THEME 2

MATERIAL BALANCES
AND ENERGY
2.1 Preliminary considerations.
2.2 Principle of conservation of matter and energy. Concepts
basics. Classification of processes
2.3 Material balances
2.3.1 Flowchart of a process. System boundaries, base
of calculation, key element.
2.3.2 Material balances with chemical reaction.
[Link] Stoichiometry
[Link] Limiting and excess reactant. Conversion.
[Link] Multiple reactions, yield and selectivity.
2.3.3 Recycle, by-pass, and purge.
2.4 Systematic procedure for the preparation of balances
subject
2.5 Energy balances.
2.5.1 Main concepts.
2.5.2 Forms of Energy: the First Law of Thermodynamics
2.5.3 General equation of energy conservation.
2.5.4 Energy Balances for Open Systems in Regime
Stationary (without chemical reaction)
2.5.5 Reference States and State Properties
SPECIFIC BIBLIOGRAPHY-BLOCK 2

PEIRÓ PÉREZ, J.J., GARCIA BARRIDO, [Link] balances.

Solved Problems (vol. I). Polytechnic University of Valencia. Valencia
1997.
FELDER, R.M. and ROUSSEAU, [Link] Principles of
Chemical Processes. Wiley (3aed.), New York, (2003). Part 2 and 3
HENLEY, E.J., ROSEN, [Link] of Material Balances
Energy. Reverté, S.A. Barcelona, 1978. Chapter 2.
BRAVE, [Link] of Mass and Energy Balance in the
Food Industry. Limusa. Mexico (1997).
HIMMELBLAU, D. [Link] Principles and Calculations in Chemical
Engineering6th ed. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
Spanish translation, 6th ed.: Material and energy balances. Prentice-
Hall Inc. (1999).
MASS BALANCES. MAIN CONCEPTS

Process: a series of actions, operations, or treatments that produce a transformation

physics or chemistry resulting in a product.
Process unit: equipment where each of the basic stages is carried out
unit operations that constitute the process.
Process flow: amount of matter or flow of inputs and outputs of the process or of
system subject of study.
Continuous process: there is a continuous flow of input and output from the process during the
time period in which the process is analyzed. These input and output flows
they possess a series of properties defined as constant over time (steady state)
or stationary) unless they are deliberately modified or being tuned.
the system (non-stationary or transient regime).
Discontinuous or intermittent process: there are no continuous flows of input and output.
process. It operates in batches, the unit is fed with a quantity of material,
a certain amount of time passes until the desired level of transformation is achieved and
subsequently, the system is evacuated (non-stationary or transient regime). During
This time interval is used to perform the integral material balance on the system.
Semicontinuous process: a type of process that is neither continuous nor discontinuous.
System: a part of the universe isolated as the subject of study. In the processes, it is defined the
system like the portion of it established specifically for its analysis.
Open system: a system in which there is a transfer of matter to or from it.
exterior through its border. (continuous processes).
Closed system: a system in which there is no transfer of matter to or from it.
exterior through its border during the time interval of interest (processes
discontinuous).
Isolated system: a closed system in which there is no transfer of energy through
its border lines.
Material balance: accounting for the material that enters and exits a process
carried out based on the conservation of matter principle.
Process flow diagram: schematic representation of the stages and lines of
process that constitutes the same.
Calculation basis: quantity of matter (discontinuous processes) or flow (processes
continuous) established for the resolution of the balance.
Key element: component preferably used as a calculation basis due to its
Purge: fraction of the output stream from a process unit that is purged from the
system to prevent the accumulation of material in that unit. Whenever there is a
a recirculation current must exist a purge current to maintain the system
in a permanent regime.
Bypass or diversion: fraction of a process stream that is diverted from the line of.
process to prevent their entry into a unit and is combined with the output flow of the
same.
Chemical equation: an equation that qualitatively and quantitatively describes a
chemical reaction. The perfectly balanced chemical equation allows for the establishment of the
stoichiometric relationships between all the involved species.
Limiting reagent: reagent that is present in the largest stoichiometric amount.
small.
Excess reagent: reagent that is in stoichiometric excess over the
limiting reagent.
Percentage of excess reagent: quotient of the number of moles of reagent in
excess over the stoichiometric and the number of moles of stoichiometric reactant
multiplied by 100. In combustion reactions, where the oxidizing agent (air or
pure oxygen) is usually the excess reagent, the stoichiometric amount is calculated
as the stoichiometrically necessary to give total combustion products (CO and 2
H2O).
Dry basis and wet basis composition: expression of molar fractions (or in
weight, or others used) considering (wet basis) or not (dry basis) the water. Very
used for gases from a combustor.
Fractional conversion (X): quotient of the number of moles of reactant consumed
and the number of moles of reactant fed (Percent conversion: conversion)
fraction multiplied by 100.
For systems with Chemical Reaction and Recirculation, conversion is distinguished by
step and global conversion:
Global conversion of A = (mol (or mass) A enters the process - mol (or mass) A leaves the process
process) / mol (or mass) of A enters the process
Conversion by step of A = (mol (or mass) A enters the reactor - mol (or mass) A exits the
reactor) / mol (or mass) of A enters the reactor

For systems with multiple reaction schemes:

A→ Main Reaction
MATERIAL BALANCE CALCULATIONS
Systematic procedure for the preparation of material balances:
Construction of the process flow diagram showing the values and the
units of known variables and unknowns represented by symbols
algebraic specifying their corresponding units. Definition of the system and/or
subsystems and mapping of the corresponding boundary lines (balance limit).

Selection of the calculation base. The calculation base is an amount (processes

discontinuous) or flow rate (continuous processes) of one of the streams of
process. If this amount is known, all other variables will be calculated in the
correct scale. If a calculation base has to be assumed because it is not specified in
the statement of the problem, a flow quantity is chosen whose composition (molar or
more) be known. The order of preference for choosing the calculation base is 1) a
amount of an inert component, 2) a flow of current of which the maximum is known
number of data, 3) an interval of time.

Identification of the unknowns through special labeling in the flowchart.

Establishing the linearly independent equations that can be formulated

among the unknowns:

Problem specifications.

