ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS
Electronics are the central nervous system of your robot and will be
responsible for passing information to and from peripheral functions as well
as processing inputs and turning them into the output functions the robot
performs. Any given hobby robot project might contain a dozen or more
electronic components of varying types, including resistors, capacitors,
integrated circuits, and light-emitting diodes. In this chapter, you’ll read about
the components commonly found in hobby robot projects and their many
specific varieties. You’ll also learn their functions and how they are used.
[Link] Course in Electrical Theory
Understanding basic electronics is a keystone to being able to design
and build your own robots. The knowledge required is not all that difficult—in
fact the basic theories with diagrams can fit on two sheets of paper (following)
which you are encouraged to photocopy and hang up as a quick reference.
Electricity always travels in a circle, or circuit, like the one in Fig. 5-1. If
the circuit is broken, or opened, then the electricity flow stops and the circuit
stops working.
Electricity consists of electrons, which are easily moved from the atoms
of metal conductors. There are two components of electricity that can be
measured. Voltage is the pressure applied to the electrons to force them to
move through the metal wires as well as the
FIGURE 1-1 Electricity flows in a circle, or circuit, from positive (+) to
negative. If the circuit is broken (as when the switch is open), electricity stops
flowing and the circuit stops working.
FIGURE 1-2 A digital multimeter can be used to measure the voltage across a
component as well as the current through it.
FIGURE 5-4 When resistors are wired in series, the total resistance of the
circuit is proportional to the sum of the resistances.
different components in the circuit. As the electrons pass through a
component they lose some of the pressure, just as water loses pressure due to
friction when it moves through a pipe. The initial voltage applied to the
electrons is measured with a volt meter or a multimeter set to measure
voltage and is equal to the voltage drops through components in the circuit.
The label given to voltage is V.
The second measurement that can be applied to electricity is current,
which is the number of electrons passing by a point in a given time. There are
literally several billion, billion, billion, billion, billion, billion electrons flowing
past a point at a given time. For convenience, the unit Coulomb (C) was
specified, which is 6.25 × 1018 electrons and is the basis for the ampere (A),
which is the number of electrons moving past a point every second. The label
given to current is the non-intuitive i.
The voltage across a component and the current through it can be
measured using a digital multimeter as shown in Fig. 5-2. It is important to
remember that voltage is the pressure change across a component, so to
measure it you have to put a test lead on either side of the component. Current
is the volume of electrons moving past a certain point every second, and to
measure it, the circuit must be broken and the tester put in line, or in
series,with the component being measured.
The current flowing through a component can be calculated if the
voltage change, or drop, is known along with the resistance of the component
using Ohm’s law. This law states that the voltage drop across a resistance is
equal to the product of the resistance value and the current flowing through it.
Put mathematically, Ohm’s law is:
V=i×R
Where V is voltage across the component measured in volts, i is the current
through the component measured in amperes or amps, and R is the resistance
measured in ohms,which has the symbol Ω. Using algebra, when any two of
the three values are known, the third can be calculated. If you are not
comfortable using algebra to find the missing value, you can use Ohm’s law
triangle (Fig. 1-3). This tool is quite simple to use. Just place your finger over
the value you want to find, and the remaining two values along with how they
are located relative to one another shows you the calculation that you must do
to find the missing value. For the example in Fig. 1-3, to find the formula to
calculate current, put your finger over i and the resulting two values V over R
is the formula for finding i (divide the voltage drop by the resistance of the
component).
Resistances can be combined, which changes the electrical parameters
of the entire circuit. For example, in Fig. 1-4 a resistance is shown placed in
line or in series and the total resistance is the sum of the resistances. Along
with this, the voltage drop across each resistor is proportional to the value of
the individual resistors relative to the total resistance of the circuit. The ratio
of voltages in a series circuit can be used to produce a fractional value of the
total voltage applied to a circuit. Fig. 5-5 shows a voltage divider, which is
built from two series resistors and outputs a lower voltage than was input
into the circuit. It is important to remember that this circuit cannot source
(provide) any current—any current draw will increase the voltage drop
through the top resistor and lower the voltage of the output. Finally,
resistances can be wired parallel to one another as in Fig. 5-6. In this case, the
total resistance drops and the voltage stays constant across each resistor
(increasing the total amount of current flowing through the circuit). It is
important to remember that the equivalent resistance will always be less than
the value of the lowest resistance. The general case formula given in Fig. 5-6
probably seems very cumbersome but is quite elegant when applied to two
resistors in parallel. The equivalent resistance is calculated using:
Requivalent = (R1 × R2) / (R1 + R2)
Whew! This is all there is to it with regards to basic electronics. The diagrams
have all been placed in the following to allow you to photocopy them, study
while you have a free moment, and pin up over your workbench so you always
have them handy.
