Govt Islamia

College Chiniot
Saqlain Ahmad

Prepared By: Saqlain Ahmad

12th PHYSICS NOTES

Physics Made Easy – Your Key to
Success

Reviewed by: Reviewed by: Reviewed by:

Prof. Irfan Elahi Prof. Sana Ullah Prof. Naeem Haral
12th Physics Notes Prof. Irfan Elahi

CHAPTER # 12 — ELECTROSTATICS
Electrostatics: The branch of physics that deals with the study of charges at rest is known as electrostatics.

Electric force: The force of attraction or repulsion between two-point charges is called electric force. Like
charges repel each other (repulsion) and unlike charge attract each other (attraction).

Coulomb’s Law
Coulomb’s law: The quantitative measurement of electrostatic force was proposed by Charles Coulomb in
1785 and he put forward a law known as Coulomb’s law.
Statement: It states that “The force between two-point charges is directly proportional to the product of
magnitude of charges and inversely proportional to the square of distance between them.”
𝑞1 𝑞2
Mathematically, 𝐹 = 𝑘 [ ]
𝑟2
Derivation: If two-point charges 𝑞1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞2 are separated by a distance r. Then the electric force between
1
these charges is, 𝐹 ∝ 𝑞1 𝑞2 … … … (1) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹 ∝ 𝑟 2 … … … (2)
𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞1 𝑞2
by combining eq. (1) and eq. (2), we get, 𝐹 ∝ ⇒ 𝐹 = 𝑘[ ]
𝑟2 𝑟2
where k is the constant of proportionality called electrostatic constant.
1
Dependence of k: For free space, 𝑘 =
4𝜋𝜀𝑜
where, 𝜀𝑜 is known as permittivity of free space and its value is 8.85 × 10−12 𝐶 2 𝑁 −1 𝑚−2.
1
𝑘= −12
= 9 × 109 𝑁𝑚2 𝐶 −2
4 × 3.14 × 8.85 × 10
1 𝑞 𝑞
So, the electric force when there is vacuum between the charges is, 𝐹 = 4𝜋𝜀 [ 𝑟1 2 2]
𝑜
Vector form of Coulomb’s law: Coulomb’s force is mutual force, it means that if 𝑞1 exerts a force on 𝑞2 then,
𝑞2 also exerts an equal and opposite force on 𝑞1 . Let,
𝐹21 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑞2 𝑏𝑦 𝑞1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹12 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑞1 𝑏𝑦 𝑞2
1 𝑞1 𝑞2 1 𝑞1 𝑞2
Then, 𝐹21 = 4𝜋𝜀 [ ] (𝑟̂21 ) … … … (1) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹12 = 4𝜋𝜀 [ ] (𝑟̂12 ) … … … (2)
𝑜 𝑟2 𝑜 𝑟2
where, 𝑟̂21 = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑞1 𝑡𝑜 𝑞2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟̂12 = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑞2 𝑡𝑜 𝑞1
From figure we get, 𝑟̂21 = −𝑟̂12 hence, equation (1) becomes,
1 𝑞1 𝑞2 1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹21 = [ 2 ] (−𝑟̂12 ) = − [ ] (𝑟̂12 ) ⇒ 𝐹21 = −𝐹12
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2
Thus, Coulomb’s law is in accordance with Newton’s third law of motion.

Effect of medium on electric force between two charges: If an insulation medium is placed between the
charges. Then, it will reduce the electrostatic force as compared to free space by a factor 𝜀𝑟 .
1 𝑞1 𝑞2 1 1 𝑞1 𝑞2 1
Thus, the Coulomb’s force becomes: 𝐹 ′ = 4𝜋𝜀 [ ] = 𝜀 [4𝜋𝜀 ∙ ] = 𝜀 [𝐹] ⇒ 𝐹 = 𝜀𝑟 𝐹 ′ ⇒ 𝐹 > 𝐹 ′
𝑜 𝜀𝑟 𝑟2 𝑟 𝑜 𝑟2 𝑟
For vacuum the value of 𝜀𝑟 is 1 while for air 𝜀𝑟 = 1.0006

Relative Permittivity / Dielectric constant: The ratio of electrostatic force for free space to the electrostatic
force for any medium is called relative permittivity. It is represented with 𝜀𝑟 .
𝐹
Mathematically, as 𝐹 = 𝜀𝑟 𝐹 ′ ⇒ 𝜀𝑟 = 𝐹′

Electric field: The space or region around the charge in which it exerts electric force on other charges is
called electric field.

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12th Physics Notes Prof. Irfan Elahi

Electric Field Intensity / Electric Field Strength

Electric Intensity / Electric Field Strength: The force experienced per unit charge 𝑞𝑜 placed at a point in an
electric field is called electric intensity.
𝐹
Derivation: 𝐸 = 𝑞 here, F is the force and 𝑞𝑜 is the positive test charge at a point P.
𝑜
Features: It is a vector quantity and its direction is same as that of electric force.
Unit: Its SI unit is 𝑁𝐶 −1 .
1 𝑞𝑞
Electric Intensity due to a point charge: According to Coulomb’s law the force is given by, 𝐹 = [ 𝑟 2𝑜 ]
4𝜋𝜀𝑜
1 𝑞𝑞𝑜
𝐹 [ ] 1 𝑞
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟2
As, 𝐸 = 𝑞 So, by putting the value of F, we get, 𝐸 = = 4𝜋𝜀 [𝑟 2]
𝑜 𝑞𝑜 𝑜
1 𝑞
In vector form, 𝐸 = 4𝜋𝜀 [𝑟 2] 𝑟̂ . where, 𝑟̂ is the unit vector directed from 𝑞 𝑡𝑜 𝑞𝑜 .
𝑜

Electric Field Lines / Lines of Force

Electric Field Lines / Lines of Force: The imaginary lines that shows the direction of the electric field around
a charged object is called electric field lines.
Electric Field Patterns: Following are the electric field patterns for drawing electric field lines:
(1) Electric field lines due to a positive point charge:
(i) Field lines will be non-uniform. (ii) Field lines are radially outward.
(iii) Force exerted in a straight line.
(2) Electric field lines due to a negative point charge:
(i) Field lines will be non-uniform. (ii) Field lines are radially inward.
(iii) Force exerted in a straight line.
(3) Electric field lines for like charges:
(i) Field lines are curved.
(ii) Field lines between two like charge repel each other.
(4) Electric field lines for unlike charge:
(i) Field lines start from positive charges and end on negative charges.
(ii) Field lines between two unlike charges attract each other.
(5) Field lines for two positively charged parallel plates:
(i) Field lines have equal spacing between them. (ii) Field lines will be uniform.
(iii) At central region lines will be straight but at top and bottom lines will be curved.
Properties of Electric Field Lines:
(i) Electric field lines starts from positive charges and end on negative charges.
(ii) No two electric lines cross each other.
(iii) Electric lines do not exist inside the conductor.
(iv) If the field lines are parallel and equally spaced then the field is supposed to be uniform.
(v) Number of electric field lines represent the strength of electric field at certain area.

Applications of Electrostatics
It has two applications: (1) Xerography (2) Inkjet Printer

(1) Xerography (Photocopier): The copying process is called xerography. It is derived from Greek word
Xeros and Graphos meaning dry writing. It is one of the application of electrostatics.
Photoconductor: A material whose electrical conductivity increases when light falls on it is called a
photoconductor. e.g. Selenium, Cadmium Sulphide, Lead Sulphide.
Principle: It follows the principle of “Unlike charge attract each other”.

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12th Physics Notes Prof. Irfan Elahi

Construction: It consists of:

(i) The drum (heart of photocopier). (ii) A lamp which provides light energy. (iii) A lens to focus the image
on drum. (iv) A special kind of dry ink called toner. (v) Heated pressure roller.
Working: The lamp transfers an image of the page to the drum, which leaves a static charge. The drum
collects toner dust and transfers it to the paper. Then, the toner is melted onto the page.

(2) Inkjet Printer: An inkjet printer is a type of printer which uses ink droplets for making an image on to
the paper. It is also an application of electrostatics.
Principle: It works on the principle that charged ink drops are deflected by an electric field to print on paper.
Construction: It consists of:
(i) A print head which consist of nozzle. (ii) Two electrical components called electrodes. (iii) Deflection
plates. (iv) A gutter. (v) A cartridge for storing ink.
Working: Ink is stored in a cartridge. A printer has tiny nozzles (print head). The nozzles spray very small
drops of ink on the paper. The drops are sprayed only where needed, to make text or picture.

