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SECOND YEAR BOTANY – CHAPTER WEIGHTAGE Chapter – 1 • Integument covered the ovule except an opening at the tip
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS called micropyle.
• Opposite of the micropylar end, is the chalaza,
Structure of microsporangium: representing the basal part of the ovule.
Each microsporangium surrounded by four wall layers
➢ Epidermis – Outermost layer provide protection. Megasporogenesis:
UNIT CHAPTER SCORE WEIGHT ➢ Endothecium: • The process of formation of megaspores from the megaspore
contains radially elongated, compactly arranged hygroscopic cells which helps in the mother cell (MMC) is called megasporogenesis.
protection and dehiscence of anther. • In the center of the ovule there is a mass of tissue called
➢ Middle layer – multilayered and provide protection. nucellus.
➢ Tapetum. • Cells of nucellus have abundant reserve food materials.
VI 2 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS 8 • One cell of the nucellus towards micropylar end differentiated into megaspore mother cell (MMC).
The innermost layer is tapetum which is multinucleated, with dense cytoplasm; it nourishes
the developing pollen grains. • It is a large diploid cell, dense cytoplasm with prominent nucleus.
The centers of each microsporangium contain homogenous cells called sporogenous tissues. • The MMC undergo meiotic division resulting four haploid megaspores.
Female gametophyte:
11 BIOTECHNOLOGY : PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 8 • Out of four megaspores, one megaspore is functional and other three degenerates.
• The functional megaspore developed into the female gametophyte.
• Female gametophyte is known as the embryo sac.
IX
• Development of embryo sac from a single megaspore is called as monosporic development.
• The nucleus of the functional megaspore divided by mitotic division to form two nuclei which move
12 BIOTECHNOLOGY AND ITS APPLICATIONS 8
to the opposite poles, 2-nucleated embryo sac.
Pollen grain: • Two successive mitotic division leads to formation of 4-nucleate and later 8-nucleate stages of the
• Pollen grain represents the male gametophytes. embryo sac.
• It is spherical and measuring about 25-50 micrometer in • All mitotic divisions are free nuclear type; karyokinesis is not followed by cytokinesis.
13 ORGANISMS AND POPULATIONS 8 diameter. • Six of the eight nuclei are surrounded by cell walls and organized into cells.
• It is covered by two layers. • Three cells are grouped together at the micropylar end, constitute the egg apparatus.
X • The hard outer layer called the exine is made up of • The egg apparatus, in turn consists of two synergids and one egg cell.
sporopollenin, which is the most resistant organic material. It • Synergids have special filiform apparatus, which play an important role in guiding the entry of
can withstand high temperature and strong acids and alkali. No pollen tube into the synergids.
14 ECOSYSTEM 7
enzyme can degrade sporopollenin. • Three cells arranged towards chalazal end are called antipodal cells.
• The exine has prominent apertures called germ pore where sporopollenin is absent. • The large central cell has two polar nuclei.
• The inner wall of pollen grain is called intine. It is thin and continuous layer made up of cellulose • A typical angiosperm embryo sac at maturity is 8- nucleated and 7-celled.
and pectin. Pollination:
• On maturity, the pollen grain contains two cells, the vegetative cell and generative cell. • Transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of a pistil is termed as pollination.
• The vegetative cell is bigger, has abundant food reserve and a large irregularly shaped nucleus. • Both male and female gametes are non-motile.
• The generative cell is small and floats in the cytoplasm of vegetative cell. Kinds of pollination:
• In 60% of angiosperms, pollen grains are shed at this 2-celled stage. 1. Autogamy:
• In others the generative cell divides mitotically to form two male gametes and pollen grain are Pollination within same flower.
usually shed 3-celled stage. In open and exposed anthers and stigma autogamy is rare.
Viola, Oxalis and Commelina produce two types of flowers:
The Megasporangium (Ovule): • Chasmogamous: Flowers with exposed anther and stigma.
• Ovule is a small structure attached to the placenta of locule with a stalk called funicle. • Cleistogamous: Flowers with enclosed anther and stigma.
• The body of the ovule fused with the funicle in the region called hilum. Cleistogamous flower is invariably autogamous and assured seed set even in the absence
• Hilum is the junction between the funicle and ovule. of the pollinator.
