ 7 2 ⎞ 1 1
1 1 1
∫ ⎜⎝ 5 x −4+ + = 5∫ x 2 dx − 4 ∫ dx + 7 ∫ dx + 2 ∫
2
(i) (ii) (iii) (ii) ⎟ dx dx
1 + ( 2x )
2 x x⎠ x x
1 − ( 9x ) 1 − 25x
2 2

olution 1
− +1
1 1 1 1 x 2+1 x 2

tan −1 ( 2 x ) + c dx = sin −1 ( 9 x ) + c = 5 2 + 1 − 4 x + 7 log x + 2 1 + c

(i) ∫ 1+ ( 2x) 2
dx = (ii) ∫ − +1
2 1 − (9x ) 9
2
2
1 1 1
(iii) ∫ dx = ∫ dx = sin −1 ( 5 x ) + c =
5 3
x − 4 x + 7 log x + 4 x + c
1 − 25 x 2 1 − (5x ) 5
2
3

(iii) ∫ (2 cos x − 4sin x + 5sec 2 x + cosec 2 x)dx

EXERCISE 11.2
= 2 ∫ cos x dx − 4 ∫ sin x dx + 5 ∫ sec 2 x dx + ∫ cosec 2 x dx
Integrate the following functions with respect to x:
1 = 2sin x + 4 cos x + 5 tan x − cot x + c
(1) (i) ( x + 5)6 (ii) (iii) 3x + 2
(2 − 3 x) 4
am le 11.9
(2) (i) sin 3x (ii) cos(5 - 11x) (iii) cosec 2 (5 x - 7) Evaluate the following integrals:
3 x -6 1
(3) (i) e (ii) e8−7 x (iii) 12 6 15
6 − 4x (i) + + 16e 4 x +3 (ii) − 8cot(4 x + 2)cosec(4 x + 2)
(4 x − 5)3 3x + 2 5x − 4
x
(4) (i) sec 2 (ii) cosec(5x + 3) cot(5x + 3) (iii) sec( 2 − 15 x) tan(2 − 15 x ) olution
5
1 1 1 ⎛ 12 6 ⎞
(5) (i) (ii) (iii) (i) ∫ ⎜ + + 16 e 4 x +3 ⎟ dx
1 − ( 4x )
2
1 − 81x 2 1 + 36x 2 ⎝ (4 x − 5) 3 x + 2
3
⎠

11.5 Properties of Integrals 1 1

= 12 ∫ dx + 6 ∫ dx + 16 ∫ e 4 x +3 dx
(4 x − 5)3 3x + 2
(1) If k is any constant, then " kf ( x)dx ! k " f ( x)dx
⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
= 12 ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ − + 6 ⎜ ⎟ log 3 x + 2 + 16 ⎜ ⎟ e 4 x + 3 + c
(2) # ( f ( x) ! f ( x))dx " # f ( x)dx ! # f ( x)dx
1 2 1 2 ⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝ 2(4 x − 5) 2 ⎠⎟ ⎝ 3⎠ ⎝ 4⎠
ote 11.1
3
The above two properties can be combined and extended as = − + 2 log 3 x + 2 + 4e 4 x +3 + c.
2(4 x − 5) 2

∫ (k f ( x) ± k f ( x) ± k f ( x) ±  ± k f ( x)) dx
1 1 2 2 3 3 n n
⎛ 15 ⎞
= k ∫ f ( x)dx ± k ∫ f ( x)dx ± k ∫ f ( x)dx ±  ± k ∫ f ( x)dx.
(ii) ∫ ⎝⎜ 5x − 4
− 8cot(4 x + 2)cosec(4 x + 2)⎟ dx
⎠
1 1 2 2 3 3 n n

That is, the integration of the linear combination of a finite number of functions is equal to the 1
= 15∫ dx − 8∫ cot(4 x + 2)cosec(4 x + 2) dx
linear combination of their integrals 5x − 4
am le 11.8
⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
Integrate the following with respect to x: = 15 ⎜ ⎟ (2 5 x − 4) − 8 ⎜ ⎟ ( −cosec(4 x + 2)) + c
⎝ 5⎠ ⎝ 4⎠
7 2
(i) 5x 4 (ii) 5 x 2 − 4 + + (iii) 2 cos x − 4sin x + 5sec 2 x + cosec 2 x = 6 5 x − 4 + 2cosec(4 x + 2) + c.
x x
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 EXERCISE 11.3 ds
= 20t + 50
Therefore,
dt
Integrate the following with respect to x: To find the distance function s one has to integrate the derivative function.
5 24
(1) ( x + 4)5 + − cosec 2 (3 x − 1) (2) 4 cos(5 − 2 x) + 9e3 x −6 + That is, s = ∫ ( 20t + 50 ) dt
(2 − 5 x) 4 6 − 4x
s = 10t 2 + 50t + c
x 8 27 15
(3) sec 2 + 18cos 2 x + 10sec(5 x + 3) tan(5 x + 3) (4) + − The distance covered by the train is zero when time is zero. Let us use this initial condition
5 1− ( 4x)
2
1 − 9x2 1 + 25 x 2
s = 0 at t = 0 to determine the value c of the constant of integration.
x
6 12 1 "x % 7 (3
(5) − (6) cos $ ! 4 ' ( ( e5 ⇒ s = 10t 2 + 50t + c ⇒ c = 0
1 + (3 x + 2) 2 1 − (3 − 4 x) 2 3 #3 & 7x ( 9
Therefore, s = 10t 2 + 50t
The distance covered by the train in 2 hours (5pm-3pm) is given by substituting
11.6 Simple applications t = 2 in the above equation, we get
So far in this section we have been using x as the variable of integration. In the case of applications, s = 10(2) 2 + 50(2) = 140 km.
it is often convenient to use a different variable. For instance in the equation of motion the independent
variable is time and the variable of integration is t. am le 11.12
In this section we discuss how integration is used to find the position and velocity of an object, The rate of change of weight of person w in kg with respect to their height h in centimetres is
given its acceleration and similar types of problems. Mathematically, this means that, starting with
dw
the derivative of a function, we must find the original function. any common word which indicate given approximately by = 4.364 ×10−5 h 2 . Find weight as a function of height. Also find the
derivative such as rate, growth, decay, marginal, change, varies, increase, decrease etc. dh
weight of a person whose height is 150 cm.
am le 11.10
olution
If f ′( x) = 3 x 2 − 4 x + 5 and f (1) = 3, then find f ( x) .
The rate of change of weight with respect to height is
olution
d dw
Given that f ′( x) = ( f ( x) ) = 3x 2 − 4 x + 5 = 4.364 ×10−5 h 2
dx dh
w = ∫ 4.364 ×10−5 h 2 dh
Integrating on both sides with respect to x, we get

% f !( x) dx " % (3x # 4 x $ 5) dx ⎛ h3 ⎞
2
w = 4.364 ×10−5 ⎜ ⎟ + c
f ( x) = x − 2 x + 5 x + c
3 2
⎝ 3⎠
To determine the constant of integration c, we have to apply the given information f (1) = 3 One can obviously understand that the weight of a person is zero when height is zero.
f (1) = 3 ⇒ 3 = (1)3 − 2(1) 2 + 5(1) + c ⇒ c = −1 Let us find the value c of the constant of integration by substituting the initial condition w = 0,
at h = 0 , in the above equation
Thus f ( x) = x − 2 x + 5 x − 1 .
3 2

⎛ h3 ⎞
am le 11.11 w = 4.364 ×10−5 ⎜ ⎟ + c ⇒ c = 0
⎝ 3⎠
A train started from Madurai Junction towards Coimbatore at 3pm (time t = 0) with velocity
The required relation between weight and height of a person is
v(t ) = 20t + 50 kilometre per hour, where t is measured in hours. Find the distance covered by
the train at 5pm. ⎛ h3 ⎞
w = 4.364 ×10−5 ⎜ ⎟
olution ⎝ 3⎠
ds When the height h =150cm,
In calculus terminology, velocity v = is rate of change of position with time, where s is
dt
the [Link] velocity of the train is given by ⎛ 1503 ⎞
w = 4.364 ×10−5 ⎜ ⎟
v(t ) = 20t + 50 ⎝ 3 ⎠