Physical restrictions

Material balances on the species involved in the absence of reactions

Chemical balances can be proposed for as many chemical species as there are.
there are differences in the input and output flows of the process. For N species
N balances can be written, either for each of the species, or for
N-1 species and for the total mass (kg or moles).
Material balances concerning the species involved in the presence of reactions
chemicals: atomic balances (E=S) or molecular balances can be established
there is appearance or disappearance depending on whether it is a product or a
reactive). When several chemical reactions coexist, the preferable ones are the
atomic balances. It should be noted that although the total mass in kg
it must be preserved, the total mass in moles does not have to, since the
variation in the number of moles associated with the chemical reaction may be
distinct from zero. For processes consisting of several units, they are isolated.
Accounting of the problem: a problem has a solution if the number of unknowns is equal
to the number of linearly independent equations. If it is lower, the problem is
overspecified, and in the opposite case underspecified or not correctly formulated.
The difference between the number of unknowns and the number of equations linearly
independent ones are called degrees of freedom. If there are zero degrees of
freedom, the material balance problem is specified correctly.

If the calculation base used in the resolution does not match the amount
provided by the problem, the corresponding scaling must be carried out for
present the correct final result.
ENERGY BALANCES. FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS
Oneproperty(variable, parámetro) extensiveit is the one whose value is the sum of the
values for each of the subsystems that make up the complete system. For
For example, a gaseous system can be divided into two subsystems whose volumes or
masses are not the same as those of the original system; consequently, the volume and the
mass is an extensive property.

A property (variable, parámetro) intensive it is one whose value is not additive and not
varies with the amount of material contained in the subsystem. For example, the
temperature, pressure, density, etc. do not vary in the parts of the system if it is
divide in half or if the halves come back together.

The number of independent intensive properties necessary and sufficient to set the
the state of the system can be determined from the rule of phases :

The Gibbs phase rule it is useful for establishing how many properties, such as
pressure and temperature, it is necessary to specify in order to definitively set all the
remaining properties and the number of phases that can coexist in any system
[Link] rule can only be applied to systems in [Link] phase rule of
Gibbs tells us that:F = C – P + 2

F = number of degrees of freedom (that is, the number of independent properties

What is necessary to specify in order to determine all the intensive properties of each one?
of the phases of the interest system.

C = number of components in the system: in cases where reactions are involved

chemicals, Cit is notidentical to the number of chemical compounds in the system, but it is
equal to the number of chemical compounds minus the number of independent reactions
and other equilibrium relationships between these compounds.

P = number of phases that can exist in the system; a phase is a quantity

homogeneous material such as a gas, a pure liquid, a solution, or a solid
homogeneous.

The type of variables dealt with by the phase rule is calledvariables of

the rule of phases intensive properties
, and they are of the system (they do not depend on the
amount of material present.

StateThe given set of material properties at a given moment.

Types of Energy:

[Link] (W) is a form of energy that is transferred between the system and
the environment in response to any change that is not a temperature difference. No
It is possible to store [Link] work is positive if it is carried out on the system and
negative if the system operates over the environment.
The net work W done on an open system by its surroundings can
write as:
W = We+ Wf

Weexternal work , or the work done on the process fluid on one side
mobile within the system (e.g., a pump). Mechanical or electrical work that enters.

Wf workflow(pressure energy or work PV or flow energy), is the work

work done on the fluid at the input of the system minus the work done on the fluid at the
system output. Work to introduce and extract mass.

[Link] (Q) is commonly defined as the part of the total energy flow to
through the border of a system that is due to a temperature difference between the
system and its environment. Heat is not stored or created (it is not true that we have
"heat", we will have temperature). The direction of the flow is always from higher to lower.
[Link] is positive when it is transferred to the system from the surroundings and
negative when transferred from the system to the environmentHeat can be transferred by
conduction, convection or radiation. Heat, like work, is a function of
trajectory.

KINETIC [Link] energy (Ec) is the energy that a system possesses in

virtue of its relative speed with respect to the environment that is at rest.

Potential EnergyPotential energy (Ep) is the energy due to position.

of the system in a potential field (such as the gravitational field or the field
electromagnetic). It is the energy that a system possesses due to the force that a field
gravitational or electromagnetic exerts on it with respect to a reference surface.

INTERNAL ENERGY
The internal energy (U) is the energy due to motion of
the molecules with respect to the center of mass of the system, to the rotational motion and
vibration, to the electromagnetic interactions of molecules and to the movement and
interactions of the atomic or subatomic constituents of molecules. The energy
internal is a macroscopic measure of molecular, atomic, and subatomic energies,
all of which obey microscopic conservation rules. Since there are no
In order to calculate the enthalpy per unit mass, we take advantage of the property that the
Enthalpy is also an exact differential. In the case of a pure substance, the enthalpy
a single phase can be expressed exclusively in terms of temperature and the
ˆ
pressure (more convenient than specific volume): H= H (T, P). ˆ
If we obtain the total derivative of H, ˆwe can form an expression analogous to the
equation for internal energy:
⎛ ∂Ĥ ⎞ ⎛∂ ⎞
dHˆ = ⎜ ⎟ dT+ ⎜ Ĥ ⎟ dP
⎜ ∂T ⎟ ⎜ ∂P ⎟
⎝ ⎠P ⎝ ⎠T
⎛ ∂Ĥ ⎞
By definition, ⎜ ⎟
⎜ ∂T ⎟ it is the heat capacity at constant pressure, and it is denoted by the
⎝ ⎠P
⎛ ∂Ĥ ⎞
Cp symbol. For almost all practical purposes, ⎜ ⎟
⎜ ∂P ⎟ it is so small under pressures
⎝ ⎠T
moderate that we can ignore the second term of the right member of the
equation. Thus, we can calculate the changes in enthalpy if we integrate the equation as
continue
T2
ˆ 2− Hˆ =
H 1 ∫T1
CpdT
One property of ideal gases that we must highlight is that their enthalpies and their
internal energies are functions only of temperature, and they are not influenced by
pressure changes nor in the specific volume, respectively.
As in the case of internal energy, enthalpy does not have an absolute value; it only
we can evaluate your changesWe often use a set of conditions of
reference when calculating changes in enthalpy (standard state: 298 K and 1 atm). This does not
it means that the enthalpy is zero under those conditions, but simply that we have
an arbitrary value of zero is assigned to the enthalpy under such conditions. When
calculate the changes in enthalpy, the reference conditions cancel each other out, how can it be
next verse:
initial state of the system final state of the system
entalpía =H1ˆ− H refˆ entalpía =H2ˆ− H refˆ
ˆ H− ˆ)=
net enthalpy change =(H 2H ref)-( H ˆ −ˆ ˆ − Hˆ
H
1 ref 2 1