Electric Flux
Electric Flux: The number of field lines passing through a given surface area is called electric flux. It is
denoted by 𝛷 . Mathematically, 𝛷𝑒 = 𝐸⃗ ∙ 𝐴 = 𝐸𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
where 𝜃 is an angle between electric field E and area A.
Features: Its SI unit is 𝑁𝑚2 𝐶 −1 . It is a scalar quantity.
Dependence of Electric Flux: Electric flux depends on:
(i) Number of electric lines of forces (ii) Area of surface (iii) Orientation of surface
Special Cases
Case-1 (Maximum Flux): When area is held perpendicular to electric intensity, then electric flux will be
maximum. In this case, 𝜃 = 0𝑜 . As, 𝛷𝑒 = 𝐸⃗ ∙ 𝐴 = 𝐸𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝐸𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠0𝑜 = 𝐸𝐴(1) = 𝐸𝐴
Case-2 (Minimum Flux): When area is held parallel to electric intensity, then electric flux is minimum. In this
case, 𝜃 = 90𝑜 . As, 𝛷𝑒 = 𝐸⃗ ∙ 𝐴 = 𝐸𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝐸𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠90𝑜 = 𝐸𝐴(0) = 0
Case-3: When the area is inclined at a certain angle 𝜃 with electric field strength.
Then, 𝛷𝑒 = 𝐸(𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐴 𝑜𝑛 𝐸) = 𝐸(𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) = 𝐸𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

Electric Flux Through a Surface Enclosing a Charge

Explanation: Consider a closed surface in form of sphere of radius r having a point charge q at its center. In
order to apply the formula (𝛷𝑒 = 𝐸⃗ ∙ 𝐴), the surface should be flat. Thus, the surface area is divided into n
number of small patches ∆𝐴1 , ∆𝐴2 , ∆𝐴3 , … , ∆𝐴𝑛 with electric intensities 𝐸1 , 𝐸2 , 𝐸3 , … , 𝐸𝑛 respectively. Thus,
the total flux through enclosed surface is,
For 1st patch: 𝛷𝑒1 = 𝐸⃗1 ∙ ∆𝐴1 , For 2nd patch: 𝛷𝑒2 = 𝐸⃗2 ∙ ∆𝐴2 ,
For 3rd patch: 𝛷𝑒3 = 𝐸⃗3 ∙ ∆𝐴3 And so on for the nth patch, 𝛷𝑒 𝑛 = 𝐸𝑛 ∙ ∆𝐴𝑛
The total electrical flux through closed surface will be,
𝛷𝑒 = 𝛷𝑒1 + 𝛷𝑒2 + 𝛷𝑒3 + ⋯ + 𝛷𝑒 𝑛
𝛷𝑒 = 𝐸⃗1 ∙ ∆𝐴1 + 𝐸⃗2 ∙ ∆𝐴2 + 𝐸⃗3 ∙ ∆𝐴3 + ⋯ + 𝐸⃗𝑛 ∙ ∆𝐴𝑛

As 𝜃 = 0𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛, 𝛷𝑒 = 𝐸1 ∆𝐴1 𝑐𝑜𝑠0𝑜 + 𝐸2 ∆𝐴2 𝑐𝑜𝑠0𝑜 + 𝐸3 ∆𝐴3 𝑐𝑜𝑠0𝑜 + ⋯ + 𝐸𝑛 ∆𝐴𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠0𝑜

𝛷𝑒 = 𝐸1 ∆𝐴1 + 𝐸2 ∆𝐴2 + 𝐸3 ∆𝐴3 + ⋯ + 𝐸𝑛 ∆𝐴𝑛 ∴ 𝑐𝑜𝑠0𝑜 = 1
As all surface elements are at equal distance from q. So, 𝐸1 = 𝐸2 = 𝐸3 = ⋯ = 𝐸𝑛 = 𝐸 Hence,
𝛷𝑒 = 𝐸∆𝐴1 + 𝐸∆𝐴2 + 𝐸∆𝐴3 + ⋯ + 𝐸∆𝐴𝑛 = 𝐸(∆𝐴1 + ∆𝐴2 + ∆𝐴3 + ⋯ + ∆𝐴𝑛 )
𝛷𝑒 = 𝐸(𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎)
1 𝑞
As, 𝐸 = 4𝜋𝜀 (𝑟 2) and Surface area of sphere= 4𝜋𝑟 2
𝑜

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12th Physics Notes Prof. Irfan Elahi

Thus, by putting these values, we get,

1 𝑞 𝑞
𝛷𝑒 = ( 2 ) (4𝜋𝑟 2 ) =
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 𝜀𝑜
Conclusion: Thus, the electric flux through a closed surface does not depend upon the shape of closed
surface rather It depends upon the medium and charge enclosed.

Gauss’s Law
1
Statement: It states that “the electric flux through any closed surface is times the total charge enclosed in
𝜀𝑜
1
it”. Mathematically, 𝛷𝑒 = 𝜀 𝑄
𝑜
Explanation: The total electric flux passing through the closed surface is:
𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞3 𝑞𝑛
𝛷𝑒 = 𝛷𝑒1 + 𝛷𝑒2 + 𝛷𝑒3 + ⋯ + 𝛷𝑒 𝑛 = + + +⋯+
𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑜
1
𝛷𝑒 = (𝑞 + 𝑞2 + 𝑞3 + ⋯ + 𝑞𝑛 )
𝜀𝑜 1
1 1
𝛷𝑒 = (𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑) = (𝑄) ∴ 𝑄 = 𝑞1 + 𝑞2 + 𝑞3 + ⋯ + 𝑞𝑛
𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑜
Gaussian Surface: An imaginary closed surface around a charge used to apply Gauss’s law is called a
Gaussian surface. e.g. sphere around a point charge.

(A) Electric Intensity Inside a Hollow Charged Sphere:

Consider a positively charged hollow sphere of radius R.
Gaussian Surface: Imagine a gaussian spherical surface of
radius r inside the hollow sphere, as shown in figure.
Charge Enclosed: The total charge enclosed by gaussian sphere is: 𝑞 = 0 … … … (1)
⃗ ∙ 𝐴 … … … (2)
Flux Through the Surface: The electric flux through the closed surface is, 𝛷𝑒 = 𝐸
1
Calculation of Electric Intensity: According to Gauss’s Law: 𝛷𝑒 = (𝑞) … … … (3)
𝜀𝑜

Using equation (1) and (2) in equation (3) we get, 𝐸⃗ . 𝐴 = 0 ⇒ 𝐸⃗ = 0

Conclusion: Thus, the electric field inside a hollow charged sphere is zero.

(B) Electric Intensity Due to an Infinite Sheet of Charge:

Consider an infinite plan sheet carrying a uniform surface charge density 𝜎.
Gaussian Surface: Imagine a closed gaussian cylinder passing through the sheet, as shown in figure.
Charge Enclosed: The total charge enclosed by gaussian surface is: 𝑞 = 𝜎𝐴 … … … (1)
where, 𝐴 = 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜎 = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
Flux Through the Surface: Now we calculate the electric flux through the surface.
(i) Flux through right end flat surface: 𝛷𝑒1 = 𝐸⃗ ∙ 𝐴 = 𝐸𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝐸𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠0𝑜 = 𝐸𝐴(1) = 𝐸𝐴
(ii) Flux through left end flat surface: 𝛷𝑒2 = 𝐸⃗ ∙ 𝐴 = 𝐸𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝐸𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠0𝑜 = 𝐸𝐴(1) = 𝐸𝐴
(iii) Flux through curved surface: As, no field lines pass through the surface. So, 𝛷𝑒3 = 0
Hence, the total electric flux through the surface is,
𝛷𝑒 = 𝛷𝑒1 + 𝛷𝑒2 + 𝛷𝑒3 = 𝐸𝐴 + 𝐸𝐴 + 0 = 2𝐸𝐴 … … … (2)
1
Calculation of Electric Intensity: According to Gauss’s Law, 𝛷𝑒 = (𝑞) … … … (3)
𝜀𝑜
1 𝜎 𝜎
Using equation (1) and (2) in equation (3) we get, 2𝐸𝐴 = 𝜀 (𝜎𝐴) ⇒ 𝐸 = 2𝜀 In vector: 𝐸⃗ = [2𝜀 ]𝑟̂
𝑜 𝑜 𝑜
𝜎
Conclusion: Thus, the electric field due to an infinite sheet of charge is uniform and given by 𝐸 =
2𝜀𝑜

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12th Physics Notes Prof. Irfan Elahi

(C) Electric Intensity Between Two Oppositely Charged Parallel plates:

Consider two parallel metal plates having opposite charges. The filed lines start from positive charges and
end on negative charges.
Gaussian Surface: Imagine a gaussian surface in form of hollow box, as shown in figure.
Charge Enclosed: The total charge enclosed by gaussian surface is: 𝑞 = 𝜎𝐴 … … … (1)
where, 𝐴 = 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜎 = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
Flux Through the Surface: Now we calculate the electric flux through the surface.
As, 𝛷𝑒 = 𝐸⃗ ∙ 𝐴 = 𝐸𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝐸𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠0𝑜 = 𝐸𝐴(1) = 𝐸𝐴
Hence, the total electric flux through the surface is, 𝛷𝑒 = 𝐸𝐴 … … … (2)
1
Calculation of Electric Intensity: According to Gauss’s Law: 𝛷𝑒 = (𝑞) … … … (3)
𝜀𝑜
1 𝜎 𝜎
Using equation (1) and (2) in equation (3) we get, 𝐸𝐴 = 𝜀 (𝜎𝐴) ⇒𝐸=𝜀 In vector: 𝐸⃗ = [𝜀 ]𝑟̂
𝑜 𝑜 𝑜
Conclusion: Thus, the electric field between two oppositely charged parallel plates is uniform and
𝜎
is given by 𝐸 = 𝜀
𝑜

Electric Potential Energy: The energy stored in a charge because of its position in an electric field is called
electric potential energy. Mathematically, 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑃. 𝐸. = 𝑈 = 𝑞𝑜 ∆𝑉

Electric Potential Difference: The work done in moving a unit positive charge from point A to B against the
electric field is equal to the potential difference between these two points.
𝑊𝐴𝐵 ∆𝑈
Mathematically, ∆𝑉 = 𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴 = = where, ∆𝑈 is change in potential energy.
𝑞𝑜 𝑞𝑜
𝐽
Unit: Its SI unit is 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 = 𝐶 .