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 When the height h = 150cm, the weight is w = 49kg (approximately) ds
Stated in calculus terminology, velocity, v = , is the rate of change of position with time,
Therefore, the weight of the person whose height 150cm is 49 kg. dt
dv
and acceleration, a = , is rate of change of velocity with time.
am le 11.13 dt
18
A tree is growing so that, after t - years its height is increasing at a rate of cm per year. The acceleration to be negative because if you take the direction of movement to be positive,
t
Assume that when t = 0, the height is 5 cm. then for a bike that is slowing down, its acceleration vector will be oriented in the opposite
direction of its motion (retardation).
(i) Find the height of the tree after 4 years.
Given that the retardation of the car is 8 meter/second 2 .
(ii) After how many years will the height be 149 cm
olution dv
Therefore, a = ! "8 meter/second 2 .
The rate of change of height h with respect to time t is the derivative of h with respect to t. dt

dh 18 "
1 Therefore, v = $ a dt ! $ "8dt ! "8t # c 1
Therefore,
= ! 18t 2
dt t v = !8t " c1.
So, to get a general expression for the height, integrating the above equation with When the brakes are applied,
respect to t. t = 0, and v = 24m/s.
1 1
!
h = " 18t 2 dt # 18(2t 2 ) $ c ! 36 t " c So, 24 = !8(0) " c1 # c1 $ 24
Therefore, v = !8t " 24.
Given that when t = 0, the height h = 5 cm.
ds
5 = 0!c " c #5 That is, = !8t " 24.
dt
h = 36 t 5. It is required to find the distance, not the velocity, so need more integration in order.
(i) To find the height of the tree after 4 years. s = $ v dt ! $ ("8t # 24)dt
When t = 4 years,
s = ! 4t " 24t " c2
2

h = 36 t ! 5 " h # 36 4 ! 5 # 77 To determine c2 , the stopping distance s is measured from where, and when, the brakes are
The height of the tree after 4 years is 77 cm applied so that at t = 0, s = 0 .
s = ! 4t " 24t " c2 # 0 $ ! 4(0) " 24(0) " c2 # c2 $ 0
2 2
(ii) When h = 149cm
s = ! 4t " 24t
2

h = 36 t ! 5 " 149 # 36 t ! 5
The stopping distance s could be evaluated if we knew the braking time. The time can be
149 ! 5 determined from the speed statement.
t = " 4 # t " 16
36 The bike stops when v = 0 , ⇒ v = −8t + 24 ⇒ 0 = −8t + 24 ⇒ t = 3.
Thus after 16 years the height of the tree will be 149 cm.
When t = 3 , we get
s = − 4t + 24t ⇒ s = − 4(3) + 24(3)
2 2
am le 11.14
At a particular moment, a student needs to stop his speedy s = 36 metres < 40 metres
bike to avoid a collision with the barrier ahead at a distance The bike stops at a distance 4 metres to the barrier.
40 metres away from him. Immediately he slows (retardation)
2
the bike under braking at a rate of 8 metre/second . If the bike
EXERCISE 11.4
is moving at a speed of 24m/s, when the brakes are applied,
would it stop before collision (1) If f ′( x) = 4 x − 5 and f (2) = 1, find f ( x).
olution
Let a be the acceleration, v be the velocity of the car, and s be the distance. (2) If f ′( x) = 9 x 2 − 6 x and f (0) = −3, find f ( x).
(3) If f ′′( x) = 12 x − 6 and f (1) = 30, f ′(1) = 5 find f ( x).
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 (4) A ball is thrown vertically upward from the ground with an initial velocity of 39.2 m/sec. If 11.7.1 Decomposition method
the only force considered is that attributed to the acceleration due to gravity, find Sometimes it is very difficult to integrate the given function directly. But it can be integrated after
(i) how long will it take for the ball to strike the ground decomposing it into a sum or difference of number of functions whose integrals are already known.
x2 − x + 1 e2 x − 1
( )
2
(ii) the speed with which will it strike the ground and For example 1 − x 3 , cos 5 x sin 3 x , cos3 x ,
, , do not have direct formulae
x3 ex
(iii) how high the ball will rise to integrate. But these functions can be decomposed into a sum or difference of functions, whose
(5) A wound is healing in such a way that t days since Sunday the area of the wound has been individual integrals are known. In most of the cases the given integrand will be any one of the
6 algebraic, trigonometric or exponential forms, and sometimes combinations of these functions.
decreasing at a rate of − cm 2 per day where 0 t 8. If on onday the area of the
(t + 2) 2 am le 11.15
wound was 1.4 cm 2
Integrate the following with respect to x:
x2 − x + 1
(i) (1 − x3 )
2
(i) What was the area of the wound on Sunday (ii)
x3
(ii) What is the anticipated area of the wound on Thursday if it continues to heal at the same olution
rate
∫ (1 − x )
3 2
∫ (1 − 2 x + x )dx
3 6
(i) dx =

11.7 Methods of Integration = # dx ! 2 # x dx " # x dx

3 6

Integration is not as easy as differentiation. This is first due to its nature. Finding a derivative of x4 x7
a given function is facilitated by the fact that the differentiation itself has a constructive character. A = x− + + c.
2 7
derivative is simply defined as
x2 ! x " 1 x2 x 1
f ( x + ∆x ) − f ( x) #
lim (ii)
x3
dx = ∫(x 3
− + ) dx
x3 x3
∆x → 0 ∆x
1 1 1
Suppose we are asked to find the derivative of log x, we know in all details how to proceed in order = ∫ x dx − ∫ x 2
dx + ∫
x3
dx.
to obtain the result.
x2 − x + 1 1 1
When we are asked to find the integral of log x, we have no constructive method to find integral or ∫ x3
dx = log x + − 2 + c.
x 2x
even how to start.

In the case of differentiation we use the laws of differentiation of several functions in order to find am le 11.16
derivatives of their various combinations, like their sum, product, quotient, composition of functions etc. Integrate the following with respect to x:
There are very few such rules available in the theory of integration and their application is rather (i) cos 5 x sin 3 x (ii) cos3 x .
restricted. But the significance of these methods of integration is very great.
olution
In every case one must learn to select the most appropriate method and use it in the most convenient 1
form. This skill can only be acquired after long practice. (i) ∫ cos 5 x sin 3x dx =
2∫
2 cos 5 x sin 3 x dx

Already we have seen two important properties of integration. The following are the four important 1
( sin 8 x − sin 2 x ) dx
2∫
=
methods of integrations.
1 Inte ration y decom osition into sum or difference. 1 ⎛ cos8 x cos 2 x ⎞
2 Inte ration y su stitution. ∫ cos 5 x sin 3x dx =
2⎝
⎜−
8
+
2 ⎠
⎟ + c.

3 Inte ration y arts

1
∫ cos ( 3cos x + cos 3x ) dx
4∫
3
(ii) x dx =
4 Inte ration y successi e reduction.

Here we discuss only the first three methods of integration and the other will be studied in higher 1⎛ sin 3 x ⎞
classes.
= ⎜ 3sin x + ⎟+c
4⎝ 3 ⎠

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 am le 11.17 am le 11.21
Integrate the following with respect to x: ( x − 1) 2
Evaluate : ∫ x3 + x
dx.
e2 x − 1
(ii) e ( e − 1) .
3x 2x
(i) olution
ex ( x − 1) 2 x2 + 1 − 2 x
olution
⎛e
∫ x3 + x
dx = ∫ x( x 2 + 1)
dx
e −1
2x 2x
1⎞
(i) ∫ ex
dx = ∫ ⎝⎜ e x
−
e x ⎠⎟
dx
⎛ ( x 2 + 1) 2x ⎞
= ∫ ⎜⎝ x( x 2
−
+ 1) x( x 2 + 1) ⎟⎠
dx
∫ (e − e − x ) dx = e x + e − x + c.
x
=
1 1
e5 x e3 x
= ∫ x dx − 2∫ 1 + x 2
dx
∫ e ( e − 1) dx = ∫ ( e − e ) dx = − + c.
3x 2x 5x 3x
(ii) −1
5 3 = log | x | −2 tan x + c.

am le 11.18 am le 11.22
1
∫ (tan x + cot x)
2
Evaluate : ∫ 2 dx. Evaluate : dx.
sin x cos 2 x
olution
olution
sin 2 x + cos 2 x
1
∫ (tan x + cot x) ∫ [tan x + 2 tan x cot x + cot 2 x] dx
2 2
dx =
∫ sin 2
x cos 2 x
dx = ∫sin 2 x cos 2 x
dx

∫ [(sec x − 1) + 2 + (cosec 2 x − 1)] dx

2
1 1 =
= ∫ dx + ∫ 2 dx
cos 2 x sin x
= ∫ (sec x + cosec 2 x) dx
2

= ∫ sec 2 xdx + ∫ cosec 2 xdx

= tan x + (− cot x) + c
= tan x − cot x + c. = tan x − cot x + c.

am le 11.19 am le 11.23
sin x 1 − cos x
Evaluate : ∫ dx.
1 + sin x Evaluate : ∫ 1 + cos x dx.
olution olution
sin x ⎛ sin x ⎞ ⎛ 1 − sin x ⎞ x
∫ 1 + sin x dx = ∫ ⎝⎜ 1 + sin x ⎠⎟ ⎝⎜ 1 − sin x ⎠⎟ dx 1 − cos x
2sin 2
2 dx = tan 2 x dx
∫ 1 + cos x dx = ∫ 2x ∫ 2
sin x − sin 2 x sin x − sin 2 x sin x sin 2 x 2 cos
= ∫ 1 − sin x
2
dx = ∫ 2
cos x
dx = ∫ 2
cos x
dx − ∫
cos 2 x
dx 2
x
tan
∫ tan x sec xdx − ∫ tan xdx
2
= ⎛ 2x ⎞ 2 −x+c
= ∫ ⎝⎜ 2 ⎟⎠
sec − 1 dx =
1
∫ tan x sec xdx − ∫ (sec x − 1)dx
2
=
x 2
= sec x − tan x + x + c. = 2 tan − x + c.
2

am le 11.20 am le 11.24
Evaluate : ∫ 1 + cos 2 x dx. Evaluate : ∫ 1 + sin 2 x dx.
olution olution
∫ 1 + cos 2x dx = ∫ 2 cos 2 x dx = 2 ∫ cos xdx = 2 sin x + c ∫ 1 + sin 2x dx = ∫ (cos 2 x + sin 2 x) + (2sin x cos x) dx

