SOLID STATE WELDING PROCESSES

A solid-state welding process produces coalescence at temperatures essentially below the melting
point of the base materials being joined, without the addition of a filler metal. Pressure is always
applied.
The following solid-state welding processes will be discussed in this chapter:
1. Cold welding
2. Diffusion (bonding) welding
3. Ultrasonic welding
4. Explosive welding
5. Friction welding and Inertia welding
6. Forge welding.
COLD WELDING
Cold welding is a solid-state welding process that uses pressure at room temperature to
produce coalescence of metals with substantial deformation at the weld. Cold pressure is unique
because it is carried out at ambient temperatures. Other forms of solid-phase welding are conducted
at elevated temperatures
Working principle
Cold state welding is a solid-state pressure welding process in which external pressure is
applied at room temperature to cause substantial of two mating surfaces, and welding is completed.
Cold-pressure welding has an absence of heat (additionally applied) and flux. At least one of the
metals to be joined must be highly ductile for satisfactory cold-welding. The surfaces to be welded
must be cleaned with a wire brush to remove the oxide film and must be carefully degreased before
welding.
Cold-Pressure Welding of Sheets.
The two metal sheets are brought into overlapping contact, and a special tool (punch) is used to
produce localized plastic deformation, which results in coalescence between the two parts. The process
is shown in Figure. This process is usually followed by annealing of the welded joint and is a
replacement of riveting.

2
Cold-pressure welding of wires is performed by means of a special purpose machine. Shown in Figure
that illustrates the steps involved in this process. As can be seen, the ends of wires are clamped and
pressed repeatedly against each other in order to ensure adequate plastic deformation. The excess upset
metal is then trimmed by the sharp edges of the gripping jaws.

Cold Welding Equipment:

The cold-welding machine has the following components:
(i) Punch presses.
(ii) Punch tool or die.
(iii) Rollers (as in rolling).
(iv) Static load (manual or power).
Tool-dies for cold welding should be such that they cause a controlled deformation in both the plates
uniformly. The pressure applied must be of both the sides of the plates. A deep indentation on the
surface of the work parts is obtained and thickness reduction up to 50% is reached by this process.

Application and Uses of Cold Pressure Welding:

• The cold-pressure welding technique is used when welding wires of non-ferrous metals such
as aluminum, copper, or aluminum-copper alloys.
• It is used in the assembly of small transistors where heating is not allowed,
• iii) It is used to join wires when they break during operation,
• It can be used to joint dis-similar metals,
• Metals welded by cold welding process are, Copper and its alloys,
Advantages
• As the process is performed at ambient temperature, there are no thermal effects on the
parts being joined
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 • The process is fast
• It is simple and inexpensive to operate once dies have been produced.
• The ends of the wire or rod need no preparation to welding and the alignment of the two
butt ends is automatic as the material is placed in the die.
Disadvantages
• Highly specialized with respect to joint design and materials to be welded (soft iron that
has no carbon content)
• Welds are made in the 'solid state' they are difficult to inspect
• With the exception of butt welds, or welds where the contact surfaces are sheared
together, the thickness of the parts is reduced

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DIFFUSION WELDING
Diffusion welding is a solid-state welding process that produces coalescence of the surfaces by the
application of pressure and elevated temperatures. The process does not involve microscopic
deformation, melting, or relative motion of the parts.
• This process is used for joining refractory metals at temperatures that do not affect their
metallurgical properties. Heating is usually accomplished by induction, resistance, or
furnace.
• Atmosphere and vacuum furnaces are used and for most refractory metals a protective inert
atmosphere is desirable.
• Successful welds have been made on refractory metals at temperatures slightly over half the
normal melting temperature of the metal.
• To accomplish this type of joining extremely close tolerance joint preparation is required
and a vacuum or inert atmosphere is used.
• This process is used quite extensively for joining dissimilar metals.
• This process is considered diffusion brazing when a layer of filler material is placed
between the faying surfaces of the parts being joined.
• These processes are used primarily by the aircraft and aerospace industries.
Principle and Working:
This process works on basic principle of diffusion. Diffusion means movement of molecules
or atoms from high concentration region to low concentration region. This is a fundamental
principle of diffusion welding. In this welding process both the welding plates are placed one over
other in high pressure and temperature for a long period of time. This high-pressure force starts
diffusion between interface surfaces. This diffusion can be accelerated by the application of high
temperature. This temperature does not melt the welding plates. The temperature range is about 50-
60% of melting temperature. This whole process takes place in vacuum or in inert environment
which protects the welding plates form oxidation.
The working of diffusion bonding can be summarized as follow.
▪ First, both the welding plate surfaces are prepared for welding. In this process, both the
interface surfaces made equally flat which is basic requirement of diffusion process. The
interface surfaces should be machined, cleaned and polished well which removes all
chemical contaminants from the surface. Any contaminant particle can reduce diffusion
between welding plates.
▪ Now both the plates are clamped and placed one over another. This assembly placed into a
vacuum chamber or in a inert environment. This protects the welding surface from