[Link] Resistors
A fixed resistor supplies a predetermined resistance to a circuit. The
standard unit of value of a resistor is the ohm (with units in volts per ampere,
according to Ohm’s law), represented by the symbol Ω. The higher the ohm
value, the more resistance the component provides to the circuit. The value on
most fixed resistors is identified by color coding, as shown in Fig. 5-7. The
color coding starts near the edge of the resistor and comprise four, five, and
sometimes six bands of different colors. Most off-the-shelf resistors for hobby
projects use standard four-band color coding. The values of each band are
listed in Table 5-2,and the formula for determining the resistance from the
bands is:
If you are not sure what the resistance is for a particular resistor, use a digital
multimeter to check it. Position the test leads on either end of the resistor. If
the meter is not auto ranging, start at a high range and work down. Be sure
you don’t touch the test leads or the leads of the resistor; if you do, you’ll add
the natural resistance of your own body to the reading. Resistors are also
rated by their wattage. The wattage of a resistor indicates the amount of
power it can safely dissipate. Resistors used in high-load applications, like
motor control, require higher wattages than those used in low-current
applications. The majority of resis tors you’ll use for hobby electronics will be
rated at
1⁄4 or even 1⁄8 of awatt. The wattage of a resistor is not marked on the body
of the component; instead, you must infer it from the size of the resistor.
[Link] Resistors
Variable resistors let you dial in a specific resistance. The actual range of
resistance is determined by the upward value of the potentiometer.
Potentiometers are thus marked with this upward value, such as 10K, 50K,
100K, 1M, and so forth. For example, a 50K potentiometer will let you dial in
any resistance from 0 to 50,000 ohms. Note that the range is approximate
only.
Potentiometers are of either the dial or slide type, as shown in Fig. 5-8. The
dial type is the most familiar and is used in such applications as television
volume controls and electric blanket thermostat controls. The rotation of the
dial is nearly 360°, depending on which potentiometer you use. In one
extreme, the resistance through the potentiometer (or pot) is zero; in the
other extreme, the resistance is the maximum value of the component.
Some projects require precision potentiometers. These are referred to
as multi-turn pots or trimmers. Instead of turning the dial one complete
rotation to change the resistance from, say, 0 to 10,000 ohms, a multi-turn pot
requires you to rotate the knob 3, 5, 10, even 15 times to span the same range.
Most are designed to be mounted directly on the printed circuit board. If you
have to adjust them, you will need a screwdriver or plastic tool.
[Link]
After resistors, capacitors are the second most common component
found in the averageelectronic project. Capacitors serve many purposes. They
can be used to remove traces of transient (changing) current ripple in a power
supply, to delay the action of some portion of the circuit, or to perform an
integration or differentiation of a repeating signal. All these applications
depend on the ability of the capacitor to hold an electrical charge for a
predetermined time.
Capacitors come in many more sizes, shapes, and varieties than
resistors, though only a small handful are truly common. However, most
capacitors are made of the same basic stuff: a pair of conductive elements
separated by an insulating dielectric (see Fig. 5-9). This dielectric can be
composed of many materials, including air (in the case of a variable capacitor,
as detailed in the next section), paper, epoxy, plastic, and even oil. Most
capacitors actually have
many layers of conducting elements and dielectric. When you select a
capacitor for a particular job, you must generally also indicate the type, such
as ceramic, mica, or Mylar.
Capacitors are rated by their capacitance, in farads, and by the
breakdown voltage of their dielectric. The farad is a rather large unit of
measurement, so the bulk of capacitors available today are rated in
microfarads, or a millionth of a farad. An even smaller rating is the Pico farad,
or a millionth of a millionth of a farad. The micro in the term microfarad is
most often represented by the Greek mu (µ) character, as in 10 µF. The Pico
farad is simply shortened to pF. The voltage rating is the highest voltage the
capacitor can withstand before the dielectric layers in the component are
damaged.