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 am le 11.28
= ∫ (cos x + sin x) 2 dx = ∫ (cos x + sin x)dx 1
= sin x − cos x + c
Evaluate : " x !1 ! x
dx.
olution
am le 11.25 1 1 # x !1 " x &
x3 + 2 " x !1 ! x
dx = ) % ( dx
x !1 ! x $ x !1 " x '
Evaluate : ∫ dx.
x −1
olution x +1 − x
= ∫ dx
( ) ( x)
x3 + 2 x3 − 1 + 3 ⎛ x3 − 1 3 ⎞
∫ ∫ dx = ∫ ⎜
2 2
dx = + ⎟ dx x +1 −
x −1 x −1 ⎝ x − 1 x −1 ⎠
x +1 − x
=
⎡ ( x − 1)( x 2 + x + 1)
∫ ⎢⎣ +
3 ⎤
dx = ∫ dx = ∫ ( )
x + 1 − x dx
x −1 x − 1 ⎥⎦ x +1− x
1 1
⎛ 2
= ∫ ⎜ x + x +1+
⎝
3 ⎞
⎟ dx
x − 1⎠
= ∫ x + 1dx − ∫ xdx = ∫ ( x + 1) dx − ∫ x 2 dx
2

3 3
x3 x 2 ( x + 1) 2 x 2
= + + x + 3log | ( x − 1) | +c. = − +c
3 2 3 3
2 2
am le 11.26
2⎡ 3 3
⎤
Evaluate : (i) ∫ a x e x dx (ii) ∫ e x log 2 e x dx. = ⎢( x + 1) − x ⎥ + c.
2 2
3⎣ ⎦
olution
(ae) x 11.7.2 Decomposition by Partial Fractions
∫ a e dx ∫ (ae) dx = +c
x x x
(i) =
log(ae) One of the important methods to evaluate integration is partial fractions. If the
integrand is in the form of an algebraic fraction and the integral cannot be evaluated by simple
∫ e e dx = ∫ e e dx = ∫ 2 e dx
x
x log 2 x log 2 x x x
(ii)
methods, then the fraction need to be expressed in artial ractions before integration takes
p( x)
( 2e ) x place. We will assume that we have a rational function , " q ( x) ! 0 # in which degree of
# ( 2e )
x
= dx ! " c. q( x)
log(2e)
p (x) < degree of q (x). If this is not the case, we can always perform long division.
am le 11.27 am le 11.29
3x + 7 x+3
Evaluate : ∫ ( x − 3) x + 2 dx. Evaluate : (i) ∫x dx (ii) ∫ ( x + 2) ( x + 1) dx.
2
− 3x + 2 2

olution olution
∫ ( x − 3) x + 2 dx = ∫ ( x + 2 − 5) x + 2 dx 3x + 7 13 10 !Resolving into
(i) ∫x 2
− 3x + 2
dx = ∫ x − 2 dx − ∫ x − 1 dx "
#partial fractions
= ∫ ( x + 2) x + 2 dx − 5∫ x + 2 dx
= 13log x − 2 − 10 log x − 1 + c
3 1
x+3 −2 12
= ∫ ( x + 2) 2
dx − 5∫ ( x + 2) dx
2
(ii) ∫ ( x + 2)2 ( x + 1) dx = ∫ x + 2 dx − ∫ ( x + 2) x +1
dx
2
dx + ∫ !Resolving into
"
#partial fractions
5 3 1 1 1
( x + 2) 2 ( x + 2) 2 = −2 ∫ dx − ∫ dx + 2 ∫ dx
= −5 +c x+2 ( x + 2) 2 x +1
5 3
= −2 log x + 2 − ∫ ( x + 2) dx + 2 log x + 1 + c
−2
2 2
5 3
2 10 1
= ( x + 2) 2 − ( x + 2) 2 + c.
5 3 = −2 log x + 2 + + 2 log | x + 1| +c.
x+2
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 EXERCISE 11.5 am le 11.30
Integrate the following functions with respect to x : Evaluate the following integrals :
2
x + 4 x − 3x + 2
3 2
⎛ 1 ⎞
(1) (2) ⎜ x + ⎟ (3) (2 x − 5)(36 + 4 x) sin x
∫e
− x2
x2 ⎝ x⎠ (i) " 2x 1 ! x 2 dx (ii) x dx (iii) ∫ 1 + cos x dx
cos 2 x − cos 2α cos 2 x
(4) cot 2 x + tan 2 x (5) (6) 1
∫ 1+ x ∫ x (a − x)
8
cos x − cos α sin 2 x cos 2 x (iv) 2
dx (v) dx
3 + 4 cos x 2
sin x sin 4 x olution
(7) (8) (9)
sin 2 x 1 + cos x sin x

(10) cos3x cos2x

2
(11) sin 5x (12)
1 ! cos 4 x (i) " 2x 1 ! x 2 dx
cot x " tan x Putting 1 ! x 2 " u , then 2 x dx " du
1+ x 1− x
8 +4 1 ! x 2 dx = ∫ u du
(13) e x log a e x (14) (3 x + 4) 3 x + 7 (15)
2x
" 2x
3
1 x +1 1 u2 1
2 3 2 3
(16) (17) (18) = ∫ u du = + c = u 2 + c = (1 + x 2 ) 2 + c .
2
x+3 − x−4 ( x + 2)( x + 3) ( x − 1)( x + 2) 2 3 3 3
3x − 9 x3 2
(19) (20)
∫e
− x2
( x − 1)( x + 2)( x 2 + 1) ( x - 1)( x - 2) (ii) xdx
Putting x 2 = u then 2 x dx = du
11.7.3 Method of substitution or change of variable
The method of substitution in integration is similar to finding the derivative of function of du
"e
! x2
x dx =
∫e
−u
Therefore,
function in differentiation. By using a suitable substitution, the variable of integration is changed to 2
new variable of integration which will be integrated in an easy manner. 1 −u 1 1 1 2
2∫
= e du = (−e − u ) + c = − e − u + c = − e − x + c.
du 2 2 2
We know that, if u is a function of x then = u ′. sin x
dx (iii) ∫ dx
1 + cos x
Hence we can write ∫ f (u )u ′dx = ∫ f (u )du
Putting 1! cos x " u , then # sin x dx " du
Thus, ∫ f [ g ( x)]g ′( x)dx = ∫ f (u )du , where u = g ( x)
sin x !du
The success of the above method depends on the selection of suitable substitution Therefore, " 1! cos x dx = $ u
" ! log | u | #c " ! log | 1 # cos x | # c.
either x = (u) or u = g(x).
1
ote 11.2 (iv) ∫ 1+ x 2
dx
The substitution for the variable of integration is in trigonometric function, use a rough
Putting x = tan u , then dx = sec 2 u du
diagram to find the re -substitution value for it. Suppose the variable of integration x is substituted
as x = tan θ . After integration suppose the solution is sec θ + cosecθ 1 sec 2 u sec 2 u
∫ 1+ x 2
dx =
u ∫ 1 + tan 2
du = ∫
sec 2 u
du = ∫ du = u + c
For example, if x ! tan " , then from 1
∫ 1 + x2
−1
the figure dx = tan x + c.
1 + x2
$ 1 # x2 '
x
cosec! " & ),
∫ x (a − x)
8
& x ) (v) dx
% (
θ Putting u = a − x, then du = −dx
$ 1 # x2 '
1
sec ! " & )
∫ x (a − x) ∫ x ( a − x ) dx
8 8
& 1 ) dx =
% (
! % # a " u $# u $ # "du $
8

⎛ 1 + x2 ⎞
Then sec θ + cosecθ = 1 + x + ⎜
( )
2
⎟. = ∫ −a ( u ) + u 9 du
8
⎝ x ⎠

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 = ∫ u 9 du − a ∫ u 8 du ∫ cosec x(cosec x − cot x)
(iii) Let I = ∫ cosec xdx = dx
cosec x − cot x
u10 u9 cosec 2 x − cosecx cot x
= −a +c
10 9
= ∫ cosecx − cot x
dx

(a " x)10 a (a " x)9 Putting cosec x ! cot x " u , then (cosec 2 x ! cosec x cot x) dx " du
∫ x (a − x)
8
dx ! " # c.
10 9
1
11.7.4 Important Results
Thus, I = ∫ u du = log | u | +c = log | cosecx − cot x | +c.
sec x(sec x + tan x) sec 2 x + sec x tan x
f ′( x) (iv) Let I = ∫ sec xdx = ∫ dx = ∫ dx
(1) ∫ f ( x)
dx = log | f ( x) | +c sec x + tan x sec x + tan x
Putting sec x ! tan x " u , then (sec 2 x ! sec x tan x) dx " du
[ f ( x)]n +1
(2) ∫ f ′( x)[ f ( x)]n dx =
n +1
+ c, n ≠ −1
1
roo
Thus, I = ∫ u du = log u + c = log sec x + tan x + c
f ′( x)
(1) Let I = ∫ f ( x)
dx Therefore, ! sec xdx " log sec x # tan x # c.

Putting f ( x) ! u then f "( x)dx ! du Thus the following are the important standard results.

du
Thus, I = ∫ = log | u | +c (1) ∫ tan x dx = log sec x + c
u
f !( x) ∫ cot x dx = log sin x + c
Therefore, " dx = log | f ( x) | +c. (2)
f ( x)

∫ f ′( x)[ f ( x)] dx ∫ cosecx dx = log cosec x − cot x + c

n
(2) Let I = (3)
Putting f ( x) ! u then f "( x)dx ! du
u n "1 (4) ∫ sec x dx = log sec x + tan x + c
Thus, I ! # u n du ! "c
n "1
[ f ( x)]n #1
$ f !( x)[ f ( x)] dx "
n
Therefore, # c. am le 11.32
n #1
Integrate the following with respect to x.
am le 11.31 2x + 4 ex 1
Integrate the following with respect to x. (i) ∫x 2
+ 4x + 6
dx (ii) ∫e x
−1
dx (iii) ∫ x log x dx
(i) ∫ tan x dx (ii) ∫ cot x dx (iii) ∫ cosec x dx (iv) ∫ sec x dx
sin x + cos x cos 2 x
olution
sin x
(iv) ∫ sin x − cos x dx (v) ∫ (sin x + cos x) 2
dx
(i) Let I ! " tan x dx ! " dx
cos x olution
Putting cos x ! u then, " sin x dx ! du 2x + 4
1
(i) Let I = ∫x 2
+ 4x + 6
dx
Thus, I ! $ " du ! " log | u | #c ! " log | cos x | #c ! log | sec x | #c.
u Putting x ! 4 x ! 6 " u , then (2 x ! 4) dx " du
2

cos x
(ii) Let I ! " cot x dx ! " dx du
sin x Thus, I ! # ! log u " c ! log x 2 " 4 x " 6 " c
u
Putting sin x = u then, cos x dx = du
2x ! 4
1
Thus, I ! # du ! log | u | "c ! log | sin x | "c.
u
Therefore, "x 2
! 4x ! 6
dx = log x 2 + 4 x + 6 + c.