Thestandard enthalpy of formation("formation heat"), H, is ˆ 0 enthalpy for the

Δ the
f

formation of one mole of a compound from its constituent elements in the

standard state. By defining that the standard state formation heat is zero
for each elementit is possible to design a system to express the heats of
formation of all compounds at 25 ºC and 1 atm. the values of the heats of
Calculation of Heat Capacity
For ideal monatomic gases, the heat capacity at constant pressure is
constant regardless of temperature changes.
In ideal gas mixtures, the heat capacity (per mole) of the mixture at a
Temperature is the mole-weighted average of the heat capacities of the
components:
n
Cp=m x Cp ∑
i =1
i i xiit is the mole fraction of each of the components

Thus, the calculation of the change in enthalpy produced only by heating

Cooling of a mixture with known composition, once the capacity has been calculated.
the average calorific value of the mixture would be:
T2

∫ m(T)dT
ΔH1→2= Cp
T1

For non-ideal mixtures, especially liquids, data should be consulted.

experimental or use correlations.
The dependence of heat capacity on temperature for solids, liquids, and
2
gases are often of polynomial type (e.g.: Cp = a + bT + cT). Equations
empirical.
The specific heat can be obtained:
1) In the property books, data on average specific heats can be found.
(Ex. Table 5.1)
2) Correlations. E.g.: for foods: Siebel, Choi and Okos

SIEBEL CORRELATIONS (1918)

For fat-free vegetables and fruits, Siebel(1918) observed that the specific heat
(J/kg.K) varies with moisture content, being able to be determined as the average in
specific heat of water and the specific heat of solids.
A) For a grease-free material, with a mass fraction of water (M), the heat
specific to water
Above the freezing point is 1 BTU/lbm.°F (4186.8 J/kg.K) and for
non-fat solids is 0.2 BTU/lbm.°F (837.36 J/kg.K).
Cp m = 1 M+ 0.2(1− M) = 0.8 M+ 0.2 (BTU/lbm.ºF)
Cp m= 4186.8 M+ 837.36 (1- M) (J/kg.K)

A2) Below the freezing pointthe specific heat of ice is different than
the liquid water (0.3 BTU/lbm.ºF or 1256 J/kg.K):
Cpm= 0.3 M+ 0.2 (BTU/lbm.ºF)
Cp m =1256 +
M 837.36 (J/kg.K)

B) When there is fat

B1) Above the freezing point it can be estimated from F (fraction in

fat mass), SNF (mass fraction of non-fat solids) and M:
B2) Below the freezing point:
Cp m= 0.4 F+ 0.2 SNF+ 0.5 M(BTU/lbm.ºF)
Cpm= 1674.72 F + 837.36 SNF+ 42093.4 M (J/kg.K)

CHOI AND OKOS CORRELATIONS (1987).Tª en K y Cp en J/kg K

ProteinsCpp= 2008.2 + 1208.9 10-3T – 1312.9 10-6T2

FatCpF= 1984.2 + 1473.3 10-3T – 4800.8 10-6T2
Carbohydrates: CpC= 1548.8 + 1962.5 10-3T – 5939.9 10-6T2
FiberCpFi= 1845.9 + 1930.6 10-3T – 4650.9 10-6T2
Ashes: CpA= 1092.6 + 1889.6 10-3T – 3681.7 10-6T2
Water above the freezing point:
Cpwaf4176.2 – 9.0862 10-5T + 5473.1 10-6T2

The specific heat of the mixture above freezing is:

Cpm = P (Cpp) + F (CpF) + C (CpC) + Fi (CpFi) + A (CpA) + M (Cpwaf)
Where P, F, C, Fi, A, and M represent the mass fraction of protein, fat, carbohydrates
carbon, fiber, ashes and moisture respectively.
Phase diagram of water:
A phase diagram expresses the relationships between the different states of aggregation.
the temperature and the pressure.

Just like liquids, there is also a vapor pressure for solids.

gas phase in equilibrium with the solid phase.
In solids, the vapor pressure increases more rapidly with temperature than in liquids (higher
dependent on the O-B curve rather than the O-A curve
The triple point temperature is the temperature at which gas, liquid, and vapor coexist.
in balance.

P A
C

Liquid

Subcooled liquid Superheated vapor

1 atm

Solid
Vapor Saturated vapor + saturated liquid
Triple point (0)

B
O-A: liquid-vapor equilibrium (boiling points at different pressures), on this line of
Intersection the phases G and L have the same vapor pressure
O-B:solid-gas equilibrium (sublimation point at different pressures)
O-C: solid-liquid equilibrium (melting point at different pressures)

Triple point: Tª = 0.01 ºC, P = 611.73 Pa = 0.006 atm

Melting point (1 atm) = 0 ºC

The boiling point (1 atm) = 100 ºC

In the food industry, many times work is done at pressures lower than atmospheric.
(evaporators), at these pressures the transition of water to vapor phase, that is the temperature
the boiling point is lower than 100 ºC and therefore the alterations in the products
Food products affected by temperature will be lower.
MATERIAL BALANCE PROBLEMS.
1.- Determine the amount of sugar (on a dry basis) that can be produced at
starting from 100 kg of a sugar solution that contains 20% by weight of
sugar and 1% of water-soluble impurities. The solution is concentrated in
a 75% sugar, cooled to 20 ºC, centrifuged and the crystals dried

2.- In an evaporator, a solution enters and a concentrated material exits. If

I is the weight of the diluted material, W is the weight of the vaporized water, and C is the weight of the
focused. Write an equation that represents the mass in the system
(balance).

3.- Draw the flowchart for a crystallizer where 100 kg enters.

concentrated sugar containing 85% sucrose and 1% inert
soluble. When the temperature decreases, the sugar crystallizes. A centrifuge separates the
crystals of the liquid called "mother liquor". The flow of wet crystals
it has about 20% of its weight, a liquid with the same composition as the liquor
mother. The mother liquor contains 60% sucrose by weight.