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A high pressure and temperature applied on this assembly to start diffusion. The temperature applied
by the furnace heating or electric resistance heating. The high pressure is applied by a hydraulic press,
dead weight or by the differential gas pressure. This conditions are maintained for a long duration of
time for proper diffusion.
▪ At the starting stage of this process, local deformation at the interface surface due to creep
and yield take place. Now the diffusion takes place which form a interface boundary.
▪ After a long period of time, both the plates properly diffused into one another which makes
a strong joint. The interface boundary disappear which form a clean joint. This joint has
same properties or strength as the base material.
Advantages:
▪ The joint have same mechanical and physical properties as parent material.
▪ This process produces clean joint which is free from interface discontinuity and porosity.
▪ Both similar and dissimilar material can be joint by diffusion bonding process.
▪ It provides good dimension tolerance. So it is used to make precision components.
▪ Low running cost.
▪ It is simple in working.
▪ It does not use filler material, flux etc. which are used in arc welding process.
▪ It can weld complex shapes.
Disadvantages:
▪ High initial or setup cost.
▪ It is time consuming process. It takes more time compare to other welding process.
▪ Surface preparations of welding plates are more critical and difficult.
▪ Size of the weld is limited according to equipment available.
▪ This process is not suitable for mass production.
▪ Highly depend on welding parameters like surface finish, welding material, temperature,
pressure etc.
Application:
▪ It is mostly used to weld refectory materials used in aerospace and nuclear industries.
▪ Diffusion bonding is used to weld titanium, zirconium and beryllium metals and its alloy.
▪ It can weld nickel alloy like Inconel, Wrought Udimet etc.
▪ It is used to weld dissimilar metals like Cu to Ti, Cu to Al etc.

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EXPLOSIVE WELDING
• Explosion welding is a solid-state process that produces a high velocity interaction of
dissimilar metals by a controlled detonation
• Oxides found on material surfaces must be removed by effacement or dispersion
• Surface atoms of two joining metals must come into intimate contact to achieve metallic
bond
Component Terminology:
✓ Base component
o Joined to cladder
o Remains stationary
o Supported by anvil
✓ Cladding metal
o Thin plate in direct contact with explosives
o Can be shielded by flyer plate
✓ Flyer plate
o Sacrificial plate placed between explosive material and cladder plate
o Used to protect cladder metal
✓ Interlayer
o Thin metal layer
o Enhances joining of the cladder to the base plate
✓ Anvil
o Surface of which the backer rests during the explosion
✓ Standoff
o Distance between cladder and base plate before explosion
✓ Bond Window
o A range of variables in process, such as velocity, dynamic bend, and standoff
distance, that result in successful weld
✓ Bonding Operation
Detonation of explosives that results in a weld

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Principle of Explosion
• Cladder metal can be placed parallel or inclined to the base plate
• Explosive material is distributed over the top of the cladder metal
• Upon detonation, the cladder plate collides with the base plate to
form weld. Placement of Cladder metal-parallel
❑ Standoff distance is predetermined and unique to the material combination
✓ Achieved by placing shims between plates

✓ Shims designed to be consumed by explosion wave and do not affect weld

Explosive welding is mainly used for cladding processes. Nearly all kinds of metals and alloys
allowing more than 5% of strain may be joined by this technique. Titanium explosive-clad
tank bottoms have successfully withstood testing by use in chemical apparatus.