Volt: If one joule work is done in moving a unit positive charge from point A to B against electric field, then
1 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒 𝐽
the potential difference is one volt. Mathematically, 1 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 = =
1 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏 𝐶

Potential Gradient: The rate of change of electric potential with distance is called potential gradient.
𝑉
Mathematically, 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑑 Unit: Its SI unit is 𝑉𝑚−1.
Electric field as a Potential Gradient: The electric field intensity is equal to the negative of the potential
∆𝑉
gradient. Mathematically, 𝐸 = − ∆𝑟 The negative sign shows that the direction of electric field intensity is
along the decreasing potential.

Electric Potential at a Point / Absolute Potential due to Point Charge

Electric Potential / Absolute Potential: The work done in moving a unit positive charge from infinity to a point
against electric field is equal to electric potential at a point or absolute potential.
𝑘𝑞
Mathematically, 𝑉 = here, k is constant, q is charge and r is distance.
𝑟
Explanation: Consider two points A and B, very close to each other in radial field. Such that, E is nearly
constant between these two points.
Let, 𝑟𝐴 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝐴 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑞, 𝑟𝐵 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝐵 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑞
Then, change in positio𝑛 = ∆𝑟 = 𝑟𝐴 − 𝑟𝐵 … … … (1)
𝑟𝐴 +𝑟𝐵
As, r represent the midpoint of interval A and B, 𝑟 = 2
1 𝑞
As we know that electric intensity is, 𝐸 = 4𝜋𝜀 ∙ 𝑟 2 … … … (2)
𝑜
Since, point A and B are very close to each other, therefore, 𝑟𝐴 ≈ 𝑟𝐵 ≈ 𝑟
So, 𝑟 2 = 𝑟 × 𝑟 = 𝑟𝐴 𝑟𝐵 … … … (3)

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1 𝑞
Putting 𝑟 2 in equation (2) we get, 𝐸 = 4𝜋𝜀 ∙ 𝑟 … … … (4)
𝑜 𝐴 𝑟𝐵
If a point positive charge move from B to A, then the work is equal to the potential difference b/w A and B,
∆𝑉 = −𝐸∆𝑟 ⇒ 𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 = −𝐸∆𝑟 … … … (5)
Putting value of ∆𝑟 and E from equation (1) and (4) in equation (5), we get,
1 𝑞 1 𝑞 𝑞 (𝑟𝐵 − 𝑟𝐴 )
𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 = − ∙ (𝑟𝐴 − 𝑟𝐵 ) = ∙ (𝑟𝐵 − 𝑟𝐴 ) = ( )
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟𝐴 𝑟𝐵 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟𝐴 𝑟𝐵 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟𝐴 𝑟𝐵
𝑞 𝑟𝐵 𝑟𝐴 𝑞 1 1
= ( − )= ( − ) … … … (6)
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟𝐴 𝑟𝐵 𝑟𝐴 𝑟𝐵 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟𝐴 𝑟𝐵
1 1
Absolute potential or Potential at A: If point B is at infinity. Then 𝑉𝐵 = 0 𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝐵 = ∞ 𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠, =∞=0
𝑟𝐵
𝑞 1 1 𝑞
Putting it in equation (6), we get, 𝑉𝐴 − 0 == 4𝜋𝜀 (𝑟 − 0) = ∙𝑟
𝑜 𝐴 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝐴
1 𝑞
Electric potential 𝑉𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦: 𝑉𝑟 = 4𝜋𝜀 ∙ 𝑟
𝑜

Electron Volt: The amount of energy gained or lost by an electron when it moves through a potential
difference of 1 volt is called electron volt. It is the unit of energy.
Mathematically, 𝐴𝑠, ∆(𝐾. 𝐸) = 𝑞∆𝑉 Since, 𝑞 = 𝑒 = 1.6 × 10−19 𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∆𝑉 = 1 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 = 1𝑉
∆(𝐾. 𝐸) = (1.6 × 10−19 𝐶)(1𝑉) = 1.6 × 10−19 𝐽 𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 1𝑒𝑣 = 1.6 × 10−19 𝐽 ∴ 𝐶𝑉 = 𝐽

Difference b/w Electric and Gravitational Forces

Similarities:
(i) Both of them are conservative forces.
(ii) Inverse square law holds good for both forces.
(iii) Both obey superposition principle.

Dissimilarities
Electric Forces Gravitational Forces
𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑚1 𝑚2
(i) According to Coulomb’s law, 𝐹 = 𝐾 [ ] (i) According to gravitational law, 𝐹 = 𝐺 [ ]
𝑟2 𝑟2
(ii) It is charge dependent. (ii) It is mass dependent.
(iii) It is much stronger force. (iii) It is a weaker force.
(iv) It may be attractive or repulsive. (iv) It is attractive force only.
(v) It depends on medium. (v) It does not depend on any medium.

Millikan’s Method
Millikan’s Method: In 1909, R.A. Millikan devised a technique with which he measured the charge on an
electron.
Principle: Suspension of oil drop between two plates by adjustment of electric field in such a way that
electric force becomes equal to the gravitational force.
Construction: It consists of:
(i) An observation chamber C. (ii) Window 𝑊1 for light.
(iii) Window 𝑊2 for X-rays. (iv) A light source S.
(v) Two parallel plates P and 𝑃′ placed inside the chamber.
(vi) The upper plate P has a small hole H.
(vii) A D.C. source. (viii) A microscope (ix) An atomizer used for spraying oil.
Working: Tiny oil drops are sprayed between two plates through small nozzle of atomizer. First, the speed of
falling drops is measured to find size and mass. Then an electric field is applied and adjusted until a drop
stays still. From this balance, the charge on the drop is found, which is always a multiple of electron’s

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charge.
Determination of Charge on droplet: Let, 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑡 = 𝑚, 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑡 = 𝑞,
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 = 𝑑, 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑉, Electric field b/w plates = 𝐸 then,
𝑉 𝑚𝑔𝑑 𝑉
𝐹𝑒 = 𝐹𝑔 ⇒ 𝑞𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔 ⇒ 𝑞 𝑑 = 𝑚𝑔 ⇒𝑞= … … … (1) ∴𝐸=𝑑
𝑉
Determination of Mass of droplet: When the electric field is switched off, the droplet falls with terminal
velocity 𝑉𝑡 , where its weight is equal to the drag force. So,
6𝜋𝜂𝑟𝑣𝑡
𝑊 = 𝐹𝐷 ⇒ 𝑚𝑔 = 6𝜋𝜂𝑟𝑣𝑡 ⇒𝑚= … … … (2)
𝑔
𝑆
Determination of 𝑽𝒕 : Terminal velocity can be calculated by: 𝑣𝑡 =
𝑡
𝑚 4 3
Determination of radius of droplet: As, 𝜌 = ∴ 𝑉 = 3 𝜋𝑟
𝑉
𝑚 4
𝜌= ⇒ 𝑚 = 𝜋𝑟 3 𝜌 … … … (3)
4 3 3
3 𝜋𝑟
6𝜋𝜂𝑟𝑣𝑡 4
Comparing equations (2) and (3), we get, = 3 𝜋𝑟 3 𝜌
𝑔

9𝜂𝑣𝑡 9𝜂𝑣𝑡
𝑟2 = ⇒𝑟=√ … … … (4)
2𝜌𝑔 2𝜌𝑔
Thus, by putting the value of r, in eq (3) we can calculate the mass m of droplet while by putting the value of
mass m in eq (1) we can calculate the charge q of droplet.
Conclusion: Millikan’s measured that the charge on each droplet is the integral multiple, which is the charge
of an electron. (i.e. 1.6 × 10−19 𝐶)
Capacitor: The device which is used to store electric charge is called capacitor.