4.- Draw the diagram and determine the compositions for a process in the
that are mixed, a part of pork (composed of 15% protein, 20%
fat and 63% water) and another part of the same animal (composed of 15%
water, 80% fat and 3% protein) to produce 100 kg of a mixture (Salami,
for example) that contains 25% fat.

5.- An evaporator has an evaporation capacity of 500 kg/h of water.

Calculate the production rate of concentrated juice containing 45%
solids from "raw" juice that contains 12% solids.

6.- A pilot evaporation plant in curtain has a capacity of

evaporation of 10 kg/h of water. The system consists of a heater through
from which the fluid flows downward in the form of a curtain and the heated fluid
it is discharged into a collector that operates under vacuum in which evaporation
"flash" reduces the temperature of the hot fluid to its boiling point.
In a continuous operation, a pump recirculates part of the concentrate from
reservoir (storage) with the supply of concentrate, and drives the
mixes through the exchanger. The pump drives 20 kg/h of fluid. The
the collector fluid must be at the desired concentration for the
evaporator operates continuously. If the feed consists of 5.5%
solids and it needs to be concentrated to 25%, calculate:
a) feed flow rate and production of concentrate
b) Amount of recirculated concentrate
c) Concentration of the feed mixture and recirculated concentrate
8.- The density of absolute ethanol is 0.7893 g/cm3. The density of a
A solution containing 60% by weight of ethanol has a density of 0.8911 g/cm3. Calculate.
the volume of absolute ethanol that must be diluted with water to produce 1 liter
solution with 60% by weight of ethanol. Check that the volumes do not
they are additives.

9.- The potato dries from 14% total solids to 93%. What is the
product obtained for every 1000 kg of potatoes knowing that 8% is lost
weight in the peeling? (Start with 1000 kg of whole potatoes).

10.- 1000 kg of soybean seed with a composition of 18% oil,

35% protein, 27.1% carbohydrates, 9.4% fiber and ash and a
10.5% humidity is:
They grind and press, which reduces the oil content to 6%.
- Extracted with hexane to produce a flour that contains 0.5%
oil
They are dried until they contain only 8% moisture.
Assuming that there is no loss of proteins and water in the oil, let it be done.
a material balance of the components of soybean seeds.

11.- Bakery yeast grows in a continuous fermentation system

what uses a 20 m fermenter3of volume, being the time of
16-hour residence. A 2% volume of culture medium is added.
sow with 1.2% yeasts. This medium is added to the fermenter, in the
that the yeasts double their mass in a time of 2.9 hours. The broth
abandon the fermenter and move to a continuous centrifuge that produces a
yeast paste with 7% yeasts, which make up 97% of the total existing
in the broth. Calculate the flow rate of the yeast paste and the broth
residual from the centrifuge.

12.- An alcohol distillation unit is fed by two streams, to

know: - Fl= 136 kg/h, 45% alcohol, 55% water (w), F2= 240 kg/h, 20%
alcohol, 80% water (w). The distillate contains 95% alcohol and the waste
contains 5% alcohol. Find yourself:
a) Distillate flow regime (kg/h)
b) Alcohol removed in the waste vein (kg/h)

13.- A natural gas that contains 78% CH.4, 14% of C2 H40.5% of C02y
7.5% of N2in volume it burns with an excess of 40% more air
regarding the stoichiometric. In the exhaust gases, it is found by
volumetric analysis C02/CO = 3. Determine the quantities
14.- The following scheme describes a process for the separation of CINa and CIK.
contents in an aqueous solution.

Evaporator Crystallizer

Pure NaCl pure KCl

A aqueous solution containing 10% of CINa is introduced into the system.

and 3% of CIK, with a flow rate of 18400 kg/h.
The stream that exits the evaporator and is introduced into the crystallizer
contains 16.8% of CINa and what comes out of the crystallizer and is recycled contains
18.9% of CINa. Calculate:
a) The amount of pure CINa and CIK obtained per hour and the flow rate
of evaporated water.
b) The flow of the current from the evaporator to the crystallizer and the
flow rate of the recycling stream.
NOTE: the % represents the weight.

15. In the manufacturing of Hydrochloric Acid, a gas is obtained that contains a

25% HCl and 75% air by volume. This gas is passed through a
absorption system in which 98% of HCI is separated. The gas enters the
system at a temperature of 120 °F and a pressure of 743 mm Hg and exits to
una temperatura de 80 °F y una presión de 738 mm Hg.
Calculate:
a) The volume of gas that exits for every 100 ft3that enter the device of
absorption.
b) The percentage of the volume composition of the gases that are emitted from
absorption device.
c) The weight of HCI extracted per 100 ft3of gas that enters the device of
absorption.

16.- Calcium hypochlorite (CaClO2occurs due to the absorption of chlorine in a

lime milk. A gas produced by the Deacon method for obtaining
chlorine (Cl)2) enters the absorption apparatus at a pressure of 740 mm of Hg and
a temperature of 75 °F. The partial pressure of chlorine is 50 mm Hg, being the
balance due to the inert gases. The gas exits the absorption device at a
temperature of 80 °F and pressure of 743 mm Hg, with a partial pressure of
chlorine of 0.5 mm Hg. Calculate:
In a commercial unit of FCC, 20,000 are processed daily.
barrels/day of diesel (1 barrel = 159 liters), resulting in a conversion of
80% diesel. The selectivity to gasoline is 58% and the yield to coke.
It is 5%. The coke (carbonaceous residue) has an empirical formula CH.0.8 . He
uses a 5% excess of air over the stoichiometric amount necessary to
burn the coke produced to C02y [Link]:
a) Mass flow of cracking gases by
day.
b) Gasoline production.
c) Composition of the gases leaving the regenerator
(combustor).
Datos: Densidad del gasoil = 0.89 kg/1.

