Direct:

Borrowing

● Using words/expressions directly from other languages

● Loan word or borrowed phrase purely or without change

● Same as naturalization procedure

● Word/phrase taken from one language and used in another

● Lexical borrowing: word adapted for use in another language

Calque:

● Loan translation or borrowing

● Translates morpheme/word of one language into equivalent in another

● Literally translates foreign word/phrase lexically and structurally

● Word/phrase borrowed from other languages using literal/word-for-word

translation

● Translating components of a word/phrase to create new lexeme in target language

Literal Translation:

● Word by word translation technique

● Translates a word or expression word by word

● Translates word-by-word based on function and meaning at sentence level

Indirect
1. Transposition:

● Indirect translation technique

● Changes a grammatical category

● Similar to 'shift'

● Involves changing grammatical forms from SL to TL

 ● Types include compulsory/automatic, grammatical structural, due to reasonable
expressions, and transposing language units

2. Modulation:

● Indirect technique of translation

● Changes point of view, focus, or cognitive categories

● Changes existing in SL both lexically and structurally

● Divided into compulsory and free modulation

● Compulsory: must be carried out if original words/phrases lack TL equivalent

● Free: usually for nonlinguistic reasons (clarify meaning, connect relationships,

natural equivalents)

3. Compensation:

● Introduces ST element of information or stylistic effect to TT

● Used when ST element cannot be replaced in the same place in TT

● Substitutes for impossible information from SL to TL

● Reveals something lost in SL to be available in TL

● Makes good in one part of text something untranslatable in another

● Creates an element exactly as part of ST that cannot be translated in TT

4. Adaptation:

● Tool in translation

● Used for cultural differences

● Cuts confusion, prevents misunderstanding

● Adapting confused expression with localization

● Not literal translation

● Cultural equivalence

● Replaces SL cultural element with compatible TL cultural element

● Substitutes cultural realities/scenarios

 ● Shift in cultural environment

● Changing cultural reference when SL situation doesn't exist in TL

● Similar to cultural term replacement

● Manipulating terms from SL to TL

5. Description
 The "description" technique explains culture-specific terms with free phrases when no
direct equivalent exists.
6. Discursive Creation
 Discursive creation invents unpredictable, context-specific equivalents—often used in
titles or culturally unique expressions.
7. Established equivalent
 Established equivalent uses fixed dictionary or commonly accepted terms as standard
translations between languages.
8. . Generalization
 Generalization replaces specific source language terms with broader or more neutral
expressions in the target language when no direct equivalent exists.
9. Particularization
 Particularization is like generalization, but in reverse—it uses more specific, detailed
terms instead of broader ones.
10. Reduction
 Reduction omits redundant or already implied information in the target language to
avoid repetition and maintain clarity.
11. Substitution
 Replaces linguistic elements (like words) with paralinguistic cues, such as gestures or
intonation, especially when language alone doesn't carry the full cultural meaning.
12. Variation
 Adapts linguistic features (tone, style, dialect) to suit a different audience, context, or
medium—often changing the register or formality level.
Structural Techniques
1. Transposition:
● Changing the grammatical structure from source to target language
● Example: noun → verb, adjective → adverb
● Keeps the message but changes the form
2. Replacement:
● Replacing cultural references with ones familiar to the target audience
● Focuses on functional rather than literal equivalence
● Ensures clarity and relevance in translation
3. Addition:
● Inserting extra words or phrases for clarification
● Adds necessary information implied in the original
● Helps the reader fully understand the meaning
 4. Omission:
● Leaving out unnecessary or redundant elements
● Removes content not relevant or natural in the target language
● Maintains overall coherence and fluency

9 techniques
1. Concretization:
● Using more specific terms in the target language
● Makes abstract ideas clearer and more vivid
● Enhances understanding and imagery
2. Generalization:
● Using broader or more general terms in translation
● Simplifies complex or unfamiliar concepts
● Adapts specific items to target audience knowledge
3. Simile:
● A comparison using “like” or “as”
● Highlights similarities between two different things
● A direct and clear figure of speech
4. Metaphor:
● An implied comparison without using “like” or “as”
● Attributes qualities of one thing to another
● Enhances imagery and expression
5. Hyperbole:
● Extreme exaggeration used for emphasis
● Not meant to be taken literally
● Common in speech and literature
6. Synecdoche:
● A part represents the whole or the whole represents a part
● A subtype of metaphor involving inclusion
● Makes language more concise and expressive
7. Antonymic:
● Use of opposite words or ideas for contrast
● Emphasizes differences to highlight meaning
● Creates rhetorical balance or dramatic effect
8. Metonymy:
● Substitution of a related term for the original word
● Based on logical or contextual association
● Enhances implication and vividness
9. Euphemism:
● Mild or indirect expression for something unpleasant
● Used to soften harsh or sensitive topics
● Adds politeness and subtlety to language