Capacitance: The ability of capacitor to store charge per unit potential difference is called capacitance.
𝑄
Mathematically, 𝑄 ∝ 𝑉 ⇒ 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉 ⇒ 𝐶 = 𝑉 Unit: Its SI unit is farad.

Farad: If a capacitor stores 1 coulomb of charge when a potential difference of 1 volt is applied across it,
1 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏 1𝐶
then its capacitance is said to be 1 farad (1 F). Mathematically, 1𝐹 = = 1𝑉
1 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡
Units of Farad: microfarad = 1𝜇𝐹 = 10−6 𝐹, picofarad = 1𝑝𝐹 = 10 −12
𝐹, nanofarad = 1𝑛𝐹 = 10−9 𝐹

Capacitor of a parallel plate capacitor

Explanation: Consider a parallel plate capacitor. Let,
𝐴 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒, 𝑑 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠, 𝑄 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒,
𝑉 = 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠, 𝐸 = 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜎 = 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
(i) Capacitance when air or vacuum between the plates: Let there is air or vacuum between the plates of the
𝑄
capacitor. Then, 𝐶𝑣𝑎𝑐 = 𝑉 … … … (1)
𝑉 𝜎
As we know that, 𝐸 = 𝑑 𝑂𝑅 𝑉 = 𝐸𝑑 … … … (2) and 𝐸 = 𝜀 … … … (3)
𝑜
𝜎𝑑
by putting this value of E in equation (2) we get, 𝑉 = … … … (4)
𝜀𝑜
𝑄
and we also know that, 𝜎 = 𝐴 𝑂𝑅 𝑄 = 𝜎𝐴 … … … (5)
𝜎𝐴 𝐴𝜀𝑜
Using equation (4) and (5) in equation (1), we get, 𝐶𝑣𝑎𝑐 = 𝜎𝑑 = … … … (6)
𝑑
𝜀𝑜

(ii) Capacitance when dielectric as the medium b/w plates: If an insulating material (dielectric) of relative
𝐴𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟
permittivity (𝜀𝑟 ) is placed between the two plates, then the equation (6) becomes, 𝐶𝑚𝑒𝑑 =
𝑑

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Electric Polarization: The process in which positive and negative charges inside a dielectric are slightly
displaced under the action of an electric field is called polarization and the dielectric is said to be polarized.

Dipole: Two equal and opposite charges separated by a small distance form a dipole.

Energy Stored in a Capacitor

Explanation: Capacitor is a device which is used to store the charge. In other words, it is a device for storing
electric P.E. Initially the potential difference between the plates is zero and when charge q is deposited in
0+𝑉 1
plates, potential difference becomes V. So, Average potential difference= = 2𝑉
2
As, 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 = 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 × 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
1 1 1 1
𝑊 = ( 𝑉) (𝑞) ⇒ 𝑃. 𝐸. = 𝑞𝑉 ⇒ 𝑃. 𝐸. = (𝐶𝑉)𝑉 ⇒ 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝐶𝑉 2 … … … (1) ∴ 𝑞 = 𝐶𝑉
2 2 2 2
Energy stored in terms of electric field: When we consider that energy is being stored between two plates
𝐴𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟
rather than the potential energy. then, as we know that, 𝐶 = and 𝑉 = 𝐸𝑑
𝑑
1 𝐴𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 1
So, by putting these values in equation (1) we get, 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 2 ( )(𝐸𝑑)2 = 2 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 𝐸 2 (𝐴𝑑)
𝑑
Conclusion: It is an expression for energy stored in the electric field between the plates.

Time Constant: The time required to charge the capacitor up to 63% of its full charge is called time
constant. Mathematically, 𝑡 = 𝑅𝐶 where R is resistance and C is capacitance.

Additional Questions
Q1. The time constant of a series RC circuit is 𝒕 = 𝑹𝑪, verify that an Ohm times farad is equivalent to second OR
Prove that the unit of RC circuit is second.
Ans: Given data: 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 𝑡 = 𝑅𝐶 Prove: 1 𝑜ℎ𝑚 × 1 𝑓𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 1 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
𝑞 𝑉𝑡 𝑞
Solution: According to Ohm’s law, 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 = ( ) 𝑅 ⇒ 𝑅 = … … … (1) ∴𝐼=
𝑡 𝑞 𝑡
𝑞
According to capacitance equation, 𝑞 = 𝐶𝑉 ⇒ 𝐶 = 𝑉 … … … (2)
𝑉𝑡 𝑞
Multiplying equation (1) and (2) we get, 𝑅𝐶 = ×𝑉 = 𝑡
𝑞
Hence, 1 𝑜ℎ𝑚 × 1 𝑓𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 1 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
𝟏 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕 𝟏 𝒏𝒆𝒘𝒕𝒐𝒏
Q2. Show that 𝟏 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓 = 𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒐𝒎𝒃 ?
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝑣 𝐽𝐶 −1 𝐽 𝑁𝑚 𝑁 𝑛𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝑛𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛
Ans: L.H.S. = 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑚 = = 𝐶𝑚 = = = 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏 = 𝑅. 𝐻. 𝑆 Hence, 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏
𝑚 𝐶𝑚 𝐶

Q3. How capacitance is increased by placing a dielectric between the plates of a capacitor?
Ans: The capacitance of a capacitor increases due to polarization of dielectric.
𝜎
Reason: As we know that, 𝐸 = 𝜀 , when a dielectric is placed between the plates of a capacitor, it decreases
𝑜
the surface charge density (𝜎). As a result, the electric field (E) between the plates decreases. Since, 𝑉 = 𝐸𝑑
𝑄
This shows that the decrease in E causes the decrease in V. According to 𝐶 = 𝑉 . Due to decrease in 𝑉,
capacitance of capacitor (C) increases.

Exercise Questions
Q1. The potential is constant through a given region of space. Is the electrical field zero or non-zero in this region?
Explain.
Ans: The electrical field will be zero in this region.
∆𝑉
Reason: As we know that, 𝐸 = −( ∆𝑟 )
In this case, potential is constant, 𝑉 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 therefore, ∆𝑉 = 0
0
Hence, 𝐸 = − (∆𝑟) ⇒ 𝐸 = 0 So, electric field will be zero.

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Q2. Suppose that you follow an electric field line due to a positive point charge. Do electric field and the potential
increase or decrease?
Ans: Both electric field and potential will decrease.
𝑞 𝑞
Reason: As, 𝐸 = 𝑘 𝑟 2 and 𝑉 =𝑘𝑟
1 1
From these equations it is clear that, 𝐸 ∝ 𝑟 2 and 𝑉∝𝑟
Here, r is inversely proportional to the electric field E and potential V. Therefore, if we follow an electric
field line due to positive point, both E and V will decrease.
Q3. How can you identify that which plate of a capacitor is positively charged?
Ans: To identify that which plate of a capacitor is positively charged, a gold leaf electroscope is used.
Explanation: For checking the polarity of a capacitor plate, brought a gold leaf electroscope near the cap of
positively charged electroscope. If the divergence of gold leaves increases. Then, the plate is positively
charged and vice versa.
Q4. Describe the force or forces on a positive point charge when placed between parallel plates.
(a) With similar and equal charges.
Ans: When a positive point charge is placed between parallel plates with similar and equal charges, net
force is zero.
Reason: As we know that, 𝐹 = 𝑞𝐸 The magnitude of “E” for both plates is equal but opposite in
direction, so net value of E is zero. Hence, the force acts on the charge is zero. 𝐹 = 𝑞(0) ⇒ 𝐹 = 0
(b) With opposite and equal charges.
When a positive point charge is placed between parallel plates with opposite and equal charges, net force
will be maximum.
Reason: As we know that, 𝐹 = 𝑞𝐸 The magnitude of “E” for both plates is equal and in same direction,
so net value of E is maximum. Hence, the force acts on the charge will be maximum. 𝐹 = 𝑞𝐸
Q5. Electric lines of force never cross. Why?
Ans: Reason: Electric field lines never cross because electric field E has only one direction at any given
point. If the lines cross then E will have more than one direction which is not possible.
Q6. If a point charge q of mass m is released in a non-uniform electric field with field lines in the same direction
pointing, will it make a rectilinear motion?
Ans: Yes, it will make a rectilinear motion.
Reason: In a non-uniform electric field where field lines are parallel and pointed in the
same direction, the charge always experiences force along the same straight line. Therefore,
it makes a rectilinear (straight line) motion.
Q7. Is E necessarily zero inside a charged rubber balloon if balloon is spherical? Assume that charge is distributed
uniformly over the surface.
Ans: Yes, E is necessarily zero inside a charged rubber balloon.
Reason: If balloon is spherical enclosing no charge (𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑞 = 0) but charge is distributed uniformly over
the surface. Then, by applying Gauss’s law, we have
𝑞
𝛷𝑒 = 𝜀 = 0 ⇒ 𝐸. 𝐴 = 0 ∴ 𝛷𝑒 = 𝐸. 𝐴
𝑜
As, 𝐴 ≠ 0, 𝑆𝑜, 𝐸 = 0. Hence, the electric intensity inside a charged rubber balloon is zero.
Q8. Is it true that Gauss’s law states that the total number of lines of forces crossing any closed surface in the
outward direction is proportional to the net positive charge enclosed within surface?
Ans: Yes, this statement is true.
1
Reason: According to Gauss’s law, the electric flux through any closed surface is times the total charge
𝜀𝑜
1 1
enclosed in it. Mathematically, 𝛷𝑒 = 𝜀 × 𝑄 ⇒ 𝛷𝑒 ∝ 𝑄 ∴ 𝜀 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑜 𝑜
Here, 𝛷𝑒 = number of electric field lines and 𝑄 = total charge enclosed.
Q9. Do electrons tend to go to region of high potential or of low potential?
Ans: Electrons tend to go the region of high potential.
Reason: As the electrons are negatively charged particles so when they are released in an electric field. They
will move from negative end (low potential) to positive end (high potential).