18.- A solid that contains 18% water by weight is dried with air until a
moisture content of 4%, as shown in the following diagram.
The new incoming air contains 0.005 kg of water/kg of dry air. The air
recirculated contains 0.08 kg of water/dry air, and the air that enters the
dryer 0.02 kg of water/kg of dry air.
Calculate:
a) The kg of air that is recirculated per kg of solid fed
b) the kg of fresh air required per kg of solid feed

Air Outlet
DRYING RACK New air

Solid entry Solid output

19.- From an aqueous solution that contains 8% citric acid and 92% water
Citric acid is extracted using benzene as a selective solvent.
After an intimate mixture of benzene with the aqueous solution of acid
citrus, it is left to rest and two layers are separated. The formed layers are
They are pumped into their respective tanks, and the acid is recovered afterwards.
citrus and the benzene from the benzene layer. The benzene layer and the aqueous layer
from this process they provide the following weight analysis:
Benzene cover: 85% benzene 15% citric acid
Water-based cover: 1.0% benceno 1.5% ácido cítrico 97.5% agua
Until recently, the biggest flaw of orange juice
concentrated was the loss of flavor, resulting from the removal of certain
volatile components during the evaporation stage. It has currently been
overcome this difficulty by using pressure evaporators
reduced, in which the juice is concentrated at temperatures around 26 to
30 °C. In a facility for the production of orange concentrate, the
fresh juice from the extractor, containing 12.5% solids, passes
through a clarifying juice system that results in three currents
different, one of pulp retaining some juice, which can be disregarded and
two more clarified juice but of different concentration. The first, which
represents 80% (w) of the fresh juice fed to the clarifying system, passes
to the evaporators; the second, of different concentration, and which contains the
20% of the juice fed into the system does not pass through the evaporators, but
is later mixed with the concentrated juice, coming from these (that
contains 58% of the solids) in order to obtain a final product with a
42% weight concentration of solids.

Calculate:
a) The weight of water evaporated for every 100 kg of fresh juice fed.
b) The concentration of solids in each of the two streams that exit
of the clarifier.
c) The weight ratio of concentrated to non-concentrated that is mixed for
give final current.

21.- A liquor manufacturer is having many problems with his distillation. In the
The attached figure shows the diagram of the operation of this process.
distillation
The manufacturer has deemed that it loses too much alcohol in the residue.
22.- In a jam factory, the crushed fruit (which contains 14% of
soluble solids) is mixed with enough sugar to give a mixture of 45
parts of fruit for 55 parts of sugar, adding pectin at the same time
(in a ratio of 210 g of pectin for every 100 kg of sugar). A
continuation in an intermittent evaporator, water is removed until the
soluble solids constitute 67% of the total.
Determine the yield of jam obtained, expressing it as
yield in kg of jam obtained per kg of fruit fed.
Note: Consider sugar and pectin as soluble solids.

23.- Methane burns with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and

water. The feed contains 20% in mol of CH.460% of 02and 20% of
C02and a conversion of the limiting reagent of 90% is achieved. Calculate the
molar composition of the product flow using (1) the balances of
molecular species and (2) the balances of atomic species.

24.- An emission gas contains 60% by mole of N.215% of C0210% of

02and the rest of H2O. Calculate the molar and weight composition of the gas above
a dry base.

25.- A combustion reactor is fed with 100 moles per hour of

butane (C4H105000 moles per hour of air. Calculate the percentage of air in
excess.

26.- Ethane is burned (C2H6with a 50% excess air. The percentage of

The conversion of ethane is 90%; of the burned ethane, 25% reacts.
to form CO, and the rest to form C02Calculate the composition of the gas
of emission and the relationship between wet emission gas and dry.

27.- Butane gas (C is introduced into a burner.4H10with a 25% excess

of air over the stoichiometric. If 85 m are burned3/h measured at 20 °C and
760 mm of Hg. How much air is required under the same conditions?
What will be the composition of the outgoing gases?; What is the flow rate of the
exit gases if they are at 800 °C and 1 atm?

28.- Below is the labeled flowchart for a

continuous distillation process in steady state of two units.
Each flow contains two components, A and B, in different proportions.
The three flows whose flow velocities and/or compositions
they are unknown, they are labeled with the numbers 1, 2.
Calculate the unknown flow velocities and the compositions of the
labeled flows 1, 2 and 3
 40 kg/h 30 kg/h

0.900 kg A/kg 0.600 kg A/kg

0.100 kB 0.400 kg B/kg

100 kg/h 1 2 3
0.500 kg A/kg
0.500 kg B/kg
0.300 kg A/kg
0.700 kB
30 kg/h

29.- Below is the flowchart of a process in

permanent regime for the recovery of crystalline potassium chromate
(K2CrO4 from an aqueous solution of this salt.
H2O

K Filtering2CrO4
solid crystals
4500 kg/h 49.4% K2CrO4
EVAPORATOR CRYSTALLIZER
33.3 % K2Chromium(II) oxide4 AND FILTER
36.36% solution of
K2chromium oxide4(the crystals
they constitute 95% in
masa del filtrado)
Filtration, solution at 36.36% K2CrO4

4500 kg/h of a solution that contains 1/3 of K are combined.2CrO4in

mass, and a recirculation flow that contains 36.36% of K2CrO4the flow
combined feeds an evaporator. The concentrated flow that comes out of
evaporator contains 49.4% K2CrO4this flow feeds a crystallizer,
where it is cooled (producing the precipitation of K crystals2CrO4A
starting from the dissolution) and then it is filtered. The filtrate consists of crystals
of K2CrO4and a solution that contains 36.36% by mass of K2CrO4the
crystals represent 95% of the total mass of the filtrate. The solution
what passes through the filter, which also contains 36.36% of K2chromium oxide4, it is the
recirculation flow.
Calculate the weight of water extracted in the evaporator, the speed of
production of K2CrO4crystalline, the quotient (kg of recirculated flow / kg of
fresh feeding) and the feeding speeds with which they must
design the evaporator and the crystallizer.
31.- The wet sugar that contains 20% water is passed to a dryer,
where 75% of the water is withdrawn.
a) Taking 100 kg of food as a base, calculate the fraction in
dry sugar mass in the wet sugar that comes out of the dryer
b) Calculate the quotient (kg of H2 Or withdrawal/kg of wet sugar that
the dryer outlet
c) If the dryer is fed with 1000 tons/day of wet sugar, what
amount of additional water must be removed from the output sugar to
dry it completely, and what benefit is obtained if the sugar is dry
Is it sold for $0.25/lb?

32.-Carbon disulfide is separated from a gas that contains 15.0% in

mole of CS217.8% of O2and 67.2% of N2The gas powers a tower of
continuous absorption where it comes into contact with benzene, which absorbs
the CS2but not the O2neither the N2 Benzene feeds the column in a
mole ratio of 2:1 with respect to the feed gas. The gas that
The output from the absorption tower contains 2% CS.22% of benzene.
Calculate the fraction of the CS2What did the column that separates feed on?
in the outlet flow liquid, the mole fraction of CS2in this flow and the
fraction of benzene used to feed the column that is lost in the
product in vapor form.