• Each ovule has one or two protective envelops called integuments.

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2. Geitonogamy: Emasculated flowers covered by bag generally made up of butter paper, to prevent contamination. CHAPTER – 2 Processes of rDNA technology
Pollination between two flowers of the same plant. This step is called bagging. BIOTECHNOLOGY: PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES
Pollinating agents helps to effect pollination. Pollen grains collected from desired male parent are dusted after the stigma of emasculated flower ▪ Isolation of DNA.
Genetically similar to the autogamy. attain receptivity. This step is called artificial pollination. Biotechnology is the application of technology in living organisms to produce or modify a product or a process ▪ Fragmentation of DNA using restriction endonucleases.
3. Xenogamy: After artificial pollination female flower is rebagged. useful to mankind. ▪ Separation & Isolation of desired gene by Gel Electrophoresis.
Transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of different plant. Double fertilization: Concepts ▪ Amplification of desired gene using Polymerase Chain
It is commonly called as cross-pollination. After entering one of the synergids, the pollen tube releases two male gametes into the cytoplasm of ➢ Tools of rDNA technology
Reaction (PCR).
It brings genetically different pollen to stigma. the synergids. ➢ Processes of rDNA technology ▪ Ligation of the DNA fragment into a vector.
Agents of pollination: Syngamy: One of the male gamete fused with egg cell, to form a diploid zygote. Tools of rDNA technology ▪ Transferring the recombinant DNA into the host.
Plant use abiotic agents (wind and water) and biotic agents (animals) for pollination. Triple fusion: Two polar nuclei of central cell fused to form a diploid secondary nucleus. 1. ENZYMES ▪ Large scale aseptic culture of transformed cell.
Majority of plants use biotic agents for pollination. The second male gamete fused with the secondary nucleus to form a triploid primary endosperm 2. CLONING VECTOR ▪ Downstream processing.
Adaptations for Anemophily (Pollinating agent is wind) :-. nucleus (PEN). 3. COMPETENT HOST
• Plants produces enormous amount of pollen. Since syngamy and triple fusion take place in the embryo sac, the phenomenon is termed as double 1. ENZYMES
• Flowers with well exposed stamens. fertilization.
Gel Electrophoresis
• Large feathery stigma to trap air-borne pollen grains. The central cell after triple fusion becomes primary endosperm cell and developed into the Types of enzyme Example Function
▪ Gel Electrophoresis is used for the isolation and separation of DNA
• Most wind pollinated flowers contain single ovule in one ovary and numerous flowers packed endosperm. Exonucleases Cut off nucleotide from the terminal end of DNA
fragment.
into an inflorescence e.g. corn cob. The zygote developed into an embryo. Endonucleases Make cuts at specific position of single strand within the DNA
Cleaving Enzymes ▪ DNA fragments are negatively charged, hence it move towards the
• Pollen grains are light and non-sticky. Embryo: Restriction
Make cut on both strand at specific position of DNA. positively charged anode through a matrix/medium.
Adaptations for Hydrophily (Pollination by abiotic agent like water) :- Zygote formed and placed at the micropylar end of the embryo sac. Endonucleases
▪ Most commonly used matrix or medium is AGAROSE.
This type of pollination is very rare, about 30 genera, mostly monocot. Zygote starts its development only after some amount of endosperm formed. Joining Enzyme DNA Ligases Used to join (Ligation) cut ends of double stranded DNA.
▪ DNA fragment separate according to its charge and size.
Vallisneria, Hydrilla and Zostera are the common example for Hydrophily. Embryo development takes place in following stages: Lysozyme Break the cell wall of bacteria
▪ Separated fragment can be visualised as orange coloured band by
All aquatic plants doesn’t show Hydrophily. • Proembryo Cellulase Break the cell wall of plant cell
exposing to UV light after staining with Ethydium Bromide.
• in Vallisneria pollen grains released into the surface of water and carried to the stigma by air • Globular embryo Lysing Enzyme Chitinase Break the cell wall of fungus ▪ Separated DNA fragments are cut out from the gel and extracted.
current. • Heart embryo Protease Break down of protein in the cell This step is called elution.