8
 In explosive welding, a compression force created by detonation of explosives is
used to join overlapping metal sheets. The joining parts are arranged towards each other at
an angle of 1–15°, depending on the material and method, and are prepared with a layer of
explosive on the top. After ignition the joining areas are moved against each other at high
speed. Joining happens continuously by local plastic deformation of the contact area The
thickness of the cladding may vary between 0.1 and 30 mm and the detonation velocity is
between 1200 and 7000 ms−1. The top plate hits the bottom plate with a speed of 100–
1000 ms−1, and pressures are in the range of 10 to 100 kbar. Under certain conditions a
superheated layer of material forms in the contact area. The joint is then caused by
a deformation-induced melting bath. The melt layer is quite thin; for example, when
cladding an aluminum alloy it is about 0.5–4μm. The dilution of the molten zones results in
plane or corrugated interfaces.
In contrast to surface-layer welding, explosive welding causes no change
in microstructure, and corrosion resistance of the layers is not affected.
The following diagram shows the placement of Cladder metal-parallel – Angled

(see Fig. 1).

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 Applications
• Any metal with sufficient strength and ductility can be joined
• Can weld large areas of metal
• Can weld inside and outside surfaces of pipes
• Transition joints can be made

Advantages:
1. No heat-affected zone (HAZ) Only minor melting
2. Material melting temperatures and coefficients of thermal expansion differences do not
affect the final product
3. The shock front compresses and heats the explosive material which exceeds the sonic
velocity of undetonated explosives.

Disadvantages:
1. Brittle materials (low ductility and low impact toughness) cannot be processed;
2. Only simple shape parts may be bonded: plates, cylinders;
3. Thickness of flyer plate is limited - less than 2.5” (63 mm);
4. Safety and security aspects of storage and using explosives.
Following table shows typical metal combinations that can be explosion welded

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Common industries that use explosion welding are as follows.
• Chemical Processing
• Petroleum Refining
• Hydrometallurgy
• Aluminum Smelting
• Shipbuilding

• Electrochemical
• Oil & Gas
• Power Generation
• Cryogenic Processing
• Pulp & Paper
• Air conditioning & Chillers
• Metal Production

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ULTRASONIC WELDING

A solid state welding process in which coalescence is produced at the faying surfaces by the
application of high frequency vibratory energy while the work pieces are held together under
moderately low static pressure.
Ultrasonic welding is a welding technique whereby high-frequency ultrasonic acoustic
vibrations are locally applied to work pieces being held together under pressure to create a solid-
state weld. The following figure shows the working of Ultrasonic welding
Principle:
It works on the basic principle of energy of ultrasonic wave. Ultrasonic vibration creates a
dynamic shear stress between the contacts of two work piece. Due to local plastic deformation and
heat generate due to friction between contact surfaces, joint formation will take place at the
interface.

Main Parts:

1. A Press: It is used to apply pressure on the two plastic pieces to be joined. It may be of
pneumatic or electric driven type.
2. Nest or anvil or fixture: It is a clamping device that is used to hold and clamp the two plastic
pieces together. It allows the high-frequency vibration directed to the interface of the two
pieces.
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 3. An Ultrasonic Stack: It consists of the three components, a converter or piezoelectric
transducer, a booster and a horn or sonotrode. These three elements are tuned to work on
resonate frequency of 15 kHz, 20 kHz, 30 kHz, 35 kHz or 40 kHz.
▪ Converter: It converts the electrical signals into high-frequency mechanical vibration. And it
does so through the piezoelectric effect.
▪ Booster: It modifies the amplitude of vibration mechanically. In some standard systems, it is
used to clamp the stack in the press.
▪ Horn or Sonotrode: It vibrates at high frequency and transmits the mechanical vibration to
the two pieces to be welded. It also modifies the amplitude mechanically. It takes the shape
of the part. The horn is made of titanium or aluminum.
4. An Ultrasonic Generator: It generates and delivers high-frequency electrical signals
matching the resonance frequency of the stack.
5. Controller: It is used to control the movement of the press and delivery of the ultrasonic
energy
Working:
• At the start, high frequency current passes through a piezoelectric transducer. This
transducer converts high frequency electrical signal into mechanical vibration.
• A static clamping force is applied perpendicular to the interface between the work pieces.
• The contacting sonotrode oscillates parallel to the interface.
• Combined effect of static and oscillating force produces deformation which promotes
welding.
• The amplified high frequency vibration passes through horn which is in contact with
welding plate.
• This welding creates lap joint. One plant of the weld is fixed into fixture and other one is in
direct contact with horn. These plates are fixed under moderate pressure force.
• The horn supply high frequency mechanical vibration to the welding plate.
• Due to this vibration, oscillation shear force act at the interface between welding plates
which result elestoplastic deformation at interface.
• It also create a localize temperature rise due to mechanical force and friction. This heat helps
in plastic deformation at interface and makes a strong joint without melting of work piece or
using filler metal.
Advantages
• No heat is applied and no melting occurs.
• Permits welding of thin to thick sections.
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 • Welding can be made through some surface coatings.
• Pressures used are lower, welding times are shorter, and the thickness of deformed
regions are thinner than for cold welding.
• It is much faster than conventional adhesives or solvents.
• Drying time is very quick
• Site of weld is very clean and rarely requires any touch-up work
Limitations
• The thickness of the component adjacent to the sonotrode tip must not exceed relatively thin
gages because of power limitations of the equipment.
• Process is limited to lap joints.