33.- Alunite is a compound that contains aluminum with the formula

3Al2O3·K2O·4SO3·6H2An analysis of a mineral that contains alunite
sample containing 23% by weight of alumina (Al2O3The ore is treated
chemically to precipitate the majority of aluminum as Al(OH)3 .
The precipitate is separated and roasted to produce alumina, which is
dissolve later in a bath of molten salt, and electrolysis is carried out
to obtain pure aluminum. About 88% of the aluminum is recovered
in the ore as metal. Calculate the metric tons of ore
required to produce one metric ton of aluminum.

34.- Seawater, which contains 3.50% by weight of salt, passes through

a series of 10 evaporators. In each of the 10 units, evaporation occurs
approximately the same amount of water, which then condenses and
is combined to obtain a flow of products that is pure water. The
Brine at the outlet of the last evaporator contains 5.00% by weight of salt.
If the process is fed with 30000 kg/h of seawater, calculate the
fractional yield of pure water and the weight percentage of salt in the
solution that comes out of the fourth evaporator.

35.- A distillation unit consisting of two columns is fed

with a liquid mixture containing 30% by mole of benzene (B), 25% of
36.- A gas flow containing 25% by mole of CO2and 75% of CH4himself
it deals with a gas conditioning plant. The flow feeds a
absorber at a speed of 50 kmol/h and comes into contact, within
this, with a liquid solvent that contains 0.500% by mol of CO2
dissolved and the rest of methanol. The gas that comes out of the absorber contains
1.00% in mol of CO2and essentially all the methane that fed the
unit. The solvent rich in CO2what comes out of the absorber feeds a
absorption tower; in it, it is brought into contact with a flow of nitrogen,
extracting 90% of the CO2dissolved. The regenerated solvent is circulated
to the absorption column. It can be assumed that methanol is not volatile, this
Yes, it is not in the vapor phase in any process unit.
a) Calculate the fractional extraction of CO2(moles absorbed/moles of the
feeding), the molar flow rate and the composition of the
liquid feed of the absorption column
b) Calculate the required molar feed velocity of the absorber.
to produce a flow rate of absorbed products of 1000
kg/h

37.- A gasoline plant in Oklahoma produces gasoline by elimination of

the condensable vapors of the gas that flows from the gas wells. The well gas
it has the following composition:

%
CH4 77.3
C2H6 14.9
C3H8 3.6
Iso y n-C4H10 1.6
C5and heavier 0.5
N2 2.1
This gas passes through an absorption column called a scrubber, in
where it is washed with heavy and non-volatile oil. The gas that comes out of the scrubber
present the following analysis:

%
CH4 92.0
C2H6 5.5
N2 2.5
The washing oil does not absorb either CH.4in
N2, although it does eliminate a large part of the
ethane, all the propane and higher hydrocarbons that contain it
well gas flow, The oil flow is then sent to a
purification column that separates the oil from the absorbed hydrocarbons.
The distillate from the purification column is called gasoline.
natural, while the residue is called thin oil.
The thin oil flow is cooled and sent to the absorption column.
 WASHING GAS

Thin Oil

distilled
L
A GASOLINE
V NATURAL
A
D
O P
R U
R
I
F
I
Well Gas OIL C
ENRICHED A
D RESIDUE
O
R

38.- A helium separation plant by diffusion through membranes is

represent in the following diagram with its corresponding data of
composition of some currents.
The weight of the gas mixture that passes through each membrane can be taken
equal to 30% of the gas mixture that reaches it
The percentage of the composition of the different mixtures is by weight.
Calculate:
a) The composition of the gas mixture that comes out after passing through the
membrane of each cell.
b) The percentage of He relative to the feed obtained in each of
the products.
c) Kg of He in the rejection per 100 kg of fed mixture.

LINE (I) LINE (II)

FOOD

50% He
50% N2 PRODUCT I

42 % He 60% He
58 % N2 40 % N2
39.- To produce activated carbon for absorption, it has been distilled
destructively and the coconut shells have been treated with steam.
gas produced in this plant is 300 m3/h at 450 ºC and 1 atm with the following
analysis

%
N2 10.0
CO2 5.0
H2O 15.0
H2 20.0
CO 25.0
NH3 20.0
C2H6 5.0

Before absorbing the NH3In sulfuric acid, the gases are cooled to 65ºC in a
heat exchanger. This results in the removal of 90% of steam from
water by condensation.
The ammonia absorbed by the water vapor is disregarded. The absorption of
NH3and the separation of the rest of the water vapor takes place afterwards by
absorption in sulfuric acid solution and cooling.
The gas is supposed to behave like a perfect gas.
Calculate:
a) Average molecular weight of the original gas, including water vapor.
b) The specific volume of the gas produced in the process at the temperature
at 450 ºC and 1 atm, expressed in m3/kg.
c) The weight of the gas, including water vapor, produced in the process,
expressed in kg/h.
d) The weight of condensed water in the heat exchanger in kg/h.
e) The volume of the gas, including the residual vapor, that comes out of
heat exchanger at 65ºC and 1 atm, expressed in m3/h.
f) The composition in % by volume of the gas that leaves the absorber,
assuming a total absorption of NH3what goes into the absorber.

40.- A new power supply along with the recirculation gas, with a
composition:

%
NO2 48
NO3 48
CO2 4

entra en un absorbedor donde se separa la mitad del NO2and half of the NO3
what it contains.
A portion of the current that leaves the absorber is recirculated and the rest is
41.- To make dry ice, a flue gas rich in CO is used.2The
analysis of dry chimney gas is:

%
CO2 17.4
O2 3.6
N2 79.0
This gas is cooled before being absorbed, passing it through a heat exchanger.
heat. The analysis of the gas before entering the absorber gives: CO214.1% and the
the rest is made up of O2y N2It is suspected that there is an air intake to the
gas while passing through the heat exchanger, so the measurements are taken
gas flows before entering and after exiting the heat exchanger,
obtaining the following data:
Chimney gas entry in a time of two minutes: 1500m3300 °C
y 750 mmHg.
Chimney gas output in two minutes: 960 m3at 15ºC and 730
mmHg.
It is desired to know if the suspicion of air entering during the
cooling, if there is an error in the gas analysis at the entrance of the absorber,
or if both things occur. Also determine the effectiveness of the absorber and the
CO recovery2for now.