• In sea grass the flowers remains submerged. • Matured embryo Ribonuclease Break down the RNA in the cell
• Pollen grains are long, ribbon like and carried passively inside the water Dicot embryo: Restriction Endonucleases Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
• Pollen grains are protected from wetting by mucilaginous covering. • A typical dicotyledonous embryo consists of an embryonal axis and two cotyledons. • First isolated and characterised restriction endonuclease is Hind II
• They cut at specific nucleotide base pair sequence (4-6 bp) of double stranded DNA called recognition ▪ In-vitro amplification of desired gene is done by the
Adaptations for Pollination by animals • Embryonal axis above the cotyledon is the epicotyls.
technique namely PCR.
Bees are the dominant biotic agents for pollination. • Terminal part of the epicotyls is the plumule (gives rise to the shoot). sequence.
▪ Amplification is the process artificial synthesis of
• Insect pollinating flowers are very large, colorful, fragrant and rich in nectar. • Embryonal axis below the cotyledon is the hypocotyl. • Recognition sequence of endonuclease enzymes is called palindromic nucleotide sequence. multiple copies of desired gene.
• Small flowers present in cluster to make them conspicuous. • The terminal part of the hypocotyl is called the radicle gives rise to the root system). • palindromic nucleotide sequence :- Complementary DNA sequences that are same when each strand Steps in PCR
• Flower pollinated by flies and beetles secrete foul odour. • The root tip is covered by the root cap. is read in same direction (5’-3’) are called palindromic nucleotide. A. Denaturation
Eg:- 5’ -------GAATTC-------3’ Separation of complimentary strand of DNA at high
• Nectar and pollen grains are the usual floral rewards for insects. Monocot embryo:
• Possesses only one cotyledon 3’ -------CTTAAG-------5’ temperature.
• In some species, flower provide floral rewards by providing safe places to lay eggs: e.g. ACTIVITY OF EcoR
B. Annealing
• Single large cotyledon is called Scutellum. • Rule for naming of Restriction Endonuclease Enzyme
Amorphophallus. Pairing of primer to the separated DNA strand is
 Ist letter - First letter in the genus of the bacteria
A species of moth and Yucca plant cannot complete their life cycle without each other. • Scutellum situated towards one side of the embryonal axis. called annealing.
from which the enzyme is derived.
The moth deposits its eggs in the locule of the ovary and the flower in turn get pollinated by the moth. • Radicle and the root cap enclosed by a sheath called Coleorhiza. C. Extension
 IInd & IIIrd letters - First two letters from the species of the Addition of complimentary nucleotides to ends of
Many insects may consume pollen or nectar without bring about pollination. Such floral visitors are • The portion of the embryonal axis above level of attachment of scutellum is called Epicotyls.
organism. primer with the help of Taq polymerase is called
referred as pollen/nectar robbers. • Epicotyl has the shoot apex or plumule enclosed by hollow foliar structure called Coleoptile.
 IVth letter - First letter of the strain of bacteria. extension.
Fruit developed from the ovary is called true fruit. Taq Polymerase : heat stable (thermostable) DNA
Artificial hybridization:  Roman number - Order of isolation.
In apple, strawberry, cashew, the thalamus contributes in the fruit formation and such fruits are called polymerase enzyme isolated from thermophilic
One of the major approaches of crop improvement programme. EG:- EcoRI - derived from Escherichia coli RY 13 and it is Ist to be isolated.
False fruit. bacterium, Thermus aquaticus.
Only desired pollen grain used for pollination. E - Escherichia co - coli R - RY 13 strain I- First order of isolation
Fruit developed without fertilization is called parthenocarpic fruits. Primers : Artificially synthesised oligonucleotide
Stigma is protected from contamination (from unwanted pollen grain). • The overhanging stretch of DNA produced on the palindromic sequence by endonuclease activity sequence complimentary to the regions of DNA.
Eg :- Pineapple, banana, cucumber, grape, watermelon, orange, grapefruit, pear.
Removal of anthers from the flower bud before the anther dehisces is called emasculation. is called sticky ends.