For the most part, capacitors are classified by the dielectric material
they use. The most common dielectric materials are aluminum electrolytic,
tantalum electrolytic, ceramic, mica, polypropylene, polyester (or Mylar),
paper, and polystyrene. The dielectric material used in a capacitor partly
determines which applications it should be used for. The larger electrolytic
capacitors, which use an aluminum electrolyte, are suited for such chores as
power supply filtering, where large values are needed. The values for many
capacitors are printed directly on the component. This is especially true with
the larger aluminum electrolytic, where the large size of the capacitor
provides ample room for printing the capacitance and voltage. Smaller
capacitors, such as 0.1 or 0.01 µF mica disc capacitors, use a common three-
digit marking system to denote capacitance and tolerance. The numbering
system is easy to use, if you remember it’s based on Pico farads, not
microfarads. A number such as 104 means 10, followed by four zeros, as in
100,000 or 100,000 Pico farads. Values over 1000 Pico farads are most often
stated in microfarads. To make the conversion, move the decimal point to the
left six spaces: 0.1 µF. Note that values under 1000 Pico farads do not use this
numbering system. Instead, the actual value, in Pico farads, is listed, such as
10 (for 10 pF).
One mark you will find almost exclusively on larger tantalum and
aluminum electrolytic is a polarity symbol, most often a minus (−) sign. The
polarity symbol indicates the positive and/or negative lead of a capacitor. If a
capacitor is polarized, it is extremely important that you follow the proper
orientation when you install the capacitor in the circuit. If you reverse the
leads to the capacitor—connecting the positive lead (called the anode) to the
ground rail instead of the negative lead (called the cathode), for example—the
capacitor may be ruined. Other components in the circuit could also be
damaged. Fig. 5-10 shows some different capacitor packages along with their
polarity markings.
[Link]
The diode is the simplest form of semiconductor. It is available in two
basic flavors, germanium and silicon, which indicates the material used to
manufacture the active junction within the diode. Diodes are used in a variety
of applications, and there are numerous subtypes. Here is a list of the most
common.
• Rectifier. The average diode, it rectifies AC current to provide DC only.
• Zener. It limits voltage to a predetermined level. Zeners are used for
low-cost voltage regulation.
• Light-emitting. These diodes emit infrared of visible light when
current is applied.
• Silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR). This is a type of high-power switch
used to control AC or DC currents.
• Bridge rectifier. This is a collection of four diodes strung together in
sequence; it is used to rectify an incoming AC current.
Diodes carry two important ratings: peak inverse voltage (PIV) and
current. The PIV rating roughly indicates the maximum working voltage for
the diode. Similarly, the current rating is the maximum amount of current the
diode can withstand. Assuming a diode is rated for 3 amps, it cannot safely
conduct more than 3 amps without overheating and failing. All diodes have
positive and negative terminals (polarity). The positive terminal is the anode,
and the negative terminal is the cathode. You can readily identify the cathode
end of a diode by looking for a colored stripe near one of the leads. Fig. 5-11
shows a diode that has a stripe at the cathode end. Note how the stripe
corresponds with the heavy line in the schematic symbol for the diode.
All diodes emit light when current passes through them. This light is
generally only in the infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum. The
light-emitting diode (LED) is a special type of semiconductor that is expressly
designed to emit light in human visible wavelengths. LEDs are available to
produce any of the basic colors (red, yellow, green, blue, or white) oflight as
well as infrared. The infrared LEDs are especially useful in robots for a variety
of different applications.
LEDs carry the same specifications as any other diode. The LED has a
PIV rating of about 100 to 150 V, with a maximum current rating of under 40
mA (usually only 5 to 10 mA is applied to the LED). Most LEDs are used in
low-power DC circuits and are powered with 12 V or less. Even though this
voltage is far below the PIV rating of the LED, the component can still be
ruthlessly damaged if you expose it to currents exceeding 40 or 50 mA. A
resistor is used to limit the current to the LED.
[Link]
Transistors were designed as an alternative to the old vacuum tube, and
they are used in similar applications, either to amplify a signal by providing a
current control or to switch a signal on and off. There are several thousand
different transistors available. Besides amplifying or switching a current,
transistors are divided into two broad categories:
• Signal. These transistors are used with relatively low-current circuits, like
radios, telephones, and most other hobby electronics projects.
• Power. These transistors are used with high-current circuits, like motor
drivers and power supplies.
You can usually tell the difference between the two merely by size. The
signal transistor is rarely larger than a pea and uses slender wire leads. The
power transistor uses a large metal case to help dissipate heat, and heavy
spoke like leads.