42.-In a continuous dryer consisting of two furnaces installed in series, there

dry a wet material that contains 10% solids and 90% water. The
product at the output of 1eroven contains 20% water, and in the second
oven reduces its humidity to 2%.
If the drying capacity is 1000 kg/day, calculate:
a) The percentage of initial water that is eliminated in each furnace.
b) The weight of the product that comes out of each of the ovens daily.
HEAT BALANCE PROBLEMS.
1.- Suppose that an ideal gas at 300 K and 200 kPa is confined in a cylinder.
through a frictionless piston, and the gas slowly pushes the piston of
the gas volume expands from 0.1 to 0.2 m3. Calculate the
work done by the gas on the piston (the only part of the boundary that is
move) if two different paths are followed to go from the initial state to the state
final
Path A: the expansion occurs at constant pressure (P=200 kPa)
Path B: the expansion takes place at constant temperature (T=300 K)

2.- Water is pumped from a storage tank to a tube with a

inner diameter of 3.00 cm at a rate of 0.001 m3/s What is the energy
specific kinetics for water?

3.- Water is pumped from one tank to another that is 300 ft away.
The water level in the second tank is 40 ft above the water level in
the first tank. How much did the specific energy power of the water increase?
in BTU/lb?

4.- Calculate the specific heat of a beef steak that contains 15

proteins, 20% fat and 65% water.

5.- Calculate the specific heat of concentrated orange juice, with a

solid content of 45%.

6.- Calculate the heat required to raise the temperature of 4.535 kg of

meat that contains 15% protein, 20% fat, and 65% water at 4.44 °C
hasta 65.55 °C. Expresa esta energía en a) BTU, b) J, c) W h

7.- At what vacuum should water be boiling at 80 °F? Express this

pressure in:
a) inches (inch) of vacuum mercury. (1atm = 30 inch Hg).
absolute pressure in Pa
8.- 5 kg of ice at -10 °C is heated until it melts, transforming into water.
liquid at 0 °C; then additional heat is supplied to transform the water
liquid to vapor. The saturated vapor exits at 100 °C. Calculate the change in
enthalpy of the complete process. The specific heat of ice is 2.05 kJ/kg K.
the specific heat of liquid water is 4.182 kJ/kg K, the latent heat of fusion is
333.2 kJ/kg and the latent heat of vaporization at 100 °C is 2257.6 kJ/kg.

9.- Calculate the amount of steam at 121.1 °C (250 °F) that must be added to 100
kg of a food product with a specific heat of 3559 J/kg K for
heat the product from 4.44 °C (40 °F) to 82.2 °C (180 °F) by injection
a vacuum of 25 inch Hg, with atmospheric pressure being 30 inch Hg.
How much apple juice can be processed per hour?

11.- Freeze-drying (lyophilization) is a technique for dehydrating.

substances at low temperatures, which prevent degradation that can
to provoke heating. The substance to be dried cools to a temperature
in which all the water present is transformed into ice. The substance
frozen is then placed in a vacuum chamber and can be applied to a
radiative heating or microwave; the ice in the food sublimates and
The steam is extracted by means of a vacuum pump.
Freeze-drying meat fillets in a chamber
heating at a pressure of 1 torr (1 mm of Hg). The fillets, which
they contain 72% water by mass, enter the chamber at -26 °C at a
speed of 50 kg/min. Of the water that enters with the fillets, 96% comes out as
vapor at 60 °C; the rest comes out with the fillets in liquid phase at 50 °C. Use the
data provided below and the values of latent heat and enthalpies
tables for water to calculate the heat that must be added to the
camera in kW.
Cpice2.17 J/g °C; Cpdried meat= 1.38 J/g ºC
λfusion, 0°C 333.2 kJ/kg

12.- Calculate the amount of water that should be supplied to a heat exchanger.
cooling heat of 100 kg/h of crushed tomatoes from 90 °C to 20 °C.
Crushed tomato contains 40% solids. The increase in temperature
The water temperature must not exceed 10 °C when passing through the heat exchanger.
Note - There is no mixture of tomato and water in the Heat Exchanger (or HX -
from English Heat Exchanger).
Data. Cpt someone= 3349 M + 837.36 [J/kg K] where M = so much for one of water
in weight.
Ta hIavenetred= T1= 20 ºC

13.- Calculate the amount of saturated steam at 121.1 °C that is needed

supply hourly to a dehydrator. In the air heater, this is
heats by condensing water vapor at 121.1 °C (only condenses).
The dehydrator operates as follows: Some apples at 21.1 °C enter
to the dehydrator with 80% humidity and leave it at 37.7 °C and 10%
of humidity. The production rate of the dryer is set at 45.4 kg/h (100
lb/h) of fresh apples.
The fresh air enters at 21.1 °C into the heater with a humidity of 0.002 kg
water/kg of dry air that enters the dryer. The hot air leaves the
drying at 43.3 °C and with a humidity of 0.04 kg water/kg dry air. This
air mixes with hot air from the dryer, producing a
current at 76.7 °C.
14.- An iron mineral (pyrite) that contains 85% FeS2and 15.0% off
(inert earth, rocks, etc.), it is roasted with an amount of air equivalent to a
200% excess air according to the reaction:
4 iron sulfide2+11 O2→2 Fe2O3+ 8 SO2
with the aim of producing OS2. The whole gang, along with the Faith2O3they are going to give the
solid waste product (ash) that has an analysis of 4.0% FeS2.
Determine the heat transfer per kilogram of ore necessary to
keep the product flow at 25 ºC if the inlet flows are at
25 ºC.

Datos: Pm (Fe)=55.85 g/mol, Pm (S)=32 g/mol,

ΔHf (FeS2) = -177.9 kJ/mol
ΔHf (Fe2O3-822.156 kJ/mol
ΔHf(SO2-296.90 kJ/mol
ΔHf(O2)= 0

15.- Carbon monoxide burns completely at 50ºF and a pressure of 2

atm with 50% excess air at 1000 ºF. The products of the
combustion exits the combustion chamber at 800 ºF. Calculate the heat
generated in the combustion chamber expressed in BTU/lb of CO entering.