DR. SUNIL KUMAR. S, GFVHSS CHERUVATHUR BOTANY FOCUS AREA NOTE 2023 DR. SUNIL KUMAR. S, GFVHSS CHERUVATHUR BOTANY FOCUS AREA NOTE 2023 DR. SUNIL KUMAR. S, GFVHSS CHERUVATHUR BOTANY FOCUS AREA NOTE 2023 DR. SUNIL KUMAR. S, GFVHSS CHERUVATHUR BOTANY FOCUS AREA NOTE 2023
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Obtaining the Foreign Gene Product CHAPTER – 3 Recombinant drugs are free from side effects compared to animal derived products. CHAPTER – 4
BIOTECHNOLOGY AND ITS APPLICATIONS a. Genetically Engineered Insulin (Humulin) ORGANISMS AND POPULATIONS
• The ultimate aim of recombinant DNA technology is to produce a desirable product. Insulin is a protein hormone secreted by pancreas to control glucose level in blood.
• After cloning the gene of interest, the conditions are optimized to produce the product/protein from The application of biotechnology for the welfare of man include Deficiency of insulin leads to diabetes mellitus. Ecology is basically concerned with four levels of biological organization-organisms, populations,
the gene. 1. Therapeutics 2. Diagnostics Insulin Injection is used for the treatment of Diabetic patient. communities and biomes.
• Recombinant Protein :- If any protein encoding gene is expressed in a heterologous host is called 3. Genetically modified crops 3. Processed Food  Oral administration of insulin is not advised, since
recombinant protein. 4. Bioremediation 5. Waste management insulin is a protein it should be digested by the enzymes POPULATIONS :- is a group of individuals of same species sharing similar resources.
• Two types of aseptic culture are maintained in order to produce the recombinant product. 5. Energy production of alimentary canal. population attributes - birth rates and death rates, sex ratio, Population size, age distribution.
• Small Scale Culture. Application of Biotechnology
 In human body Insulin is produced as inactive Pro- 1. Birth and death rates In a population birth and death rates refer to per capita births and deaths,
• Continuous Culture System. insulin or pro-hormone. respectively.
Small Scale Culture.  The pro-insulin contain three polypeptide chain; A 2. Sex ratio. A population have characteristic ratio of male and females. If the age distribution is plotted
• Small Scale Culture are employed in laboratory. chain, B chain and C chain. for the population, the resulting structure is called an age pyramid The shape of the pyramids reflects
• It provide less yield of products compared to continuous culture.  In active insulin C chain is removed and A and B chain the growth status of the population - (a) whether it is growing, (b) stable or (c) declining.
Application in agriculture Application in Medicine Transgenic Animals
• The product is purified using different extraction techniques.
1. Bt Cotton 1. Genetically Engineered Insulin are linked by disulphide linkage. 3. Population size- Population size or population density is the size of a population for any species. It is
2. Pest Resistant Plant 2. Gene Therapy not a static. It keeps changing in time. The density of a population in a given habitat during a given
Continuous Culture System.  Insulin from an animal sources may cause allergy in some patients.
3. Molecular Diagnosis period fluctuates due to changes in four basic processes, natality and immigration contribute an
 The major challenge for the production of Human insulin by rDNA technology was assemble the
• The large scale production of recombinant product can be obtained through continuous culture. Genetically Modified Organism (GMO) increase in population density and mortality and emigration decrease the population size.
• In Continuous Culture, used medium can be drained out from one side while fresh medium is added An organism (bacteria, fungi, plants or animals) whose genetic material is altered is called Genetically A and B polypeptide. Natality refers to the number of births, Mortality is the number of deaths ,Immigration is the number
from other side. Modified Organism.  Human insulin by rDNA technology was first prepared by an American company Eli Lilly in 1983. of individuals of the same species that come into the habitat from other population., Emigration is the
• Cells are always maintained in log/exponential phase of growth. Application of Biotechnology in Agriculture Steps in the preparation of Human Insulin (rDNA technology)
number of individuals of the population who left the habitat .
• It provide high yield of products compared to small scale culture. Genetically engineered crop plants revolutionized present day agriculture. 1. Eli Lilly Company prepared DNA sequences corresponding to A and B chain of insulin. So, if N is the population density at time t, then its density at time t + 1 is
• Bioreactors are commonly used for continuous culture. Importance of GM plant in agriculture are, 2. A and B Chain DNA were introduced in plasmid of [Link] to produce the A and B chains. Nt+1 = Nt + [(B + I) – (D + E)]
• Bioreactor provide optimal condition for large scale production of products. o Made crops tolerant to abiotic stress (cold, drought, salt & temperature). 3. Chain A and B were produced separately. Population density will increase if the number of births plus the number of immigrants (B + I) is more
o Develop pest resistance. 4. Chain A and B were extracted and combined by creating disulphide bonds than the number of deaths plus the number of emigrants (D + E).