• Butt welds can not be made because there is no means of supporting the workpieces and
applying clamping force
• This process is limited to small welds of thin, malleable metals Eg: Aluminium, Copper,
Nickel.
• Ultrasonic would not be used in welding, pieces of a bicycle or automobile together, due to the
power levels required.
Applications
• Assembling of electronic components such as diodes and semiconductors with substrates.
• Electrical connections to current carrying devices including motors, field coils, and capacitors.
• Encapsulation and packaging.
• Plastic parts
• Microcircuit connections, sheet metal, foils, ribbons and meshes are often joined using
ultrasonic welding
• This type of welding is often used to build assemblies that are too small, too complex, or too
delicate for more common welding techniques.

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Types of Ultrasonic Welding Strategy
In the welding industry, every welding strategy has multiple approaches that technicians can use to
achieve their desired objective. In most cases, these welding techniques are not usually the same, which
explains why it has always been easier for welders to get the best welding strategy to consider. In
ultrasonic welding, there are two strategies that technicians can use.
Linear ultrasonic welding strategy
In linear ultrasonic welding, the ultrasonic horn moves in a linear motion while welding the two pieces
of metal or plastic together. This is often considered the most straightforward welding strategy since it
only requires the welder to have a straight line to weld. In most cases, this implies that the welder will
have an easier time welding smaller part.
Orbital ultrasonic welding strategy
Orbital ultrasonic welding is a more complex welding strategy when compared to linear ultrasonic
welding. In this case, the ultrasonic horn moves in a circular or elliptical motion while welding the two
pieces of metal or plastic together. This often means that the welder must be more precise when welding
the two materials. In most cases, this welding strategy is often used when welding more significant
parts.
Ultrasonic Plastic Welding
The ultrasonic welding process is one of the most common plastic welding techniques. It is suitable for
welding thermoplastics such as polycarbonate, ABS, polyester, etc. However, it would be best if you
took note of properties such as the presence of moisture and hardness. Also, the process is unsuitable for
plastic polymers such as PVC and polyamide.
Ultrasonic Metal Welding
The ultrasonic metal welding technique is compatible with several metals such as aluminum, copper,
silver, brass, nickel, gold, and their alloys. However, the technique is only suitable for these metals in
thin and small dimensions.
Material Selection Considerations
Choosing the right material is an important part of ultrasonic welding. However, there are when
choosing a suitable material for your end products.

Shapes: The part should have a shape that allows lap joints because the technique is only compatible
with lap joints.
Moisture-containing: The materials should not contain moisture as this can hinder the quality of the
welded parts. Therefore, you should watch out for materials that can absorb moisture, such as acrylic.
Hardness: The right material must be soft, e.g., ABS. The welding technique might not be suitable for
15
materials such as polypropylene and polycarbonate due to their hardness.
Thickness: Thick materials would require more energy to vibrate and break the molecular bond, which
the machine might not be able to produce. That being so, the process is only suitable for thin parts
(0.38mm – 3mm).
Similar Materials: The Ultrasonic welding process is suitable for welding two similar thermoplastics
parts because they will be chemically compatible. During melting, they can form a molecular bond
together.
Dissimilar materials: The welding process is also suitable for welding different materials. However,
they must melt within 400F and have similar molecular structures. For example, ABS and acrylic are a
good combination, while polyethylene and polypropylene are not chemically compatible.
FORGE WELDING
Forge welding is a solid state welding process in which both the plates are heated quite
below its melting temperature. This heating deforms the work pieces plastically. Now a repeated
hammering or high pressurize load is applied on these plates together.
• Due to this high pressure and temperature, inter-molecular diffusion takes place at the
interface surface of the plates which make a strong weld joint
• One of the basic requirement of this type of welding, is clean interface surface which
should be free from oxide or other contaminant particles
• To prevent the welding surface from oxidation, flux is used which mixes with the oxide
and lower down its melting temperature and viscosity. This allow to flow out the oxide
layer during heating and hammering process.