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12th Physics Notes Prof. Irfan Elahi

CHAPTER # 13 — CURRENT ELECTRICITY

Electrodynamics / Current Electricity: The branch of physics that deals with the study of moving charges is
called electrodynamics. Its applications are electric bulb, electric fans etc.

Electric Current: The rate of flow of charges through a conductor is called electric current.
∆𝑄
Mathematically, 𝐼 = here ∆𝑄 is charge and ∆𝑡 is time. Unit: Its SI unit is ampere.
∆𝑡

Ampere: If 1 coulomb charge flows through a conductor in 1 second, then the current is said to be one
1 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏 𝐶
Ampere. Mathematically, 1 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒 (𝐴) = = = 𝐶𝑠 −1
1 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑠

Conventional Current: The flow of current from positive terminal (high potential) to negative terminal (low
potential) is called conventional current.

Electronic Current: The flow of electrons from negative terminal (low potential) to positive terminal (high
potential) is called electronic current.

Ohm’s Law
Statement: It states that “The current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential
difference across it, provided the temperature remains constant”.
1
Mathematically, 𝐼 ∝ 𝑉 ⇒ 𝐼 = 𝑅𝑉 ⇒ 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
where R is constant of proportionality called the resistance of conductor.
Resistance: The property of a conductor that opposes the flow of current is called resistance. Its SI unit is
𝑉
ohm (Ω). Mathematically, 𝑅 = 𝐼
Dependence of Resistance of conductor: It depends upon:
(i) dimensions of conductor (ii) physical state of conductor (iii) nature of conductor
Ohm: If one ampere current passes through a conductor when one-volt potential difference is applied across
1 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡
it, then its resistance is said to be one ohm. Mathematically, 1 𝑜ℎ𝑚 = 1 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒
Ohmic Conductors: A conductor which obeys Ohm’s law is called ohmic conductor. E.g. metals like copper,
silver, gold etc.
Non-ohmic Conductor: A conductor which does not obey Ohm’s law is called non-ohmic conductor. E.g.
semi-conductors, vacuum tubes, diodes etc.

Resistivity: The resistance of a material having unit length and unit cross-sectional area is called resistivity
1 𝐿 𝐿 𝑅𝐴
(𝜌). Mathematically, 𝑅 ∝ 𝐿 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅 ∝ 𝐴 𝑏𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ, 𝑅 ∝ 𝐴 ⇒ 𝑅 = 𝜌 𝐴 ⇒𝜌= 𝐿
Unit: Its SI unit is ohm-meter (Ω 𝑚).
Dependence of Resistivity: It depends upon: (i) nature of the material. (ii) temperature of the material.
Conductivity: The reciprocal of resistivity is called conductivity. Its SI unit is (Ω 𝑚)−1 𝑜𝑟 Ω−1 𝑚−1 .

Effect of Temperature on Resistance and Resistivity

Effect of Temperature: The resistance and resistivity of a substance depend upon
the temperature. The resistance and resistivity increase with the increase in temperature.
Temperature Coefficient of Resistance: The fractional change in resistance of a substance per kelvin is called
𝑅𝑡 −𝑅𝑜
temperature coefficient of resistance. Unit: It SI unit is 𝐾 −1 . Mathematically, 𝛼 = 𝑅𝑜 𝑡
𝑜 𝑜
where, 𝑅𝑜 =resistance of material at 0 𝐶 , 𝑅𝑡 =resistance of material at 𝑡 𝐶 , 𝑡 =change in temperature ,
𝛼 =temperature coefficient of resistance.
Temperature Coefficient of Resistivity: The fractional change in resistivity of a material per kelvin is called

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temperature coefficient of resistivity. Unit: It SI unit is 𝐾 −1 .

𝐿 𝐿
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 𝜌𝑡 ( )−𝜌𝑜 ( ) 𝜌𝑡 −𝜌𝑜
Mathematically, 𝑅 = 𝜌 𝐴 So, 𝑅𝑡 = 𝜌𝑡 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅𝑜 = 𝜌𝑜 𝐴 Hence, 𝛼 = 𝐴
𝐿
𝐴
=
𝜌𝑜 ( )𝑡 𝜌𝑜 𝑡
𝐴
where, 𝜌𝑜 =resistivity of material at 0𝑜 𝐶 , 𝜌𝑡 =resistivity of material at 𝑡 𝑜 𝐶 , 𝑡 =change in temperature ,
𝛼 =temperature coefficient of resistivity.

Tolerance: The possible variation in the resistance of a carbon resistor from the marked value is called
tolerance. e.g. a 1000𝛺 resistor with the tolerance ±10% will have an actual value anywhere between
900𝛺 and 1100𝛺.

Rheostat: A rheostat is a variable resistor used to control the current in a circuit without changing the
voltage. Uses: It is used:
(i) to control current (ii) to dim lights (iii) to control fan/motor speed (iv) in lab experiments.
Thermistor: A thermistor is a resistor whose resistance changes with temperature. Uses: It is used in oven,
electronic devices, fire alarms etc.
Principle: The resistance of a thermistor changes rapidly with temperature. It usually decreases when
temperature increases.

Electrical Power: The rate at which electrical energy is converted into other forms of energy is called
Δ𝑊 Δ𝑄 ∆𝑄
electrical power. Mathematically, 𝑃 = = 𝑉 Δ𝑡 = 𝑉𝐼 ∴ =𝐼
Δ𝑡 ∆𝑡
Unit: Its SI unit is watt.

Electromotive Force (EMF) and Treminal Potential Difference

Electromotive Force (EMF): The energy supplied to the unit charge by the source is called electromotive
∆𝑊
force. Mathematically, 𝐸 = Unit: Its SI unit is J/C or volt.
∆𝑞
Explanation: Let ∆𝑞 is charge passing through any cross section of circuit in time ∆𝑡 and ∆𝑊 is energy
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 ∆𝑊
supplied. Then emf of a source is, 𝐸 = =
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 ∆𝑞
Terminal Potential Difference: The potential difference measured across the terminals of a cell, when
current is supplying from it is called terminal potential difference.
Relation b/w terminal potential difference and emf: Consider a cell of
emf E having internal resistance r connected in a circuit. Then, the current 𝐼 is,
𝐸
𝐼= ⇒ 𝐸 = 𝐼𝑅 + 𝐼𝑟 = 𝑉𝑡 + 𝐼𝑟 ∴ 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
𝑅+𝑟
Special Cases:
Case-1: If the internal resistance of cell is zero (r=0), then the terminal
potential difference becomes equal to emf. i.e. 𝑉𝑡 = 𝐸 − 𝐼𝑟 = 𝐸 − 𝐼(0) = 𝐸
Case-2: If the terminal voltage in the presence of current is less than emf E by a factor Ir, 𝑉𝑡 = 𝐸 − 𝐼𝑟

Networks and Kirchhoff’s Rules

Simple Network: When an electrical circuit consists of more than one resistor and a single voltage source,
then it is called simple network.
It can be solved by using: (i) Ohm’s law (ii) Rules of series and parallel combinations of resistance.
Complex Network: When an electrical circuit consists of number of resistances and a number of electrical
voltage sources, then it is called complex network. It can be solved by using the Kirchhoff’s rules.
Kirchhoff’s Rules: Kirchhoff gave two important rules for analyzing electrical circuit:
Kirchhoff’s First Rule: It states that “the sum of all the currents meeting at a point in a circuit is zero”. It is
also called Kirchhoff’s point rule. Mathematically, ∑𝐼 = 0

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Explanation: Consider four resistance wires meeting at point A.