Bioreactors o Helped to produce reduce post-harvest losses. b. Gene Therapy AGE PYRAMIDS FACTORS AFFECTING POPULATION DENSITY
They are used for large scale production of products by continuous culture method. o Enhanced nutritional value of food. Eg :- Vitamin ‘A’ enriched rice Collection of methods that allow correction of a defective gene diagnosed in human is called gene
It is a large vessel in which raw materials are converted biologically into specific product. o Increased efficiency of mineral usage by plants. therapy.
Components of Bioreactor Bt COTTON ADA deficiency
1. Agitator system, Bt Cotton:- a genetically modified cotton plant with insecticidal protein producing gene from the ▪ Adenosine DeAaminase – is an important enzyme involved in the functioning and
2. Oxygen delivery system bacteria Bacillus thuringiensis. maintenance of immune system.
3. Foam control system Bt represent Bacillus thuringiensis. ▪ First clinical gene therapy was given in 1990 to a 4 year old girl with ADA deficiency.
4. Temperature and PH control system cry gene :- insecticidal protein of the Bacillus thuringiensis is coded by the gene namely cry gene. ▪ ADA deficiency is due to deletion of gene for adenosine deaminase enzyme. Growth Models
5. Sampling port. cry toxin :- Insecticidal crystalline toxic protein produced by the ‘cry gene’ of B. thuringiensis. ▪ ADA deficiency can be treated by 3 methods
Two type of bioreactors are, Exponential or geometric growth :-The population grows in an exponential or geometric growth pattern
The toxin is also known as Bt toxin. 1. Enzyme replacement therapy. 2. Bone marrow transplantation. 3. Gene therapy.
Simple stirred tank bioreactor in which a flat bladed stirrer mixes the oxygen throughout the reactor. of a population results in a J-shaped curve . Any species growing exponentially under unlimited resource
Activity of Bt Toxin Treatment by enzyme replacement and bone marrow transplantation are not completely curative.
Sparged stirred tank bioreactor in which air is bubbled so that it increases the oxygen transfer area. The Bt toxin is produced by the bacteria as inactive protoxin. conditions can reach enormous population densities in a short time.
Steps involved in Gene therapy Treatment of ADA deficiency
The inactive protoxin is converted into active toxin when ingested by the insect. ➢ Lymphocytes from the patients were isolated.
Growth rate of an exponential growth is dN/dt = (b-d)N
This conversion is mediated by the alkaline PH of insects gut. ➢ In vitro culturing of isolated lymphocytes.
Let (b-d) = r , then the equation becomes, dN/dt = rN / Nt = Noert
Active Bt toxin binds to the gut epithelium and causes cell lysis leading to insect’s death. ➢ Using retroviral vector cDNA (complimentary DNA) of functional ADA gene was introduced into the
r = intrinsic rate of natural increase.
lymphocyte.
Inactive Protoxin Alkaline PH of Insects gut active toxin gut epithelial cell lysis lead to insect death
➢ Lymphocyte with functional ADA gene was returned to patient’s blood. [Link] growth (Verhulst-Pearl Logistic growth or Sigmoid Growth)
Type of cry gene
➢ Periodic infusions of genetically engineered lymphocyte into patient since the cells are mortal. In nature, a given habitat has enough resources to support a maximum possible number, beyond which
cryAb gene - control corn borer.
cryAc gene & cryAb gene - control cotton bollworms. ADA deficiency can be completely cured if ADA producing gene isolated from bone marrow cells is no further growth is possible. Let us call this limit as nature’s carrying capacity (K) for that species in
introduced into cells at early embryonic stage. that habitat. A population growing in a habitat with limited resources show initially a lag phase, followed
 Applications of Biotechnology in Medicine by phases of acceleration and deceleration and finally an asymptote, when the population density
rDNA technology revolutionized the health care by producing safe and effective drugs. reaches the carrying capacity.