Working:

• First both the work plates heated together. The heating temperature is about 50 to 90%
of its melting temperature. Both the plates are coated with flux.
• Now manual hammering is done by a blacksmith hammer for making a joint. This
process is repeated until a proper joint is created.
• For welding large work pieces, mechanical hammering is used which is either driven by
electric motor or by using hydraulic mean. Sometime dies are used which provides
finished surface.
• No filler material required.

16
The above diagram shows forge welding process carried out.
Applications
• It is used to join steel or iron.
• It is used to manufacture gates, prison cells etc.
• It is widely used in cookware.
• It was used to join boiler plates before introduction of other welding process.
• It was used to weld weapon like sword etc.
• Used to weld shotgun barrels.
Advantages
• It is simple and easy.
• It does not require any costly equipment for weld small pieces.
• It can weld both similar and dissimilar metals.
• Properties of weld joint is similar to base material.
Disadvantages
• Only small objects can be weld. Larger objects required large press and heating
furnaces, which are not economical.
• High skill required because excessive hammering can damage the welding plates.
• High Welding defects involve.
• It cannot use as mass production.
• Mostly suitable for iron and steel.
• It is a slow welding process.

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FRICTION WELDING
Friction welding (FW) is a class of solid-state welding processes that generates heat
through mechanical friction between a moving workpiece and a stationary component, with the
addition of a lateral force called "upset" to plastically displace and fuse the materials. Technically,
because no melt occurs, friction welding is not actually a welding process in the traditional sense,
but a forging technique. However, due to the similarities between these techniques and traditional
welding, the term has become common. Friction welding is used with metals and thermoplastics in
a wide variety of aviation and automotive applications.

Friction Welding Process:

Friction welding is a solid state welding
process which produces coalescence of
materials by the heat obtained from
mechanically-induced sliding motion
between rubbing surfaces. The work parts
are held together under pressure. This
process usually involves the rotating of
one part against another to generate
frictional heat at the junction. When a
suitable high temperature has been
reached, rotational motion ceases.
Additional pressure is applied and
coalescence occurs.

(2) There are two variations of the

friction welding process. They are
described below.

(a) In the original process, one part is

held stationary and the other part is
rotated by a motor which maintains an
essentially constant rotational speed. The
two parts are brought in contact under
pressure for a specified period of time
18
with a specific pressure. Rotating power is disengaged from the rotating piece and the
pressure is increased. When the rotating piece stops, the weld is completed. This process can be
accurately controlled when speed, pressure, and time are closely regulated.

(b) The other variation is inertia welding. A flywheel is revolved by a motor until a preset speed is
reached. It, in turn, rotates one of the pieces to be welded. The motor is disengaged from the
flywheel and the other part to be welded is brought in contact under pressure with the rotating
piece. During the predetermined time during which the rotational speed of the part is reduced, the
flywheel is brought to an immediate stop. Additional pressure is provided to complete the weld.

(c) Both methods utilize frictional heat and produce welds of similar quality. Slightly better control
is claimed with the original process. The two methods are similar, offer the same welding
advantages, and are shown by figure.