Data:

ˆ (BTU/lb-mol) Reference state: Tª = 32 ºF

ΔH
Tª (ºF) CO O2 N2 CO2
50 125.2 -- -- --
77 313.3 315.1 312.2 392.2
800 5484 5690 5443 8026
1000 6993 7288 6929 10477

ˆ f(BTU/lb-mol) Reference state: Tª = 77 ºF and 1atm

ΔH
CO O2 N2 CO2

-47587 0 0 -169435
 Solutions to Balance Problems
A) Material balances
1.- 20 kg sugar (dry crystals)
2.- I-W = C
3.- Licor madre = 22 kg (60% sacarosa = 13.2 kg, 2.66% impurezas = 0.58 kg, 37.34 %
agua = 8.215 kg)
Cristales húmedos = 78 kg (80 % cristales secos = 62.4 kg, 20 % licor madre (9.36 kg
sucrose, 0.415 kg impurities, 5.825 kg water
4.- 1st part of the pig = 91.67 kg
2nd part of the pig rich in fat = 8.33 kg
Mix (14% protein and 61% water)
5.- Production rate = 181.82 kg/h
6.- a) F = 12.82 kg/h, producción = 2.82 kg/h
b) R = 7.18 kg/h
c) 12.5 % solids in R + F
7.- 4.5% fat, 3.35% protein, 4.88% carbohydrates, 86.52% water, and 0.75% ash
8.- Pure vetanol = 0.677 l
V agua = 0.3567 l
9.- 138.5 kg of dry potatoes
10.- All quantities in kg
Proteína Carbohidratos Fibra cenizas Humedad Total Oil
Seed
soy 350 271 94 105 180 1000
Entry to
extraction 350 271 94 105 52.3 872.3
Entrance to
dried 350 271 94 105 4.1 824.1
Product
drying 350 271 94 62.5 4.1 781.6

11.- 190.8 kg/h yeast paste; 1059.2 kg/h wastewater

14.- a) 1840 kg/h pure NaCl, 552 kg/h pure KCl and 16008 kg/h H2The evaporated b) 4968
4416 kg/h flow from the evaporator to the crystallizer and 4416 kg/h recycle stream
15.-a) 70.74 ft3b) 0.66% HCl; 99.34% air; c) 937 g of HCl
16.- a) 93.7 ft3b) 541.6 g Cl2absorbed
17.- a) 809437.2 kg gas/día; b) 1313213 kg gasolina/día; c) Composición (% vol): 0.97
% 0276.45 % N216.13 % CO2y 6.45 % H2O.
18.- a) 0.51 kg aire recirculado/kg sólido alimentado; b) 1.97 kg aire nuevo/kg sólido
fed
19.- a) 82.31 % b) 2.47
20.- a) 70.24 kg of evaporated water b) 7.08 % y 34.20 % c) 0.49
21.- a) Residuo: 3.9 % EtOH y 96.1 % H2O;b) 35.10
22.- 2.04 kg jam/kg fruit fed
23.- 2% CH4, 24 % O2, 38% CO2, 36% H2O
24.- In moles: 70.6% N217.6% CO211.8 % O2
In weight: 63.16% N224.81% CO212.03 % O2
25.- 61.54% excess air
26.- a) 0.375 % C2H674.0% N28.7% O2, 1.69 % CO, 5.06 % CO210.12% H2O; b)
Wet gas/Dry gas = 1.11
27.- a) 136.81 moles aire; b) 74.2 % N23.95 % O2, 9.71 % CO212.14 % H2O
28.- 1) 60 kg/h, 0.233 kg A/kg; 2) 90 kg/h, 0.256 kg A/kg; 3) 60 kg/h, 0.084 kg A/kg
29.- Agua extraída = 2953.25 kg/h; caudal másico cristales = 1470.4 kg/h;
kg Reciclo/kg alimentación fresca = 1.25; Alimentación evaporador = 10128 kg/h;
Feeding to the crystallizer = 7176 kg/h
30.- a) 6 mol/h; b) yH2O0.0143
31.- a) xsugar= 0.94, b) kg water retained/kg wet sugar output = 0.176;
c) 51 tons of water/day and benefit = 4.4 105$

32.- a) 0.846, b) 0.00885

33.- 9.3 Ton mineral
38.- a) output 1st cell: 68.7% He and 31.3% N2output 2nd cell: 89% He and 11% N2
Output 3rd cell: 95% He and 5% N2; b) Producto I: 16.02 %, Producto II: 51.9 %; c)
15.925 kg of He in the Reject/100 kg of feed
39.- a) 19.9 g/mol, b) 2.98 m3{"a":"/kg","b":"100.7 kg/h","c":"12.3 kg/h","d":"121.31 m"}3/h, f) 15.4 %
N27.7% CO230.8% H238.5% CO, 7.7% C2H6
40.- a) 0.5, b) 0.28
41.- If it is true, air that enters = 3.775 kmol/min. The efficiency cannot be determined.
From the absorber, data is missing (underspecified problem). Composition at the exit of
interchanger: andO2= 0.069, yN2= 0.79
42.- a) Horno 1º: 97.22 %, Horno 2º: 2.55 %; b) Horno 1º: 125 kg/día, Horno 2º: 102
kg/day
B) Energy balances
1.- Trayectoria A: -20 kJ, Trayectoria B: -13.86 kJ
ˆ = 1 J/kg
2.- Ec

ˆ 0.0515 BTU/lb
3.- Ep

4.- Siebel: 3170 J/kg K; Choi y Okos: 3767.6 J/kg K

5.- Siebel: 2679.5 J/kg K
6.- Siebel: 881840 J = 840 BTU; Choi y Okos: 1049758.6 J = 1000 BTU
7.- a) vacío de 28.89 inch Hg, b) Pabs = 3493 Pa
8.- 15147.5 kJ
9.- a) 460.7 kg; b) 11.72 kg
10.- 126.4 lb/h (57.3 kg/h)
11.- 1766.4 kW
12.- 476 kg water/h
13.- 49.48 kg saturated vapor (121.1 ºC)/h
14. - Q = -5660 J/kg mineral (5660 J/kg of mineral needs to be removed from the system)

15.- Q = -122110 BTU/mol CO