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 ex 11.7.5 Integration by parts
(ii) Let I = ∫e x
−1
dx. Integration by parts method is generally used to find the integral when the integrand is a product
of two different types of functions or a single logarithmic function or a single inverse trigonometric
x x
Putting e ! 1 " u , then e dx " du function or a function which is not integrable directly. From the formula for derivative of product of
du two functions we obtain this useful method of integration.
Thus, I = ∫ u
= log u + c = log e x − 1 + c If u and v are two differentiable functions then we have
ex d (uv) ! vdu " udv
Therefore, "e x
!1
dx = log e x − 1 + c.
udv ! d (uv) " vdu
1 Integrating
(iii) Let I = ∫ dx.
x log x
! udv " ! d (uv) # ! vdu
1
Putting log x = u , then dx = du
x ! udv " uv # ! vdu
du
Thus, I ! # ! log u " c ! log log x " c ∫ udv in terms of another integral ∫ vdu and does not give a final expression for the integral
1 u
Therefore, dx = log | log x | +c.
x log x ∫ udv . It only partially solves the problem of integrating the product u dv . Hence the term ‘ artial
sin x + cos x Inte ration’ has been used in many European countries. The term “Inte ration y arts” is used in
(iv) Let I = ∫ sin x − cos x dx. many other countries as well as in our own.
Putting sin x ! cos x " u , then (cos x # sin x) dx " du The success of this method depends on the proper choice of u
du (i) If integrand contains any non integrable functions directly from the formula, like logx,
Thus, I = ∫ = log u + c = log sin x − cos x + c tan -1 x etc., we have to take these non integrable functions as u and other as dv.
sin x ! cos x u
Therefore, # dx = log | sin x − cos x | +c (ii) If the integrand contains both the integrable function, and one of these is xn (where n is a
sin x " cos x positive integer) then take u = xn.
cos 2 x cos 2 x (iii) For other cases the choice of u is ours.
(v) Let I = ∫ (sin x + cos x) 2
dx = ∫ 1 + sin 2 x dx. am le 11.33
Putting 1 ! sin 2 x " u , then 2 cos 2x dx " du Evaluate the following integrals

∫ xe dx ∫ x cos x dx (iii) ∫ log x dx ∫ sin

−1
du 1 1 (i) x
(ii) (iv) x dx
Thus, I = ∫ 2u = 2 log u + c = 2 log 1 + sin 2 x + c.
olution
EXERCISE 11.6 (i) Let I = ∫ xe x dx.
Integrate the following with respect to x Since x is an algebraic function and ex is an exponential function,
so take u = x then du = dx
x x2 e x − e− x 10 x9 + 10 x log e 10
(1) (2) (3) (4) dv = e x dx ⇒ v = e x
1+ x 2 1 + x6 e x + e− x 10 x + x10
Applying Integration by parts, we get
sin x cot x cosecx sin 2 x
(5) (6) (7) (8)
x log(sin x) ⎛
log ⎜ tan ⎟
x⎞ a 2 + b 2 sin 2 x ∫ udv = uv − ∫ vdu
⎝ 2⎠
⇒ ∫ xe dx = xe x − ∫ e x dx
x
sin −1 x x 1 α −1 − β xα
(9) (10) (11) (12) αβ x e
1 − x2 1+ x x log x log(log x)
∫ xe dx = xe − e + c.
x x x
That is,
cos x
(13) tan x sec x (14) x(1 − x)17 (15) sin 5 x cos3 x (16) (ii) Let I = ∫ x cos x dx
cos( x − a )
Since x is an algebraic function and cos x is a trigonometric function,

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 so take u = x then du = dx
∫ tan (tan 2θ ) sec θ dθ
−1 2
dv = cos x dx ⇒ v = sin x =
1 ! x2
Applying Integration by parts, we get ∫ 2θ sec θ dθ
2
= x
2 " (! )(sec ! d! )
∫ udv = uv − ∫ vdu
2
=
"
Applying integration by parts 1
⇒ ∫ x cos x dx = x sin x − ∫ sin x dx
I = 2 ⎡⎣θ tan θ − ∫ tan θ dθ ⎤⎦ tan " # x
⇒ ∫ x cos x dx = x sin x + cos x + c
= 2(θ tan θ − log sec θ ) + c sec " # 1 ! x 2
(iii) Let I = ∫ log x dx ( tan
!1 " 2x %
$ 2 '
dx = 2 x tan !1 x ! 2 log | 1 " x 2 | "c
# 1! x &
1
Take u = log x then du = dx
x 11.7.6 Bernoulli’s formula for Integration by Parts
dv = dx ⇒ v = x
Applying Integration by parts, we get If u and v are functions of x, then the Bernoulli’s rule is

∫ udv = uv − ∫ vdu ∫ udv = uv − u′v1 + u′′v2 − 

where u′, u′′, u′′′,... are successive derivatives of u and
1
⇒ ∫ log x dx = x log x − ∫ x dx v, v1 , v2 , v3 , are successive integrals of dv
x
Bernoulli’s formula is advantageously applied when u = x n ( n is a positive integer)
⇒ ∫ log x dx = x log x − x + c For the following problems we have to apply the integration by parts two or more times to find the
solution. In this case Bernoulli’s formula helps to find the solution easily.
∫ sin
−1
(iv) Let I = x dx
−1
u = sin ( x), dv = dx am le 11.35
Integrate the following with respect to x. dv ! e5 x dx
1 e5 x
Then du = ,v = x (i) x 2 e5x (ii) x3 cos x (iii) x3e − x u ! x2 v!
1 − x2 5
olution
x e5 x
u" ! 2 x v1 !
∫ sin xdx = x sin −1 x − ∫ ∫x e
−1
dx (i) 2 5x
dx.
1 − x2 52
Applying Bernoulli’s formula e5 x
1 dt u "" ! 2 v2 ! 3
∫ sin 2∫ t
−1
xdx = x sin −1 x + , where t = 1 − x 2 5
∫ udv = uv − u′v + u′′v1 2 −
e5 x
−1
= x sin x + t + c u """ ! 0 v3 ! 4
5
2 %e ( % e5 x ( % e5 x ( % e5 x (
5x

! x e dx " # x $ '& 5
2 5x
−1
= x sin x + 1 − x + c
2 * + (2 x) ' 2 * , ( 2) ' 3 * + ( 0) ' 4 * , 0 , , 0 , c
) &5 ) &5 ) &5 )
am le 11.34 x 2 e5 x 2 xe5 x 2e5 x
=
− + + c.
5 25 125
⎛ 2x ⎞
∫ tan (ii) ∫ x cos x dx.
−1 3
Evaluate : dx
⎝⎜ 1 − x 2 ⎠⎟ dv = cos x dx
olution Applying Bernoulli’s formula u = x3 , v = sin x
⎛ 2x ⎞
∫ tan u ′ = 3 x,2 v1 = − cos x
−1
Let I = ⎜⎝ ⎟ dx
1 − x2 ⎠ ∫ udv = uv − u′v + u′′v1 2 −
u ′′ = 6 x, v2 = − sin x
Putting x = tan θ ⇒ dx = sec 2 θ dθ
∫x
3
cos x dx = ( x3 ) ( sin x ) − ( 3 x 2 ) ( − cos x )
u ′′′ = 6, v3 = cos x
⎛ 2 tan θ ⎞ + ( 6 x )( − sin x ) − ( 6 )( cos x ) + c
Therefore, I = ∫ tan −1 ⎜ sec 2 θ dθ
⎝ 1 − tan 2 θ ⎟⎠
= x3 sin x + 3 x 2 cos x − 6 x sin x − 6 cos x + c.