19
The Friction Welding Process

1. Initial Situation:
Both workpieces are firmly clamped into the
machine; one workpiece is rotated.
2. Heat Build-up:
The two workpieces are pressed together with a
defined force; the rotation and contact force
generate friction which causes the weld surfaces
to heat up.
3. Welding:
At a defined moment in time, the rotating workpiece is braked and the contact pressure is
increased. This creates the friction-welded joint
Materials Welded by Friction and Inertia Welding - Materials that can be friction/inertia
welded are listed below:
(i) Aluminium and its alloys
(ii) Nickel alloys
(iii) Brass and bronze
(iv) Alloy steels
(v) Magnesium alloys
(vi) Carbon steels
(vii) Stainless steel
(viii) Tool steel
(ix) Tantalum
(x) Titanium alloys
(xi) Tungsten
(xii) Zirconium alloys
(xiii) Alloy steel to carbon steel
(xiv) Copper to carbon steels
(xv) Super alloys to carbon steels
(xvi) Stainless steel to carbon steels
(xvii) Sintered steels to carbon steels
(xviii) Aluminium to stainless steels
(xix) Copper to aluminium, etc.
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In general, all forgeable materials which are not good dry bearing materials, can be easily
welded. Cast iron in any form is not weldable because the free graphite acts as lubricant
and limits frictional heating
Advantages :
Simplicity of operation.
(i) Low power requirements.
(ii) Once the welding parameters for a job have been determined, the welding takes only a
few seconds.
(iii) Surface impurities and oxide films are broken up and thrown off during the friction
heating process.
(iv) As compared to conventional flash or resistance butt welding, friction/inertia welding
produces improved welds at higher speed and lower cost, less electric current is required, and
costly copper fixtures to hold components are eliminated.
(v) Heat is localized at the weld and is quickly dissipated so that there is only a slight effect
on the parts joined. The heat-affected zone adjacent to the weld is confined to a narrow band and
therefore does not affect the temper of the surrounding area.
The weld may not have to be heat-treated.
(vi) With inertia/friction welding there is less shortening of the component, as compared to
that in flash or butt welding.
(vii) Repeatability is reported as excellent, and several jobs have been fully automated.
(viii) There is no flux, gas, filler metal or slag present to cause imperfections in welds. Also no
smoke, fumes or spatter are produced.

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 Disadvantages of Friction / Inertia Wedging
(i) The use of this process is restricted to flat and angular butt welds, where one part is normal
to the other part.
(ii) So far the process has been applied only to the joining of small pieces in the form of
bar stock.
(iii) Sometimes, quite a heavy flash is forced out in all inertia and friction welds.
(iv) If tubing is welded, flash may have to be removed from inside the joint.
(v) Flash from medium and high carbon steels being hard, must either be removed while it is
hot or annealed before it is machined.

(vi) Thrust pressures in inertia welding will range from 700 to 2800 kg/cm2, which requires
a heavy rigid machine
Applications of Friction OR Inertia Welding
(i) Friction/inertia welding is finding varied applications for joining steels, super alloys, non
ferrous metals and combinations of metals.
(ii) It frequently replaces brazing and (metallic) are, electron beam, pressure, flash or resistance
butt welding.
(iii) Among its varied applications are:
Roll Welding (ROW)
Roll welding is a solid state welding process which produces coalescence of metals by heating and
by applying pressure with rolls sufficient to cause deformation at the faying surfaces. This process
is similar to forge welding except that pressure is applied by means of rolls rather than by means of
hammer blows. Coalescence occurs at the interface between the two parts by means of diffusion at
the faying surfaces.

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Terminology:
The most common terminologies used in rolling process are given below.
Ingot: It is casted structure with porosity and blowholes. Ignot is same as used in forging. This
ingot is rolled out at hot temperature of about 1200 degree centigrade into blooms. This ingot may
have any size according to the rolling requirement.
Blooms: It is first rolled product making by rolling ingot at high temperature. It has cross section
area more than or equal to 230 square centimeters. This bloom is further rolled to make I section,
billet, channel, railroad etc.
Slab: Slab is made by hot rolling of ingot. It has cross section area greater than or equal to 100
centimeters square and its width is greater than or equal to three times of its thickness. Slabs are
used to form plates, sheets, strips etc.

Billets: Billets are product of hot rolling of blooms. It has greater than or equal to 40 square
centimeters cross section area. Billets are used to roll into pipes, bars, wire etc.

Plate: Plate is product of further rolling of slab. It has greater than 6 mm thickness.

Sheet: Sheet has less than 6 mm thickness and width greater than 60 cm.

Strip: Strip is same as sheet but have width less than 60 cm.

Working Principle:
Rolling works is same as any other metal forming process. When a compressive force
applied by a set of rolls on ingot or any other product like blooms or billets, plastic deformation
takes place which decrease its cross section area and convert it into required shape. These rolls are
designed according to the final product requirement. They are cylindrical in shape and fitted with
the die of the required shape which to be rolled on blooms or billets. Rolling can be done in both
hot and cold way.