Transistors are identified by a unique code, such as 2N2222 or
MPS6519. Refer to a data book to ascertain the characteristics and ratings of
the particular transistor you are interested in. Transistors are rated by a
number of criteria, which are far too extensive for the scope of this book.
These ratings include collector-to-base voltage, collector-to-emitter voltage,
maximum collector current, maximum device dissipation, and maximum
operating frequency. None of these ratings are printed directly on the
transistor.
Signal transistors are available in either plastic or metal cases. The
plastic kind is suitable for most uses, but some precision applications require
the metal variety. Transistors that use metal cases (or cans) are less
susceptible to stray radio frequency interference and they also dissipate heat
more readily.
You will probably be using NPN (Fig. 5-12) and PNP (Fig. 5-13) bipolar
transistors. These transistors are turned on and off by a control current
passing through the base. The current that can pass through the collector is
the product of the base current and the constant hFE, which is unique to each
transistor.
Bipolar transistors can control the operation and direction of DC motors
using fairly simple circuits. Fig. 5-14 shows a simple circuit that will turn a
motor on and off using a single NPN bipolar transistor and a diode. When the
current passing through coils of a magnetic device changes, the voltage across
the device also changes, often in the form of a large spike called kickback.
These spikes can be a hundred volts or so and can very easily damage the
electronic devices they are connected to. By placing a diode across the motor
as shown in Fig. 5-15, the spikes produced when the motor is shut off will be
shunted through the diode and will not pass along high voltages to the rest of
the electronics in the circuit.
The circuit shown in Fig. 5-15 is known as an H-bridge because without
the shunt diodes the circuit looks like the letter H. This circuit allows current
to pass in either direction through a motor, allowing it to turn in either
direction. The motor turns when one of the two connections is made to +V.
Both connections can never be connected to +V as this will turn on all the
transistors, providing a very low resistance path for current from +V,
potentially burning out the driver transistors.
Along with bipolar transistors, which are controlled by current, there are a
number of other transistors, some of which are controlled by voltage. For
example, the MOSFET (for metal-oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor)
is often used in circuits that demand high current and high tolerance. MOSFET
transistors don’t use the standard base-emitter collector connections. Instead,
they call them gate, drain, and source. The operational differences among the
different transistors will become clearer as you become more experienced in
creating electronic circuits.
[Link] Circuitry
When wiring electronic circuits, it is useful to have a large common
negative voltage connection or ground built into the robot. This connection is
normally thought of as being an earth ground and is the basic reference for all
the components in the circuit. Having a common ground also simplifies the
task of drawing schematics; instead of wiring all the negative connections to
the negative power supply, all the negative connections are wired to the three
bars symbol shown in Fig. 5-16.
Positive voltages are normally indicated with an arrow pointing upward
and the label of the positive voltage to be used. These conventions will be used
throughout this book.
[Link] Circuits
The integrated circuit forms the backbone of the electronics revolution.
The typical integrated circuit comprises many transistors, diodes, resistors,
and even capacitors. As its name implies, the integrated circuit, or IC, is a
discrete and wholly functioning circuit in its own right. ICs are the building
blocks of larger circuits. By merely stringing them together you can form just
about any project you envision.
Integrated circuits are most often enclosed in dual in-line packages
(DIPs), like the one shown in Fig. 5-17. This type of component has a number
of pins that can be inserted into holes of a printed circuit board and is also
known as a pin through hole (PTH) component. There are numerous types of
packages and methods of attaching chips to PCBs but beginners should be
working with just PTH DIPs.
As with transistors, ICs are identified by a unique code, such as 7400 or
4017. This code indicates the type of device. You can use this code to look up
the specifications and parameters of the IC in a reference book. Many ICs also
contain other written information, including manufacturer catalog number
and date code. Do not confuse the date code or catalog number with the code
used to identify the device.
[Link] and Electronic Symbols
Electronics use a specialized road map to indicate what components are
in a device and how they are connected together. This pictorial road map is
the schematic, a kind of blueprint of everything you need to know to build an
electronic circuit. Schematics are composed of special symbols that are
connected with intersecting lines. The symbols represent individual
components, and the lines represent the wires that connect these components
together. The language of schematics, while far from universal, is intended to
enable most anyone to duplicate the construction of a circuit with little more
information than a picture.
The experienced electronics experimenter knows how to read a
schematic. This entails recognizing and understanding the symbols used to
represent electronic components and how these components are connected.
All in all, learning to read a schematic is not difficult. Fig. 5-18 shows many of
the most common symbols.