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 e ax b e ax b2
∫x e
3 −x
(iii) dx. I= sin bx − cos bx − 2 ∫ e ax sin bx dx
Applying Bernoulli’s formula a a a a
dv = e − x dx
u=x , 3
v = −e − x e ax b b2
∫ udv = uv − u′v + u′′v 1 2 − I=
a
sin bx − 2 e ax cos bx − 2 I
a a
u ′ = 3 x 2 , v1 = +e − x
∫ x e dx = ( x )( −e ) − ( 3x )( e )
3 −x 3 −x 2 −x
u ′′ = 6 x, v2 = −e − x ⎛ b2 ⎞ ae ax sin bx − be ax cos bx
⎜1 + 2 ⎟ I =
+ ( 6 x ) ( −e −x
) − ( 6) (e ) + c
−x
u ′′′ = 6, v3 = e −x
⎝ a ⎠ a2
! " x 3e " x " 3x 2e " x " 6xe " x " 6e " x # c .
⎛ a 2 + b2 ⎞ e ax [a sin bx − b cos bx]
⎜ 2 ⎟I = a2
EXERCISE 11.7 ⎝ a ⎠
Integrate the following with respect to x: e ax
(1) (i) 9 xe3 x (ii) x sin 3 x (iii) 25 xe −5 x (iv) x sec x tan x Therefore, I = [a sin bx − b cos bx] + c
a + b2
2

(2) (i) x log x (ii) 27 x 2 e3x (iii) x2 cosx (iv) x 3 sin x

e ax
Therefore, ∫ e ax sin bx dx = [a sin bx − b cos bx] + c
x sin -1 x 2 ⎛ 8x ⎞ ⎛ 2x ⎞ a + b2
2
(3) (i) (ii) x5e x (iii) tan −1 ⎜ 2 ⎟
(iv) sin −1 ⎜ 2 ⎟
1 - x2 ⎝ 1 − 16 x ⎠ ⎝ 1+ x ⎠ e ax
∫e [a cos bx + b sin bx] + c
ax
Similarly, cos bx dx =
a 2 + b2
11.7.8 Integrals of the form (i) ∫ eax sin bx dx ∫e
ax
(ii) cos bx dx
e ax
∫e [a sin bx − b cos bx] + c
ax
sin bx dx =
The following examples illustrate that there are some integrals whose integration continues a 2 + b2
forever. Whenever we integrate function of the form e ax cos bx or e ax sin bx, we have to apply the e ax
∫e [a cos bx + b sin bx] + c
ax
Integration by Parts rule twice to get the similar integral on both sides to solve. cos bx dx =
a 2 + b2
esult 11.1
e ax aution
(i) ∫ e ax sin bx dx = 2 [a sin bx − b cos bx] + c
a + b2 In applying integration by parts to specific integrals, the pair of choice for u and dv once initially
assumed should be maintained for the successive integrals on the right hand side. (See the above two
e ax
∫e [a cos bx + b sin bx] + c
ax
(ii) cos bx dx = examples). The pair of choice should not be interchanged.
a 2 + b2
roo i
am les 11.36
Let I = ∫ e ax sin bx dx
Take u = sin bx; du = b cos bx dx Evaluate the following integrals
e ax
∫e (ii) ∫ e −5 x sin 3 x dx
3x
dv = e ax ; v = , (i) cos 2 x dx
a
Applying Integration by parts, we get
(i) ∫ e3 x cos 2 x dx
e ax e ax
I= sin bx − ∫ b cos bx dx Using the formula
a a
e ax b e ax
sin bx − ∫ e ax cos bx dx ∫e [a cos bx + b sin bx] + c
ax
I= cos bx dx =
a a a 2 + b2
Take u = cos bx; du = −b sin bx dx, For a = 3 and b = 2 , we get
e ax
dv = e ax ; v = , ⎛ e3 x ⎞
a ∫e
3x
cos 2 x dx = ⎜ 2 (3cos 2 x + 2sin 2 x ) + c
Again applying integration by parts, we get ⎝ 3 + 22 ⎟⎠
⎛ e3 x ⎞
I=
e ax b ⎡ e ax
sin bx − ⎢ cos bx + ∫
e ax ⎤
b sin bx dx ⎥ = ⎜ ⎟ (3cos 2 x + 2sin 2 x ) + c.
⎝ 13 ⎠
a a⎣ a a ⎦
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 ∫e This is of the form ∫ e x [ f ( x) + f ′ ( x)] dx
−5 x
(ii) sin 3 x dx

Using the formula ⎛1 1 ⎞ x 1

∫e ⎜⎝ − 2 ⎟⎠ dx = e x + c.
x

ax
x x
e
∫e [a sin bx − b cos bx] + c ∫ e (sin x + cos x) dx
ax
sin bx dx = (ii) Let I = x
a 2 + b2
Take f(x) = sin x, then f ′( x) = cos x
for a = −5, b = 3 , we get
This is of the form ∫ e x [ f ( x) + f ′ ( x)] dx
⎛ e −5 x ⎞
∫e
−5 x
sin 3 x dx = ⎜ 2⎟
( −5sin 3x − 3cos 3x ) + c ∫ e (sin x + cos x) dx
x
= e sin x + c.
x

⎝ ( −5) + 3 ⎠
2

2
⎛ 1− x ⎞
⎛ e −5 x ⎞ (iii) ∫ e x ⎜ 2 ⎟
dx
∫ e sin 3x dx = − ⎝⎜ 34 ⎠⎟ (5sin 3x + 3cos 3x ) + c.
−5 x
⎝ 1+ x ⎠ (1 − x )2
∫e
x
Let I = dx
(1 + x ) 2 2

EXERCISE 11.8
Integrate the following with respect to x (1 + x − 2 x) dx 2

∫e
x
=
(1) (i) e ax cos bx (ii) e 2 x sin x (iii) e − x cos 2 x (1 + x ) 2 2

(2) (i) e −3 x sin 2 x (ii) e −4 x sin 2 x (iii) e -3 x cos x ⎛ ⎞

1 2x
∫ e ⎜⎜ (1 + x ) − 1 + x ⎟ dx
x
esult 11.2 =
⎝ ( ) 2 2 2 ⎟⎠
∫ e [ f ( x) + f ′( x)]dx = e x f ( x) + c
x

roo
1 2x
Let I = ∫ e x [ f ( x) + f ′( x)]dx If f ( x ) = , then f ′ ( x ) = −
(1 + x ) 2
(1 + x )
2 2

= ∫ e f ( x)dx + ∫ e f ′( x)dx
x x
Using ∫ e x ( f ( x ) + f ′ ( x ) ) dx = e x f ( x ) + c
Take u = f ( x); du ! f "( x) dx, in the first integral
dv = e x ; v = e x , 2 % (
⎛ 1− x ⎞ 1 2x 1
∫e , e '' "1 ! x # $ 1 ! x * dx + e x
x
x
⎜ 2 ⎟
dx = ! c.
That is, I = e x f ( x) − ∫ e x f ′( x)dx + ∫ e x f ′( x)dx + c
⎝ 1+ x ⎠
& " # 2 2 2 *
)
"1 ! x2 #

Therefore, I = e x f ( x) + c.
EXERCISE 11.9
am les 11.37 Integrate the following with respect to x:
Evaluate the following integrals
⎛ x −1 ⎞
(1) e x (tan x + log sec x) (2) e x ⎜ 2 ⎟ (3) e x sec x(1 + tan x)
⎛ 1− x ⎞
2 ⎝ 2x ⎠
⎛1 1 ⎞
(i) ∫ e ⎜ − 2 ⎟ dx ∫ e (sin x + cos x) dx (iii) ∫ e ⎜
x x
(ii) x
dx
⎝x x ⎠ ⎝ 1 + x 2 ⎠⎟ ⎛ 2 + sin 2 x ⎞ −1 ⎛ 1 + x + x2 ⎞ log x
(4) e x ⎜ ⎟ (5) e tan x
⎜ ⎟ (6)
⎝ 1 + cos 2 x ⎠ ⎝ 1+ x ⎠ (1 log x) 2
2
olution
⎛1 1 ⎞
∫e ⎜⎝ − 2 ⎟⎠ dx
x
(i) Let I =
x x 11.7.9 Integration of Rational Algebraic Functions
1 −1 In this section we are going to discuss how to integrate the rational algebraic functions whose
Take f(x) = , then f ′ ( x) = 2 numerator and denominator contains some positive integral powers of x with constant coefficients.
x x

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 y eI 1
= 2a [log x − a − log x + a ] + c
dx dx dx dx
Integrals of the form ∫ 2 , ∫ x2 − a2 , ∫ , ∫
a ± x2 a2 ± x2 x2 − a2 1 x−a
= log +c
dx 1 a!x 2a x+a
(i) ∫ a 2 − x 2 = 2a log a " x ! c dx 1 x−a
Therefore ∫x 2
− a2
=
2a
log
x+a
+c
dx 1 x!a
(ii) ∫x 2
− a2
= log
x"a
"c dx
2a (iii) Let I = ∫a 2
+ x2
.
dx 1 −1 ⎛ x ⎞
(iii) ∫a 2
+ x2
= tan ⎜ ⎟ + c
a ⎝a⎠ Putting x = a tan ! " ! # tan
$1 x
a
dx −1 ⎛ x ⎞
dx = a sec 2 θ
(iv) ∫ a −x
2 2
= sin ⎜ ⎟ + c
⎝a⎠ a sec 2 θ a sec 2 θ a sec 2 θ 1
I= ∫a 2
+ a 2 tan 2 θ
dθ = ∫ 2
a (1 + tan 2 θ )
dθ = ∫ 2
a sec 2 θ
d θ = ∫ dθ
a
dx
∫ = log x + x − a + c
2 2
(v)
x2 − a2 1 1 ⎛ x⎞
= θ + c = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ + c
a a ⎝ a⎠
dx
∫ = log x + x + a + c
2 2
(vi) dx 1 −1 ⎛ x ⎞

roo
x2 + a2 Therefore, "a 2
! x2
= tan ⎜ ⎟ + c
a ⎝a⎠
dx
dx (iv) Let I = ∫ .
(i) Let I = ∫a 2
− x2
. a2 − x2
⎛x⎞
dx Putting x = a sin θ ⇒ θ = sin −1 ⎜ ⎟
⎝a⎠
= ∫ (a − x)(a + x) dx = a cos θ