The current flowing towards point A are positive 𝐼1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼2 and the current
flowing away from point A are negative 𝐼4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼3 . Thus,|
𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + (−𝐼3 ) + (−𝐼4 ) = 0 ⇒ 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 − 𝐼3 − 𝐼4 = 0 ⇒ 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = 𝐼3 + 𝐼4
which is in accordance to the law of conservation of charge.
Kirchhoff’s Second Rule: It states that “the sum of all potential difference around any closed loop of a
circuit is zero” Mathematically, ∑𝑉 = 0 OR ∑𝐸 = ∑𝐼𝑅
Explanation: Consider a circuit consisting of two batteries 𝐸1 and 𝐸2 and two resistors 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 .
When the current passes through the cell 𝐸1 , it gains energy. So, 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 = 𝐸1 ∆𝑄
When the current passes through the cell 𝐸2 , it loses energy. So, 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 = −𝐸2 ∆𝑄
When the current passes through the resistor 𝑅1 , it loses energy. So, 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 = −𝐼𝑅1 ∆𝑄
When the current passes through the resistor 𝑅2 , it loses energy. So, 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 = −𝐼𝑅2 ∆𝑄
According to law of conservation of energy, the total change in energy must be zero. So,
𝐸1 ∆𝑄 − 𝐸2 ∆𝑄−𝐼𝑅1 ∆𝑄−𝐼𝑅2 ∆𝑄 = 0 ⇒ ∆𝑄(𝐸1 −𝐼𝑅1 − 𝐸2 −𝐼𝑅2 ) = 0
𝐸1 −𝐼𝑅1 − 𝐸2 −𝐼𝑅2 = 0 Which expresses the Kirchhoff’s 2nd rule.

Wheatstone Bridge
Wheatstone Bridge: It is an electrical circuit which provides an accurate method for the measurement of an
unknown resistance.
Construction: The wheat stone bridge consists of four resistances 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 , 𝑅3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅4 joined together in such
a way so that it forms a loop ABCDA, a source of emf with switch is connected between A and C and a
galvanometer is connected between B and D.
Working: When the switch is closed the current flows through the galvanometer. If the point B and D at same
potential, then no current will pass through the galvanometer. So, galvanometer shows no deflection and
bridge is said to be balanced.
Circuit Analysis: We can analyses the circuit by using the Kirchhoff’s rules.
According to Kirchhoff’s second rule,
For Loop ABDA: The voltage equation is, −𝐼1 𝑅1 −(𝐼1 − 𝐼2 )𝑅𝑔 −(𝐼1 − 𝐼3 )𝑅3 = 0 … … … (1)
For Loop BCDB: The voltage equation is, −𝐼2 𝑅2 −(𝐼2 − 𝐼3 )𝑅4 −(𝐼2 − 𝐼1 )𝑅𝑔 = 0 … … … (2)
Under balanced condition, 𝐼1 − 𝐼2 = 0 𝑜𝑟 . 𝐼1 = 𝐼2
So equation (1) becomes, −𝐼1 𝑅1 −(0)𝑅𝑔 −(𝐼1 − 𝐼3 )𝑅3 = 0 ⇒ −𝐼1 𝑅1 −(𝐼1 − 𝐼3 )𝑅3 = 0
−𝐼1 𝑅1 = −(𝐼1 − 𝐼3 )𝑅3 … … … (3)
Also equation (2) becomes, −𝐼2 𝑅2 −(𝐼2 − 𝐼3 )𝑅4 −(𝐼2 − 𝐼2 )𝑅𝑔 = 0 ∴ 𝐼1 = 𝐼2
−𝐼2 𝑅2 −(𝐼2 − 𝐼3 )𝑅4 −(0)𝑅𝑔 = 0 ⇒ −𝐼2 𝑅2 −(𝐼2 − 𝐼3 )𝑅4 = 0
−𝐼2 𝑅2 = (𝐼2 − 𝐼3 )𝑅4 ⇒ −𝐼1 𝑅2 = (𝐼1 − 𝐼3 )𝑅4 … … … (4) ∴ 𝐼2 = 𝐼1
−𝐼 𝑅 −𝐼1 𝑅1 =−(𝐼1 −𝐼3 )𝑅3 𝑅1 𝑅
Dividing equation (3) by (4), we get, −𝐼1𝑅1 = ⇒ = 𝑅3
1 2 −𝐼2 𝑅2 =(𝐼1 −𝐼3 )𝑅4 𝑅2 4
which is the condition of balancing the wheat stone bridge.
Determination of unknown resistance: When switch is closed and no current is passing through the
galvanometer. Then, the bridge is said to be balanced and for balanced bridge:
𝑅1 𝑅 𝑅1
= 𝑅3 ⇒ 𝑅4 = × 𝑅3
𝑅2 4 𝑅2
In this circuit 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅3 are adjustable known resistances and 𝑅4 is unknown resistance. Thus, we can
determine the unknown resistance by using this relation.

Potentiometer
Potentiometer: It is an accurate device which is used to measure the potentials without drawing any current
from the circuit.

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Principle: The potential difference across any length of wire is directly proportional to its length. i.e.
𝑉 ∝ 𝑙, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐼 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
Construction: Potentiometer consists of a resistor in form of wire of length L on which a terminal C can
slide. R is the resistance of wire.
𝐸
Working: Let E be the emf of the cell. then the current is, 𝐼 = … … … (1)
𝑅
If r be the resistance between A and C then, 𝑉𝐴𝐶 = 𝐼𝑟
𝐸 𝑟
Putting value of I from equation (1) we get, 𝑉𝐴𝐶 = (𝑅) 𝑟 = (𝑅) 𝐸
Measurement of emf: A potentiometer can also be used for measuring the unknown emf of a cell. Let 𝐸𝑥 is the
unknown emf of the cell. and no current flow through the galvanometer. Then, 𝐸𝑥 = 𝑉𝐴𝐶
𝑟 𝑟
So, 𝑉𝐴𝐶 = (𝑅) 𝐸 ⇒ 𝐸𝑥 = (𝑅) 𝐸
𝑙
And In case of a wire of uniform cross-sectional area, 𝑅 ∝ 𝐿 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟 ∝ 𝑙, So, 𝐸𝑥 = (𝐿) 𝐸 … … … (2)
where, L is the total length of wire and l is the length of wire between A and C.
Uses of Potentiometer: It can be used: (i) to determine the emf of a cell. (ii) to compare the emf of two cells.
(iii) as a continuously potential divider. (iv) to measure the internal resistance of the cell.

Additional Questions
Q1. Three resistors each of one ohm are arranged in form of a triangle then calculate third equivalent resistance
across any two terminals?
Ans: Equivalent resistance 𝑅1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅2, = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 = 1 + 1 = 2Ω
′ 1 1 1 1 1 3 2
Equivalent resistance of 𝑅 and 𝑅3 , = 𝑅′ + 𝑅 = 2 + 1 = 2 ⇒ = 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 3 Ω
𝑅𝑒𝑞 3

Q2. Why we prefer potentiometer in place of voltmeter for measuring potential difference?
Ans: Reason: Potentiometer is preferred over a voltmeter because it measures potential difference without
taking current from the circuit. So, it is much more accurate device as compare to voltmeter.
Q3. Write about any sources of current or types of current sources?
Ans: There are many sources of current, but some of them are described below:
(i) Cells convert chemical energy into electrical energy. (ii) Electrical generators convert mechanical
energy into electrical energy. (iii) Solar cells convert sunlight into electrical energy.

Exercise Questions
Q1. A potential difference is applied across the ends of a copper wire. What is the effect on the drift velocity of free
electron by?
Ans: (i) Increasing the potential difference:
The drift velocity of electrons increases by increasing the potential difference.
Reason: As we know that, 𝑣𝑑 ∝ 𝐼 and 𝐼 ∝ 𝑉 𝑆𝑜, 𝑣𝑑 ∝ 𝑉
This shows that, the drift velocity of free electrons "𝑣𝑑 " is directly proportional to the potential difference
"𝑉". Therefore, If potential difference is increases then the drift velocity of electrons also increases.
(ii) Decreasing the length and the temperature of the wire:
The drift velocity of electrons increases by decreasing the length and the temperature of the wire.
𝑉
Reason: As we know that, 𝑣𝑑 ∝ 𝐼 and 𝐼 = 𝑅 ⇒ 𝑅 ∝ 𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅 ∝ 𝑇
This shows that, the drift velocity of free electrons "𝑣𝑑 " is inversely proportional to the length and
temperature. Therefore, if length and temperature decreases then, the drift velocity of electrons increases.
Q2. Do bends in a wire affect its electrical resistance? Explain.
Ans: No, bends in a wire do not affect its electrical resistance.
𝐿
Reason: As we know that, 𝑅 = 𝜌𝐴