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Growth rate of an exponential growth is CHAPTER – 5 Importance of humus: It is highly resistance to microbial action. It undergo decomposition at an Food Web
𝐊−𝑵 extremely slow rate. Being colloidal in nature, it serves as reservoir for nutrients. Several food chains are interconnected to form a network called food web.
dN/dt = rN [ ]
𝐊 ECOSYSTEM 5. Mineralization : The humus is further degraded by some microbes and release of inorganic nutrients.
N = Population density at time t, r = intrinsic rate of natural increase, K = Carrying capacity.
Ecosystem is a functional unit of nature, where living and nonliving components interact together. Ecological Pyramid
Population Interaction
Ecosystem have structural and functional components. Factors affecting decomposition – 1. Oxygen-requiring process. 2. Controlled by chemical composition It is the graphical representation of ecological parameters like number of organisms, biomass
Species A Species B Name of Interaction Feature of detritus 3. climatic factors. and energy at different trophic levels in a food chain.
Types of Ecosystems
+ + MUTUALISM Both species gets benefited ECOSYSTEM Decomposition rate is slower if rich in lignin and chitin, and quicker, if rich in nitrogen and water-soluble The base of the pyramid represents producers/first trophic level where as the top of the pyramid
– – COMPETITION Both species are harmed substances like sugars. Temperature and soil moisture are most important climatic factor that regulate represents top level consumers.
Natural Man-made (Artificial)
+ – PREDATION One species get benefited (Predator) other harmed (Prey). decomposition Warm and moist environment favor decomposition. An ecological pyramid may be Upright or Inverted.
+ – PARASITISM One species get benefited (Parasite) other harmed (Host). Pyramid of Number :-
Terrestrial Aquatic Eg :- 1. Crop field 3. ENERGY FLOW Ecological pyramid based on the number of organism in each
+ 0 COMMENSALISM One species get benefited other neither benefited nor harmed. Sun is the only source of energy for all ecosystems on Earth. Less than 50% of incident solar
Eg :- 1. Forest 1. Pond 2. Aquarium trophic level.
– 0 AMMENSALISM One species get harmed other neither benefited nor harmed. 2. Grassland 2. Lake radiation is photo synthetically active radiations (PAR). Plants capture only 2-10 per cent of the Pyramid of number is upright for grass land ecosystem but
Parasitism: 3. Deserts 3. Wetland PAR. Energy transfer is not absolute, and spontaneous, unless energy is degraded it cannot be inverted for single tree ecosystem.
Many parasites have to be host-specific in such a way that both host and parasite tend to co evolve. Components of the ecosystem transfer. When energy transferred from one trophic level to another, lot of energy lost in the form
Special adaptations of parasites- of heat to the environment. Pyramid of Biomass:-
• The loss of unnecessary sense organs, presence of adhesive organs or suckers to cling on to (i) Productivity; (ii) Decomposition; (iii) Energy flow; and (iv) Nutrient cycling. Law of 10 percentage :- Only 10% of energy is transferred from one trophic level to other.
the host, Loss of digestive system and high reproductive capacity. Flows of solar energy through different organisms in an ecosystem- Unidirectional flow of energy
1. PRODUCTIVITY :- Ecological pyramid based on the biomass of organism in
• The life cycles of parasites are often complex, involving one or two intermediate hosts or from the sun to producers and then to consumers.
Primary productivity :- The rate of biomass or organic matter produced per unit area over a time each trophic level.
vectors to facilitate parasitisation of its primary host.
period by plants during photosynthesis is called primary productivity. It is expressed in weight Pyramid of biomass is upright for grass land ecosystem
Food chains
(gm/m–2) or energy (kcal m-2). The transfer of energy through a series of organisms linked by the process of eating and being but inverted for sea ecosystem.
1. Ectoparasites- Parasites that feed on the external surface of the host organism are called
Primary productivity divided into eaten is known as the food chain.
ectoparasites. Eg- lice on humans and ticks on dogs. Many marine fish are infested with Pyramid of Energy :-
Gross primary productivity – The rate of total production of organic matter during photosynthesis by Types of food chain
ectoparasitic copepods. Cuscuta , a parasitic plant that lost its chlorophyll . Ecological pyramid based on the amount of energy in each trophic
plants.