1 ⎡ 1 1 ⎤ ⎧Resolving into a cos θ a cos θ a cos θ

=
2a ∫ ⎢⎣ a + x a − x ⎥⎦
+ dx ⎨ I= ∫ a 2 − a 2 sin 2 θ
dθ = ∫
a 2 (1 − sin 2 θ )
dθ = ∫
a cos θ
dθ = ∫ dθ
⎩partial fractions
1
= ⎡log a + x − log a − x ⎤⎦ + c −1 ⎛ x ⎞
2a ⎣ = θ + c = sin ⎜ ⎟ + c
⎝ a⎠
1 a+x dx
log +c −1 ⎛ x ⎞
=
2a a−x Therefore, " a2 ! x2
= sin ⎜ ⎟ + c
⎝a⎠
dx 1 a+x dx
"a 2
! x2
=
2a
log
a−x
+c (v) Let I = ∫ x2 − a2
dx ⎛x⎞
(ii) Let I = ∫x 2
− a2
. Putting x = a sec θ ⇒ θ = sec −1 ⎜ ⎟
⎝a⎠
dx = a sec θ tan θ dθ
dx
= ∫ ( x − a)( x + a) a sec θ tan θ a sec θ tan θ a sec θ tan θ
I= ∫ a 2 sec 2 θ − a 2
dθ = ∫
a 2 (sec 2 θ − 1)
dθ = ∫
a tan θ
dθ = ∫ sec θ dθ
1 ⎡ 1 1 ⎤ ⎧Resolving into
2a ∫ ⎢⎣ x − a x + a ⎥⎦
= − dx ⎨
⎩partial fractions = log | sec ! " tan ! | "c

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 x x2 " a2
= log ! !c x
a a am les 11.38
x2 − a2 Evaluate the following integrals
2 2
= log x + x − a − log a + c θ 1 x2 1 1
a (i) ∫ ( x − 2) 2
+1
dx (ii) ∫x 2
+5
dx (iii) ∫ dx (iv) ∫ dx
2 2 1 + 4 x2 4 x 2 − 25
= log x + x − a + c1 where c1 = c − log a sec θ =
x
olution
a
dx 1 1
" x2 − a2
∫ ( x − 2) dx = ∫
2 2
Therefore, = log x + x − a + c1 tan θ = (i) Let I = dx
x2 ! a2 a
2
+1 ( x − 2) 2 + 12
Putting x - 2 = t ⇒ dx = dt
dx
(vi) Let I = ∫ a2 + x2 Thus, I = ∫t
1
dt = tan −1 (t ) + c = tan −1 ( x − 2) + c
2
+ 12
⎛x⎞ x2
Putting x = a tan θ ⇒ θ = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟
⎝a⎠ a2 + x2 (ii) Let I = ∫x 2
+5
dx
x
dx = a sec 2 θ dθ
x2 + 5 − 5 ⎛ 5 ⎞ 5
θ
a
= ∫ x2 + 5
dx = ∫ ⎜1 − 2
⎝ x +5⎠
⎟ dx = ∫ dx − ∫ 2
x +5
dx
a sec 2 θ a sec 2 θ
I= ∫ a tan θ + a
2 2 2
dθ = ∫
a (tan 2 θ + 1)
2
dθ tan θ =
x
a 1
= x − 5∫ dx
( 5)
2

sec θ =
a2 + x2 x2 +
a sec 2 θ a
= ∫ a secθ dθ = ∫ sec θ dθ
1 ⎛ x ⎞
= x −5 tan −1 ⎜ ⎟+c
5 ⎝ 5⎠
= log | sec ! " tan ! | "c
⎛ x ⎞
I = x − 5 tan −1 ⎜ ⎟+c
x x2 ⎝ 5⎠
= log 1 c
a a2 1 1
(iii) Let I = ∫ 1 + 4x2
dx = ∫
1 + (2 x) 2
dx
2 2
= log x + x + a − log a + c
1
Putting 2x = t ⇒ 2 dx = dt ⇒ dx = dt
= log x + x + a + c1 where c1 = c − log a
2 2 2
1 1
2 ∫ 12 + t 2
Thus, I = dt
dx
" = log x + x + a + c1
2 2

a2 ! x2
1 1
emar Remember the following useful substitution of the given integral as a functions of I = log t + t 2 + 1 + c = log 2 x + (2 x) 2 + 1 + c
2 2
a 2 ! x 2 , a 2 " x 2 and x 2 ! a 2 .
1
I = log 2 x + 4 x 2 + 1 + c
Given Substitution 2

a2 - x2 x = a sin 1 1
(iv) Let I = ∫ 4 x 2 − 25
dx = ∫
(2 x) 2 − 25
dx
a 2
x 2
x = a tan

x2 - a2 x = a sec 1
Putting 2x = t ⇒ 2 dx = dt ⇒ dx = dt
2
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 1 1 1
Thus, I =
2 ∫ t 2 − 52
dt Therefore, ∫ x 2 + 12 x + 11
dx = log x 6 x 2 12 x 11 c

1 1 1
= log t + t − 5 + c
2 2

2 (iii) ∫ 12 + 4 x − x 2
dx = ∫
12 − ( x 2 − 4 x)
dx
1
I = log 2 x + 4 x 2 − 25 + c
2 1
=∫ dx
y e II 12 − {( x − 2) 2 − 4}
dx dx 1
Integrals of the form ∫ ax and ∫ =∫ dx
2
+ bx + c ax 2 + bx + c 42 − ( x − 2) 2

First we express ax 2 + bx + c as sum or difference of two square terms that is, any one of the ⎛ ( x − 2) ⎞
= sin −1 ⎜ ⎟+c
forms to Type I. The following rule is used to express the expression ax + bx + c as a sum or 2 ⎝ 4 ⎠
difference of two square terms.
(1) ake the coefficient of x 2 as unity.
EXERCISE 11.10
(2) Completing the square by adding and subtracting the square of half of the coefficient of x. Find the integrals of the following :
1 1 1
⎡ b c⎤ (1) (i) (ii) (iii)
That is, ax 2 + bx + c = a ⎢ x 2 + x + ⎥ 4 − x2 25 − 4x 2 9x2 − 4
⎣ a a⎦
1 1 1
(2) (i) (ii) (iii)
⎡⎛ b ⎞ 4ac − b 2 ⎤
2
6x − 7 − x2 ( x + 1) 2 − 25 x2 + 4x + 2
= a ⎢⎜ x + ⎟ + ⎥
⎣⎢⎝ 2 a ⎠ 4a 2 ⎦⎥
1 1 1
(3) (i) (ii) (iii)
(2 + x) 2 − 1 x2 − 4 x + 5 9 + 8x − x 2
am les 11.39
Evaluate the following integrals y e III

1 1 px + q px + q
∫ ax ∫
1
(i) #x 2
! 2x " 5
dx (ii) ∫ x 2 + 12 x + 11
dx (iii) ∫ 12 + 4 x − x 2
dx Integrals of the form 2
+ bx + c
dx and
ax 2 + bx + c
dx

olution To evaluate the above integrals, first we write

1 1 d
(ax 2 + bx + c) + B
px + q = A
(i) ∫ x 2 − 2 x + 5 dx = ∫ x2 − 2(1) x + (1)2 + 4 dx dx
px + q = A(2ax + b) + B
1
= ∫ ( x − 1) 2
+ 22
dx Calculate the values of A and B, by equating the coefficients of like powers of x on both sides
(i) The given first integral can be written as
1 1 ⎛ x −1 ⎞
∫x dx = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟+c px + q A(2ax + b) + B
− 2x + 5 ∫ ax ∫
2
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠ dx = dx
2
+ bx + c ax 2 + bx + c
1 1 2ax + b 1
(ii) ∫ x 2 + 12 x + 11
dx = ∫ ( x + 6) 2 − 25
dx = A∫
ax 2 + bx + c
dx + B ∫ 2
ax + bx + c
dx

1 f ′( x)
= ∫ dx (The first integral is of the form ∫ f ( x)
dx)
( x + 6) − 5 2 2

1
= A log | ax + bx + c | + B ∫
2
2 2 dx
= log x ! 6 ! (x ! 6) " 5 ! c ax 2 + bx + c
The second term on the right hand side can be evaluated using the previous types.
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 (ii) The given second integral can be written as
x + 1 = A(2 x − 3) + B
Comparing the coefficients of like terms, we get
px + q A(2ax + b) + B
∫ ax 2 + bx + c
dx = ∫ ax 2 + bx + c
dx
1 5
2A = 1 ⇒ A = ; −3 A + B = 1 ⇒ B =
2ax + b 1 2 2
= A∫ dx + B ∫ dx
ax 2 + bx + c ax 2 + bx + c 1 5
(2 x − 3) +
2
I= ∫ 2 2 dx
∫ f ′( x)[ f ( x)] dx)
n
(The first integral is of the form x − 3x + 1

(
= A 2 ax + bx + c + B ∫
2
) 1
ax 2 + bx + c
dx I=
1 2x − 3
2 ∫ x 2 − 3x + 1
5
dx + ∫ 2
1
2 x − 3x + 1
dx

The second term on the right hand side can be evaluated using the previous types.
1 5 1
= log x 2 − 3 x + 1 + ∫ 2
dx
am les 11.40 2 2 ⎛ 3⎞ ⎛ 5 ⎞
2