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here, the resistance of wire depends on length L and area of cross section A of wire. As bends in a wire do
not affect the length or area of wire, so resistance R remains unaffected.
Q3. What is meant by the tolerance?
Ans: Tolerance: The possible variation in the resistance of a carbon resistor from the marked value is called
tolerance. e.g. a 1000𝛺 resistor with the tolerance ±10% will have an actual value anywhere between
900𝛺 and 1100𝛺.
Q4. Why does the resistance of a conductor rise with temperature?
Ans: Reason: When the temperature of the conductor rises, the amplitude of vibration of the atoms in the
conductor increases. Hence, the probability of collision between free electrons and atoms of conductor also
increases. As a result, the resistance of conductor rises with temperature.
Q5. What are the difficulties in testing whether the filament of a lighted bulb obeys Ohm’s law?
Ans: The main difficulty is the rise in temperature of filament with increase in current.
Reason: When current passes through the filament, initially the temperature is low.
Hence, resistance remains constant. i.e. Ohm’s law is obeyed.
With the passage of time, its temperature increases. So, the resistance also increases.
Hence, Ohm’s law is not obeyed due to rise in temperature.
Q6. Is the filament resistance lower or higher in a 500, 220V light bulb than in a 100W, 220V bulb?
𝑫𝒂𝒕𝒂: 𝑫𝒂𝒕𝒂:
𝑃1 = 500𝑊, 𝑉1 = 220𝑉, 𝑅1 =? 𝑃2 = 100𝑊, 𝑉2 = 220𝑉, 𝑅2 =?
𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛:
𝑉12 (220)2 𝑉22 (220)2
𝑅1 = = = 96.8𝛺 𝑅2 = = = 484𝛺
𝑃1 500 𝑃2 100
Result: So, 100W light bulb has greater resistance.
Q7. Describe a circuit, which will give a continuously varying potential?
Ans: A potentiometer can be used as a potential divider to give a continuously varying potential.
Explanation: A potentiometer consists of R in the form of wire on which terminal C can slide. If a battery of
𝐸
emf E is connected to R, then the current flowing through is given by: 𝐼 = 𝑅
𝐸
If r is the resistance between points A and C then, 𝑉𝐴𝐶 = 𝐼𝑟 = 𝑅 𝑟
As, C is moved from A to B, r varies from 0 to R and 𝑉𝐴𝐶 varies from 0 to E.
Q8. Explain why the terminal potential difference of a battery decreases when the current drawn from it is
increased?
Ans: Reason: As we know that the relation for terminal potential difference of a battery is, 𝑉𝑡 = 𝐸 − 𝐼𝑟
According to this relation, when the current drawn from the battery increases, the potential drop across the
internal resistance r also increases. As a result, the terminal potential difference decreases.
Q9. What is Wheatstone bridge? How can it be used to determine an unknown resistance?
Ans: Wheatstone Bridge: It is an electrical circuit which provides an accurate method for the measurement
of an unknown resistance.
Determination: It consist of four resistances, a galvanometer and a battery. When switch is closed and no
current is passing through the galvanometer. Then, the bridge is said to be balanced and for balanced
bridge:
𝑅1 𝑅 𝑅
= 𝑅3 ⇒ 𝑅4 = 𝑅1 × 𝑅3
𝑅2 4 2
In this circuit 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅3 are adjustable known resistances and 𝑅4 is unknown resistance.

CHAPTER # 14 — ELECTROMAGNETISM
Electromagnetism: The branch of physics that deals with the study of relationship between electricity and
magnetism is called electromagnetism.

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Force on Current Carrying Conductor in a Uniform Magnetic Field

A current carrying conductor has its own magnetic field but when
it is placed in an external magnetic field, the two fields interact
and as a result conductor experiences a force.
Explanation: Consider a straight conductor of length L placed
in a uniform magnetic field B. A current I flow through the conductor,
making an angle α with the magnetic field.
Dependence of Force: The magnitude of force depends upon the following factors:
(a) The force F is directly proportional to the strength of magnetic field (B). 𝐹 ∝ 𝐵 … … … (1)
(b) The force F is directly proportional to the current in the conductor (I). 𝐹 ∝ 𝐼 … … … (2)
(c) The force F is directly proportional to the length of the conductor (L). 𝐹 ∝ 𝐿 … … … (3)
(d) The force F also depends on the angle 𝛼 b/w conductor and magnetic field. 𝐹 ∝ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 … … … (4)
Determination of Force: By combining all these factors, we get.
𝐹 ∝ 𝐼𝐿𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 ⇒ 𝐹 = 𝑘𝐼𝐿𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 where k is constant of proportionality and 𝑘 = 1.
Hence, the force acting on a current carrying conductor is, 𝐹 = 𝐼𝐿𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
Vector Form: In vector form, the force acting on a current carrying conductor is,
𝐹 = 𝐼𝐿𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 𝑛̂ = 𝐼(𝐿 ⃗ ×𝐵⃗)

Relation with Magnetic Induction / Magnetic Field Strength: As we know that, 𝐹 = 𝐼𝐿𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
By putting, 𝐼 = 1𝐴, 𝐿 = 1𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛼 = 90𝑜 . So, 𝐹 = 𝐵(1)(1)𝑠𝑖𝑛90𝑜 = 𝐵
Thus, B represents the strength of magnetic field which is also known as magnetic induction.
Direction of Magnetic Force: The direction of magnetic force can be determined by using right hand rule.
Determination: Following are the steps for determining direction of magnetic force with right hand rule:
(i) Point the first finger in the direction of magnetic field (B).
(ii) Point the second finger in the direction of current (I).
(iii) Then the thumb shows the direction of force (F) on the conductor.
Magnetic Field Strength / Magnetic Induction: The force experienced per unit length of a conductor
carrying unit current, placed perpendicular to the magnetic field is called magnetic field strength or
Magnetic induction (in terms of force). Unit: Its SI unit is tesla.

Tesla: The magnetic induction is said to be one tesla if it exerts one newton force on conductor of length one
meter placed perpendicular to the field, when one ampere current passes through it.
1 𝑛𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛
Mathematically, 1𝑇 = 1 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒 ×1 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 1𝑁𝐴−1 𝑚−1

Magnetic Flux
Magnetic Flux: The number of magnetic field lines passing through certain area element is called magnetic
⃗ ∙ 𝐴 = 𝐵𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 Unit: Its SI unit is
flux through that area. Mathematically, Kirchhoff’s𝐵 = 𝐵
𝑤𝑒𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑁𝑚𝐴−1 .
Special Cases:
Case-1 (Maximum Flux): When area is held perpendicular to
magnetic field lines, then magnetic flux will be maximum. In this case,
𝜃 = 0𝑜 . As, 𝛷𝐵 = 𝐵 ⃗ ∙ 𝐴 = 𝐵𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝐵𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠0𝑜 = 𝐵𝐴(1) = 𝐵𝐴
Case-2 (Minimum Flux): When area is held parallel to
magnetic field lines, then magnetic flux is minimum. In this case,
𝜃 = 90𝑜 . As, 𝛷𝐵 = 𝐵 ⃗ ∙ 𝐴 = 𝐵𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝐵𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠90𝑜 = 𝐵𝐴(0) = 0
⃗ ∆𝐴
Case-3: When the curved surface is placed in non-uniform magnetic field. Then, 𝛷𝐵 = ∑ 𝐵

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Magnetic Flux Density / Magnetic Induction: The magnetic flux per unit area of a surface perpendicular to
magnetic field is called magnetic flux density or magnetic induction (in terms of flux).
𝛷𝐵
Mathematically, 𝐵 = Unit: Its SI unit is 𝑊𝑏𝑚−2 𝑜𝑟 𝑁𝐴−1 𝑚−1 𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑙𝑎 (𝑇).
𝐴