2. Endoparasites -are those that live inside the host body at different sites (liver, kidney, lungs, red level.
Net primary productivity - Gross primary productivity minus respiration losses (R) is the net primary 1. Gracing food chain (GFC) —Starts with producers (green plants) Eg. Grass→Goat→Man
blood cells, etc.). Life cycle is more complex. Morphological and anatomical features are greatly It is always upright. Because, when energy flows from one trophic
productivity. 2. Detritus food chain (DFC) —Starts with detritus Eg. Detritus→Detritivores
simplified. Highly developed reproductive system. level to the next level some energy is lost as heat at each step. It
Secondary productivity - rate of formation of new organic matter by consumers.
3. Brood parasitism - In which the parasitic bird lays its eggs in the nest of its host and lets the host Consumers / Heterotrophs always follow law of 10%.
Annual net primary productivity of whole biosphere is about 170 billion tons (dry weight) of organic
incubate them. Starting from the plants, (producers) food chains are formed in order to transfer energy. All animals
matter and primary productivity of the oceans are only 55 billion tons.
Commensalism: One species benefits and the other is neither harmed nor benefited. depend on plants (directly or indirectly) for their food needs. They are hence called consumers and
GPP – R = NPP
Eg :- 1. An orchid growing as an epiphyte on a mango tree. are heterotrophs.
Factors affecting primary productivity
2. barnacles growing on the back of a whale. Primary consumers
1. The plant species inhabiting an area. 2. Environmental factors. 3. Availability of nutrients.
3. The cattle-egret and grazing cattle in close association. If they feed on the producers, the plants, they are
4. Photosynthetic capacity of plants.
4. The interaction between sea anemone and the clown fish. called primary consumers.
Mutualism: (++) Eg.1. Lichens- It is interaction between a fungus and photosynthesizing algae or 2. DECOMPOSITION :- Secondary consumers
cyanobacteria.2. Mycorrhizae are associations between fungi and the roots of higher plants. 3. It is the breakdown of complex organic matter by decomposers into inorganic substances like CO2, If the animals eat herbivores are called secondary
Plant-animal relationships -. Plants need the help of animals for pollinating their flowers and water and nutrients. It is largely an oxygen-requiring process. consumers.
dispersing their seeds. Plants offer rewards or fees in the form of pollen and nectar and juicy and The important steps of decomposition are fragmentation, leaching, catabolism, Humification and Trophic level
nutritious fruits . mineralization. Based on the source of their nutrition or food,
Co-evolution- the evolutions of the flower and its pollinator species are tightly linked with one another. 1. Fragmentation : Break down of detritus into smaller particles by detritivores (earthworm). organisms occupy a specific place in the food chain
A fig species can be pollinated only by its ‘partner’ wasp species. The female wasp uses the fruit not 2. Leaching: Water soluble inorganic nutrients go down into the soil horizon and get precipitated as that is known as their trophic level.
only as an ovipositor (egg-laying) site but uses the developing seeds within the fruit for nourishing unavailable salts. Producers belong to the first trophic level,
its larvae. In tern the wasp pollinates the fig inflorescence. Orchids show diversity of floral patterns 3. Catabolism : Bacterial and fungal enzymes degrade detritus into simple inorganic substances. herbivores to the second trophic level and carnivores to the third trophic level. The amount of
many of which have evolved to attract the right pollinator insect. 4. Humification : Accumulation of dark colored amorphous substances called humus is formed in this energy decreases at successive trophic levels.
Sexual deceit:- orchid Ophrys employs ‘sexual deceit’. Petal of the flower resembles the female bee. The stage.
male bee attracted to what it perceives as a female, pseudo copulates with another flower.
DR. SUNIL KUMAR. S, GFVHSS CHERUVATHUR BOTANY FOCUS AREA NOTE 2023 DR. SUNIL KUMAR. S, GFVHSS CHERUVATHUR BOTANY FOCUS AREA NOTE 2023 DR. SUNIL KUMAR. S, GFVHSS CHERUVATHUR BOTANY FOCUS AREA NOTE 2023 DR. SUNIL KUMAR. S, GFVHSS CHERUVATHUR BOTANY FOCUS AREA NOTE 2023