Evaluate the following integrals ⎜ x − ⎟ −⎜ ⎟

⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
3x + 5 x +1 2x + 3 5x − 7
(i) ∫x 2
+ 4x + 7
dx (ii) ∫x 2
− 3x + 1
dx (iii) ∫ x2 + x + 1
dx (iv) ∫ 3x − x 2 − 2
dx 3
x− −
5
olution 1 5 1 2 2 +c
= log x 2 − 3 x + 1 + log
3x + 5 2 2 ⎛ 5⎞ 3 5
x− +
(i) Let I = ∫x 2
+ 4x + 7
dx 2⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠ 2 2
d 2
3x + 5 = A ( x + 4 x + 7) + B
dx 1 5 2x − 3 − 5
= log x 2 − 3 x + 1 + log +c
3x + 5 = A(2 x + 4) + B 2 2 2x − 3 + 5
Comparing the coefficients of like terms, we get 2x + 3
(iii) Let I = ∫ x2 + x + 1
dx
3
2A = 3 ⇒ A = ; 4 A + B = 5 ⇒ B = −1
2 d 2
2x + 3 = A ( x + x + 1) + B
3 dx
(2 x + 4) − 1
2 2x + 3 = A(2x + 1) + B
I= ∫ x2 + 4 x + 7
dx
Comparing the coefficients of like terms, we get
3 2x ! 4 1 2A = 2 ⇒ A = 1; A + B = 3 ⇒ B = 2
2 # x2 ! 4x ! 7
I= dx " # 2 dx
x ! 4x ! 7
(2 x + 1) + 2
=
3
log x 2 + 4 x + 7 − ∫
1
dx I= ∫ x2 + x + 1
dx
( )
2
2 ( x + 2) 2 + 3
2x +1 1
3
log x 2 + 4 x + 7 −
1 ⎛ x+2⎞
tan −1 ⎜
I= ∫ x2 + x + 1
dx + 2 ∫
x2 + x + 1
dx
=
2 ⎟+c
3 ⎝ 3 ⎠
x +1
(ii) Let I = ∫ 2 dx 1
= 2 x + x + 1 + 2∫
2
x − 3x + 1 dx
2
1⎞ ⎛ 3⎞
2
d ⎛
x + 1 = A ( x 2 − 3 x + 1) + B ⎜x+ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟
dx ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠

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 y eI
2
1⎞ ⎛ 3⎞
2
1 ⎛
= 2 x + x + 1 + 2 log x + + ⎜ x + ⎟ + ⎜⎜ ⎟ +c ∫ a 2 ± x 2 dx, ∫ x 2 − a 2 dx
2
Integrals of the form
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
esult 11.3
1 x 2 a2 ⎛x⎞
Therefore, I = 2 x 2 + x + 1 + 2 log x + + x 2 + x + 1 + c
2
(1) ∫ a 2 − x 2 dx =
2
a − x 2 + sin −1 ⎜ ⎟ + c
2 ⎝a⎠
5x − 7 x 2 a2
(iv) ∫ dx (2) ∫ x 2 − a 2 dx =
2
x − a 2 − log x + x 2 − a 2 + c
2
3x − x − 2
2

d x 2 a2
5x − 7 = A (3 x − x 2 − 2) + B
dx (3) ∫ x 2 + a 2 dx =
2
x + a 2 + log x + x 2 + a 2 + c
2
roo
5x - 7 = A(3 − 2 x) + B
Comparing the coefficients of like terms, we get
(1) Let I = ∫ a 2 − x 2 dx
−2 x
5 1 Take u = a 2 − x 2 then du = dx
−2A = 5 ⇒ A = − ;3 A + B = −7 ⇒ B = 2 a2 − x2
2 2 dv = dx ⇒ v = x
Applying Integration by parts, we get
−5 1
(3 − 2 x) +
I= ∫ 2 2 dx ∫ udv = uv − ∫ vdu
3x − x 2 + 2 − x2
⇒ I = x a2 − x2 − ∫ dx
a2 − x2
5 3 − 2x 1 1
2 ∫ 3x − x 2 + 2
I= − dx + ∫ dx a2 − x2 − a2
2 3x − x 2 + 2 = x a −x −∫
2 2
dx
a2 − x2
⎛ 5⎞ 1 1 ⎛ a2 − x2 (−a 2 ) ⎞
= ⎜⎝ − 2 ⎟⎠ 2 3x − x + 2 + 2 ∫ = x a − x − ∫⎜ 2
2
2
dx 2 2
+ ⎟ dx
⎛ 17 ⎞ ⎛ ⎝ a −x a2 − x2
2 2
3⎞ ⎠
⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ − ⎜⎝ x − 2 ⎠⎟
a2
= x a − x − ∫ a − x dx + ∫
2 2 2 2
dx
a − x2
2

⎛ 3⎞ 1
1 ⎜ x− ⎟ = x a −x −I +a ∫
2 2 2
dx
= −5 3 x − x 2 + 2 + sin −1 ⎜ 2 ⎟+c a2 − x2
2 ⎜ 17 ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎛x⎞
⎝ 2 ⎠ 2I = x a 2 − x 2 + a 2 sin −1 ⎜ ⎟
⎝a⎠
2x − 3 ⎞
Thus, I = −5 3 x − x 2 + 2 + sin −1 ⎛⎜
1
⎟+c x 2 a2 ⎛x⎞
2 ⎝ 17 ⎠ a − x 2 + sin −1 ⎜ ⎟ + c
Therefore, I =
2 2 ⎝a⎠
Similarly we can prove other two results.
ote 11.3
EXERCISE 11.11 The above problems can also be solved by substituting x ! a sin "
Integrate the following with respect to x :
2x ! 3 5x ! 2 3x ! 1 am les 11.41
(1) (i) 2 (ii) (iii)
x " 4 x ! 12 2 " 2x " x2 2 x2 " 2 x ! 3 Evaluate the following :

2x !1 x!2 2x 3
(2) (i) (ii) (iii) (i) " 4 ! x 2 dx (ii) " 25 x 2 ! 9 dx (iii) ∫ x 2 + x + 1 dx (iv) ∫ ( x − 3)(5 − x) dx
9 ! 4x " x 2
x "1
2
x 2
4x 1
XI - Mathematics 222 223 Inte ral alculus

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 olution EXERCISE 11.12
(i) Let I = 4 − x dx2 Integrate the following functions with respect to x :

(1) (i) x 2 + 2 x + 10 (ii) x2 - 2 x - 3 (iii) ( 6 − x )( x − 4 )

= ∫ 22 − x 2 dx
(2) (i) 9 − (2 x + 5) 2
(ii) 81 + (2 x + 1) 2 (iii) ( x + 1) 2 − 4
x 2 22 ⎛x⎞
= 2 − x 2 + sin −1 ⎜ ⎟ + c
2 2 ⎝2⎠ EXERCISE 11.13
x ⎛x⎞ oose t e correct or t e most suita le ans er rom i en our alternati es.
Therefore, I = 4 − x 2 + 2sin −1 ⎜ ⎟ + c
2 ⎝2⎠ (1) If ∫ f ( x)dx = g ( x) + c, then ∫ f ( x) g ′( x)dx
(ii) Let I = ∫ 25 x 2 − 9dx
(1) ∫ ( f ( x)) 2 dx (2) ∫ f ( x) g ( x)dx (3) ∫ f ′( x) g ( x)dx (4) ∫ ( g ( x)) 2 dx

∫ (5 x) 2 − 32 dx 1
=
3x 1

(2) If # x 2 dx ! k (3 x ) " c, then the value of k is

1 ⎡ 5x 32 ⎤ 1 1
(5 x) 2 − 32 − log 5 x + (5 x) 2 − 32 (1) log 3 (2) - log 3 (3) - (4)
=
5 ⎢⎣ 2 2 ⎥+c log 3 log 3
⎦
(3) If ∫ f ′( x)e x dx = ( x − 1)e x + c , then f(x) is
2 2

1 ⎡ 5x 9 ⎤
Therefore, I = 25 x 2 − 9 − log 5 x + 25 x 2 − 9 ⎥ + c
5 ⎢⎣ 2 2 ⎦ x2 x3 2 x3
(1) 2 x3 − + x+c (2) + 3 x 2 + 4 x + c (3) x3 + 4 x 2 + 6 x + c (4) ! x2 " x " c
∫ x + x + 1 dx 2 2
2
(iii) Let I = 3
x2 − 4
(4) The gradient (slope) of a curve at any point (x, y) is . If the curve passes through the
2
point (2, 7), then the equation of the curve is x2
1⎞ ⎛ 3 ⎞
2
⎛
= ∫ ⎜⎝ x + ⎟⎠ + ⎜ ⎟ dx
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠ 4 4
(1) y = x + +3 (2) y = x + +4 (3) y = x 2 + 3 x + 4 (4) y = x 2 − 3 x + 6
2 x x
⎛ 3⎞
1 ⎡ 2⎤ e x (1 + x)
x+ 2 ⎜ 2 ⎟
1⎞ ⎛ 3 ⎞ 1⎞ ⎛ 3 ⎞ ⎥ ∫ cos ( xe )
2 2
⎛ ⎝ ⎠ 1 ⎛ (5) dx is
=
2
⎜⎝ x + ⎟⎠ + ⎜ ⎟ + log ⎢ x + + ⎜⎝ x + ⎟⎠ + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ + c
2 x
2 2 ⎝ 2 ⎠ 2 ⎢ 2 2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
⎣ ⎦ (1) cot( xe x ) + c (2) sec( xe x ) + c (3) tan( xe x ) + c (4) cos( xe x ) + c
2x +1 2 3 1 tan x
Therefore, I = x + x + 1 + log x + + x 2 + x + 1 + c (6) dx is
sin 2 x
4 8 2
1 1
(1) tan x + c (2) 2 tan x + c (3) tan x + c (4) tan x + c
(iv) Let I = ∫ ( x − 3)(5 − x) dx 2 4
∫ sin
3
(7) xdx is
= ∫ 8 x − x 2 − 15 dx
−3 cos 3 x 3 cos 3 x
(1) cos x − +c (2) cos x + +c
= ∫ 12 − ( x − 4) 2 dx 4 12 4 12
−3 cos 3 x −3 sin 3 x
x−4 2 1 ⎛ x − 4⎞ (3) cos x + +c (4) sin x − +c
1 − ( x − 4) 2 + sin −1 ⎜ +c 4 12 4 12
=
2 2 ⎝ 1 ⎟⎠
e6log x − e5log x
x−4 1
(8) ∫e 4log x
− e3log x
dx is
Therefore, I = 8 x − x 2 − 15 + sin −1 ( x − 4) + c x3 3 1
2 2 (1) x + c (2) +c (3) +c (4) +c
3 x3 x2
XI - Mathematics 224 225 Inte ral alculus