23
 Hot rolling is done at above recrystallization temperature. It is used to large deformation. It
gives residual stresses free product but gives poor dimension accuracy and surface finish due to
scale formation.

Cold rolling is another method witch is done at below recrystallization temperature. It is done to get
final product. This process gives high mechanical strength, dimension accuracy and surface finish.

Application:
▪ Rolling is used for making hollow seamless tubes, rods etc.
▪ Large length cross sections are produced by rolling process.
▪ It is use for mass production of threaded parts like screw, bolts etc.
▪ Gears can be cut on gear blank by rolling process.
▪ Construction material, roofing panels, partition beams, railroads, etc. are rolling product.
▪ It is used in automotive industries for manufacture various parts.
▪ Rings of turbines, bearing and other machines are rolling product.
▪ Steel sheets, plates are made by rolling process.
Advantages:
• High rate of production.
• Good finish and good dimensional accuracy.
• Suitable for among others, the production of foils, plates and sheets.

24
Disadvantages:
• Deformation limited to small reductions
• It is limited to only a few shapes and their variations such like square, round, and flat.
• High cost of equipment

Hot pressure welding processes

Hot-pressure-welding is a solid state process that produces joints between the faying
surfaces of two bodies. It is done by application of heat and pressure. Fusion temperature is not
reached, filler metal is not needed, substantial plastic deformation is generated. Heat is generally
applied by flames of oxyfuel torches directed on the end surfaces of solid bars or hollow sections to
be [Link], heat can be generated by eddy currents caused by electrical induction from
a suitable inductor coil.
Hot-pressure-welding: Heat and Squeeze
As soon as the two bodies facing ends reach the correct temperature, the torches are
suddenly removed, not to stand in the way. The bodies are brought to contact and upset
together under pressure, usually by hydraulic equipment. This variant is properly called the open
joint process. If the parts are making contact under pressure before heat application from the
outside, it is called the closed joint process. In either case flash material is expelled and a bulge is
formed at the joint. Hot-pressure-welding is similar in a way to both friction welding (see Friction
Welding Processes) and flash welding (see Flash Welding Process), although the source of heating
is different. For obtaining the best results the surfaces should be machined square and clean. Some
beveling can be used to control the amount of upset.

The process as described is performed as a manual operation. The materials to be welded

must exhibit hot ductility or forgeability. The below diagram shows the hot pressure welding
process,

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 Therefore cast iron cannot be Hot pressure welded. The materials commonly joined by Hot pressure
welding are carbon steels, low alloy steels, and certain nonferrous metals. Certain
dissimilar materials combinations are weldable by Hot pressure welding. Materials that immediately
form on the surface adherent oxides upon heating cannot be easily welded in air by this process.
Typically among them aluminum alloys and stainless steels. Tests were performed in a vacuum
chamber.
Applications:
• It is used in aerospace industry.
• It is used in plastic welding
• It is used in ship building
• Used in automotive industry
Advantages:
• Simple process
• Simple joint preparation
• Relatively low cost equipment
• Quick weld production
• High quality joints
• No filler metal needed
• Minimally skilled operators required
Limitations:
• Not all metals are weldable
• Not easily automated
• Length of cycle dependent on time for heating
• Removal of flash and bulge required after welding.
• Only simple sections readily butt weldable.

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ADVANTAGES, LIMITATIONS AND APPLICATIONS OF SOLID STATE WELDING PROCESS

Advantages
• Solid state welding can be easily automated.
• This produces high strength joint without applying external heat.
• They are used to weld both similar and dissimilar material.
• Provide good surface finish.
• They does not use any filler metal or flux as used in arc welding.
• Mostly these processes do not affect properties of parent materials.

Limitations
• High equipment cost or set up cost.
• Welding preparation is more critical.
• Complicated and special fixtures are required for different process.
• Mostly, these process can't be used for mass production due to slow welding speed.

Applications
• Solid state welding's are used in every where in mechanical industries.
• It is widely used in aerospace and marine industries for structure work.
• It is widely used in automobile industries for most of fabrication work.
• Explosive welding used to join large welding plate which can’t be possible or
uneconomical by other methods like arc welding or gas welding.
• Friction welding is used to join tubes, shaft etc.
• These process are further used to join dissimilar material used in various industries.
Hydraulic piston, connecting rod, drive line, truck roller bushes, pump shaft, gear lever,
drill bit etc. are friction welded

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