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 sec x
∫e
−4 x
(18) cos x dx is
(9) ∫ cos 2 x
dx is
e −4 x e −4 x
(1) tan −1 (sin x) + c (2) 2sin −1 (tan x) + c (3) tan −1 (cos x) + c (4) sin −1 (tan x) + c (1) [4 cos x − sin x] + c (2) [−4 cos x + sin x] + c
17 17
e −4 x e −4 x
1 − cos 2 x (3) [4 cos x + sin x] + c (4) [−4 cos x − sin x] + c
∫ tan
−1
(10) dx is 17 17
1 + cos 2 x
sec x2

(19) " dx
x2 x2 tan 2 x ! 1
(1) x 2 + c (2) 2x 2 + c (3) +c (4) − +c
2 2 1 ! tan x 1 ! tan x
(1) 2 log "c (2) log !c
∫2 1 " tan x
3 x +5
(11) dx is 1 " tan x
3(23 x 5 ) 23 x 5 23 x 5 23 x 5 1 tan x ! 1 1 tan x ! 1
(1) c (2) c (3) c (4) c (3) log !c (4) log "c
log 2 2 log(3 x 5) 2 log 3 3 log 2 2 tan x " 1 2 tan x " 1
sin 8 x − cos8 x "e
!7 x
(20) sin 5 x dx is
(12) ∫ 1 − 2sin 2
x cos 2 x
dx is
e −7 x e −7 x
(1) [−7 sin 5 x − 5cos 5 x] + c (2) [7 sin 5 x + 5cos 5 x] + c
1 1 1 1 74 74
(1) sin 2 x + c (2) ! sin 2 x " c (3) cos 2 x + c (4) − cos 2 x + c
2 2 2 2 e −7 x e −7 x
(3) [7 sin 5 x − 5cos 5 x] + c (4) [−7 sin 5 x + 5cos 5 x] + c
−1
e ( x tan x + tan x + 1)
x 2 −1 74 74
(13) ∫ dx is x
x2 + 1 ∫x e
2 2
(21) dx is
x x x x x x
−1 −1 (tan −1 x) 2 −1 (1) x e − 4 xe 2 − 8e 2 + c
2 2
(2) 2 x 2 e 2 − 8 xe 2 − 16e 2 + c
(1) e tan ( x + 1) + c (2) tan (e ) + c
x x
(3) e x
+c (4) e tan x + c
x

2 x x x
x x x
x 2 + cos 2 x e 2 xe 2 e 2
(14) ∫ cosec 2 xdx is (3) 2 x 2 e 2 − 8 xe 2 + 16e 2 + c (4) x 2 − + +c
x2 + 1 2 4 8

(1) cot x + sin −1 x + c (2) − cot x + tan −1 x + c x+2

(22) ∫ x2 −1
dx is
−1 −1
(3) − tan x + cot x + c (4) − cot x − tan x + c
(1) x 2 ! 1 ! 2log x " x 2 ! 1 " c (2) sin !1 x ! 2log x " x 2 ! 1 " c
∫x
2
(15) cos x dx is
(3) 2log x ! x 2 " 1 " sin "1 x ! c (4) x 2 ! 1 " 2log x " x 2 ! 1 " c
(1) x 2 sin x + 2 x cos x − 2sin x + c (2) x 2 sin x − 2 x cos x − 2sin x + c 1
(23) ∫x (log x) 2 − 5
dx is
(3) − x 2 sin x + 2 x cos x + 2sin x + c (4) − x 2 sin x − 2 x cos x + 2sin x + c
(1) log x ! x 2 " 5 ! c (2) log log x ! log x " 5 ! c
1− x
∫
2 2
(16) dx is (3) log log x ! (log x ) " 5 ! c (4) log log x ! (log x ) ! 5 " c
1+ x

(1) 1 − x 2 + sin −1 x + c (2) sin −1 x − 1 − x 2 + c

(24) ∫ sin xdx is

(
(1) 2 − x cos x + sin x + c ) (
(2) 2 − x cos x − sin x + c )
2 2
(3) log x ! 1 " x " 1 " x ! c
2 2
(4) 1 ! x " log x " 1 ! x " c (
(3) 2 − x sin x − cos x + c ) (
(4) 2 − x sin x + cos x + c )
dx (25) e x dx is
(17) "e x
!1
is
(1) 2 x (1 − e x ) + c (2) 2 x (e x
− 1) + c
(1) log | e x | ! log | e x ! 1 | "c (2) log | e x | ! log | e x " 1 | !c
x x x x
(3) 2e (1 − x ) + c
x
(4) 2e ( x − 1) + c
x

(3) log | e ! 1 | ! log | e | "c (4) log | e ! 1 | " log | e | !c

XI - Mathematics 226 227 Inte ral alculus

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 (1) If k is any constant, then ∫ kf ( x)dx = k ∫ f ( x) dx
SUMMARY
(2) ∫ ( f1 ( x) ± f 2 ( x) ) dx = ∫ f1 ( x)dx ± ∫ f 2 ( x)dx
Deri ati es ntideri ati es
d
(c) = 0, where c is a constant
dx ∫ 0 dx = c , where c is a constant If ! f ( x) dx " g ( x) # c, then ! f (ax # b) dx " a
1
g (ax # b) # c

d
dx
(kx) = k , where k is a constant ∫ k dx = kx + c where c is a constant
(1) ∫ tan x dx = log sec x + c

d ⎛x ⎞ n +1 (2) ∫ cot x dx = log sin x + c

x n +1
⎟=x
n
⎜ ∫ x dx = + c, n ≠ −1
n
dx ⎝ n + 1 ⎠ (Power rule)
n +1 (3)
∫ cosecx dx = log cosec x − cot x + c
(4) ∫ sec x dx = log sec x + tan x + c
d ⎛1⎞ 1
dx
log x = ⎜ ⎟
⎝x⎠
∫ x dx = log x + c ernoulli s ormula or inte ration y arts
If u and v are functions of x, then the Bernoulli’s rule is
d
( − cos x ) = sin x ∫ sin x dx = − cos x + c ∫ udv = uv − u′v1 + u′′v2 + ...
dx where u′, u′′, u′′′,... are successive derivatives of u and
v, v1 , v2 , v2 ,..., are successive integrals of dv
d
( sin x ) = cos x ∫ cos x dx = sin x + c e ax
dx
∫e [a sin bx − b cos bx] + c
ax
sin bx dx =
a 2 + b2
d
( tan x ) = sec2 x ∫ sec
2
x dx = tan x + c
dx e ax
∫e [a cos bx b sin bx] c
ax
cos bx dx =
d a 2 b2
( − cot x ) = cosec2 x ∫ cosec x dx = − cot x + c
2

dx
d dx 1 a+ x dx !1 " x %
( sec x ) = sec x tan x ∫ sec x tan x dx = sec x + c "a = log +c " = sin $ ' ( c
dx 2
! x 2 2a a−x a2 ! x2 #a&
d
( −cosec x ) = cosec x cot x ∫ cosec x cot x dx = −cosec x + c dx 1 x−a dx 1 !1 " x %
dx "x 2 = log
! a 2 2a x+a
+c "a 2 = tan $ ' ( c
! x2 a #a&
d x
dx
(e ) = ex ∫ e dx = e
x x
+c
dx dx
" x2 ! a2
2 2
= log x + x − a + c " x2 ! a2
= log x + x 2 + a 2 + c
d ⎛ ax ⎞ ax
⎟=a ∫ a dx = log a + c
x x
⎜
dx ⎝ log a ⎠
x 2 a2 $x'
d
( sin −1 x ) = 1 2 ∫
1
dx = sin −1 x + c * a 2 ! x 2 dx "
2
a ! x 2 # sin !1 & ) # c
2 %a(
dx 1− x 1 − x2
x 2 a2
d ∫ x 2 − a 2 dx = x − a 2 − log x + x 2 − a 2 + c

dx
( tan −1 x ) = 1 +1x 2 1
∫ 1 + x 2 dx = tan x + c
−1 2 2

x 2 a2
∫ x 2 + a 2 dx =
2
x + a 2 + log x + x 2 + a 2 + c
2

XI - Mathematics 228 229 Inte ral alculus

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 ICT CORNER 11(a) ICT CORNER 11(b)
Integral Calculus Integral Calculus

Expected Outcome
Expected Outcome

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GeoGebra Workbook called “XI standard Integration” will appear. In that GeoGebra Workbook called “XI standard Integration” will appear. In that
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Select the work sheet “Simple Integration”. You can enter any function in Select the work sheet “Algebraic type-1”. The graph of the function given on
the f(x)box. Graph of f(x) appear on left side and the Integrated function will left side and the Integration of the function appear on right side. Click on both
appear on right side. (Note: for x5 enter x^5) Move the slider “integration to see the graph. You can move the slider “a” to change the value. Algebraic
constant” to change the constant value in integration. types are grouped as 4 types open other three Algebraic types and observe.

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XI - Mathematics 230 231 Inte ral alculus

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