Ampere’s Law
Statement: It states that “The sum of 𝐵 ⃗ ∙ ∆𝐿
⃗ for all small elements of a closed loop is equal to 𝜇𝑜 times the
total current enclosed by the loop”.
Mathematically, (𝐵 ⃗ ∙ ∆𝐿
⃗ )1 +, (𝐵
⃗ ∙ ∆𝐿
⃗ )2 + ⋯ +, (𝐵⃗ ∙ ∆𝐿⃗ ) 𝑁 = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼 ⇒ ∑𝑁 ⃗ ⃗
𝑟=𝐼(𝐵 ∙ ∆𝐿) = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼
𝑟
Field Inside a Current Carrying Solenoid: The solenoid is a long tightly
wound cylindrical coil of wire. The field inside the solenoid is strong and
uniform as compared to outside.
Determination of Magnetic Field: Consider a rectangular loop abcd.
Divide the loop into four elements of lengths as,
𝑎𝑏 = 𝑙1 , 𝑏𝑐 = 𝑙2 , 𝑐𝑑 = 𝑙3 , 𝑑𝑎 = 𝑙4
and current enclosed by 𝑛𝑙1 loop = 𝑛𝑙1 𝐼 … … … (1)
Using Ampere’s Law: By applying ampere’s law, we get, ∑4𝑟=𝐼(𝐵 ⃗ ∙ ∆𝐿
⃗ ) = 𝜇𝑜 (𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑)
𝑟
⃗ ∙ ∆𝐿
(𝐵 ⃗ )1 +, (𝐵
⃗ ∙ ∆𝐿
⃗ )2 + (𝐵
⃗ ∙ ∆𝐿
⃗ )3 + (𝐵
⃗ ∙ ∆𝐿
⃗ )4 = 𝜇𝑜 (𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑) … … … (2)
⃗ ∙ ∆𝐿
Now, we will calculate the value of 𝐵 ⃗ for each element.
For Length Element ab: for the element 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑙1 , field inside the solenoid is parallel to 𝑙1. So,
(𝐵⃗ ∙ ∆𝐿
⃗ )1 = 𝐵𝑙1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝐵𝑙1 𝑐𝑜𝑠0𝑜 = 𝐵𝑙1 (1) = 𝐵𝑙1 … … … (3)
For Length Element bc: for the element 𝑏𝑐 = 𝑙2 , field inside the solenoid is perpendicular to 𝑙2 . So,
(𝐵⃗ ∙ ∆𝐿
⃗ )2 = 𝐵𝑙2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝐵𝑙2 𝑐𝑜𝑠90𝑜 = 𝐵𝑙2 (0) = 0 … … … (4)
For Length Element cd: As the element 𝑐𝑑 = 𝑙3, lies outside the solenoid. So, the magnetic field is
neglected. So 𝐵 = 0, ⃗ ∙ ∆𝐿
(𝐵 ⃗ )3 = 𝐵𝑙3 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = (0)𝑙3 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 0 … … … (5)
For Length Element da: for the element 𝑑𝑎 = 𝑙4 , field inside the solenoid is perpendicular to 𝑙4 . So,
(𝐵⃗ ∙ ∆𝐿⃗ )4 = 𝐵𝑙4 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝐵𝑙4 𝑐𝑜𝑠90𝑜 = 𝐵𝑙4 (0) = 0 … … … (6)
Using equation (3), (4), (5) and (6) in equation (2), we get,
𝐵𝑙1 + 0 + 0 + 0 = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼 ⇒ 𝐵𝑙1 = 𝜇𝑜 (𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑) … … … (7)
Using equation (2) in (7), we get: 𝐵𝑙1 = 𝜇𝑜 × 𝑛𝑙1 𝐼 ⇒ 𝐵 = 𝜇𝑜 𝑛𝐼
Direction of Magnetic Field: The magnetic field is along the axis of solenoid. It direction can be determined
by right hand rule.
Determination: (i) Hold the solenoid in right hand. (ii) Curl the fingers in the direction of current.
(iii) Then the thumb will show the direction of magnetic field.

Force on Moving Charge in Magnetic Field

The magnetic field exerts the force on the charged particles moving in the conductor. This force is given by,
𝐹 = 𝑞(𝑣 × 𝐵 ⃗)
Explanation: Consider a segment of wire of length L and area of cross section A is placed in magnetic field
⃗ ×𝐵
B and I be the current flowing thorough the wire. Then, the magnetic force is, 𝐹𝐿 = 𝐼(𝐿 ⃗ ) … … … (1)
Let, Total number of charge carriers in the wire segment = 𝑛𝐴𝐿
And, Total charge on nAL charge carriers = ∆𝑄 = 𝑛𝐴𝐿𝑞
where A is the area of cross-section of wire, L is the length of conductor,
n is the number of charge carriers and q is the charge on a each charge carrier.
∆𝑄 𝑛𝐴𝐿𝑞 𝐿
As, 𝐼 = = = 𝑛𝐴𝑞𝑣 … … … (2) ∴ ∆𝑡 = 𝑣
∆𝑡 𝐿/𝑣

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Using this value of current in equation (1) we get, 𝐹𝐿 = 𝑛𝐴𝑞𝑣(𝐿 ⃗ ×𝐵 ⃗ ) … … … (3)

⃗ is similar to 𝑣. So, we can write, 𝐿̂ = 𝑣̂ 𝑆𝑜, 𝐿
As, the direction of segment 𝐿 ⃗ = 𝐿𝐿̂ = 𝐿𝑣̂
Thus equation (3) becomes, 𝐹𝐿 = 𝑛𝐴𝑞𝑣(𝐿𝑣̂ × 𝐵 ⃗ ) = 𝑛𝐴𝑞𝐿(𝑣𝑣̂ × 𝐵 ⃗ ) = 𝑛𝐴𝑞𝐿(𝑣 × 𝐵 ⃗) ∴ 𝑣𝑣̂ = 𝑣
This is the force experienced by nAL charges. Now, the force experience by a single charge is,
𝐹𝐿 𝑛𝐴𝑞𝐿(𝑣 × 𝐵 ⃗)
𝐹= = = 𝑞(𝑣 × 𝐵 ⃗ ) … … … (4)
𝑛𝐴𝐿 𝑛𝐴𝐿
This is general equation for any charge moving in a magnetic field.
Direction of Force: For a positive charge the direction of force is given by the direction of vector (𝑣 × 𝐵 ⃗ ).
It can be determined by right hand rule.
Determination: (i) Point fingers in the direction of v (velocity). (ii) Curl the fingers towards B (magnetic
field). (iii) Then, the thumb shows the direction of force.

Lorentz Force: The total force on a charged particle moving in electric field (E) and magnetic field (B) is
called Lorentz Force. Mathematically, 𝐹 = 𝐹𝑒 + 𝐹𝐵 = 𝑞𝐸⃗ + 𝑞(𝑣 × 𝐵 ⃗)

Determination of e/m of an Electron

J.J Thomson firstly determines the charge to mass ratio of an electron.
Principle: When a beam of charge particles passes through a magnetic field, it is deflected.
Explanation: Consider a narrow beam of electrons moving with uniform velocity v, perpendicular to a
uniform magnetic field B. Then the force on electron is, 𝐹 = −𝑒(𝑣 × 𝐵 ⃗)
Since, the magnitude of force acing on an electron is, 𝐹𝐵 = 𝑒𝑣𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
As v and B are perpendicular to each other i.e. 𝜃 = 90𝑜 . So, 𝐹𝐵 = 𝑒𝑣𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛90𝑜 = 𝑒𝑣𝐵(1) = 𝑒𝑣𝐵 … … … (1)
𝑚𝑣 2
As this force provides the necessary centripetal force, 𝐹𝑐 = … … … (2)
𝑟
𝑚𝑣 2 𝑒 𝑣
By comparing equation (1) and (2) we get, 𝐹𝐵 = 𝐹𝑐 ⇒ 𝐵𝑒𝑣 = ⇒ = … … … (3)
𝑟 𝑚 𝐵𝑟
If v and r are known then, e/m of the electron can be determined.
The energy gained by electrons during their acceleration is Ve. This appears as the kinetic energy of the
1 2𝑉𝑒
electrons. So, 𝐾. 𝐸 = 𝑉𝑒 ⇒ 2 𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑉𝑒 ⇒𝑣=√ 𝑚

𝑒 1 2𝑉𝑒
By putting the value of v in equation (3) we get, = 𝐵𝑟 √
𝑚 𝑚
𝑒2 2𝑉𝑒 𝑒 2𝑉
Squaring on both sides, we get = 𝑚𝐵2𝑟 2 ⇒ 𝑚 = 𝐵2 𝑟 2 … … … (4)
𝑚2
Knowing all the values, e/m can be calculated.

Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)

CRO: It is an electronic device used to display, measure, and study the waveform of electrical signals.
Principle: When a charged particle moves in an electric field, a force acts on it.
Construction / Parts: It consist of: (i) Filament (ii) Cathode (iii) Grid (iv) Anodes (v) Horizontal deflecting
plates (vi) Vertical deflecting plates (vii) Fluorescent screen
Working of CRO: It uses a cathode ray tube (CRT). An electron beam is produced, accelerated, and
focused. The beam strikes to the fluorescent screen, forming a visible spot. Input signals deflect the beam,
producing a waveform on the screen.
Uses of CRO: It is used: (i) to measure voltage, current and frequency. (ii) to study waveforms of alternating
signals. (iii) to measure phase difference b/w two signals. (iv) to check electrical circuit & electronic
devices.

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Torque on Current Carrying Coil

Explanation: Consider a current carrying coil is placed in uniform magnetic field B. As the force acting on
⃗ ×𝐵
a conductor of length L is, 𝐹 = 𝐼(𝐿 ⃗ ) = 𝐼𝐿𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
where 𝜃 is the angle between length L and magnetic field B.
Divide the length of rectangular coil into four segments EF, FG, GH, HE. Now force acting on the sides of
the coil can be calculated as:
Force on segment EF: As EF is anti-parallel to magnetic field i.e. 𝜃 = 180𝑜 . So,
𝐹𝐸𝐹 = 𝐼(𝐸𝐹)𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛180𝑜 = 𝐼(𝐸𝐹)𝐵(0) = 0
Force on segment FG: As FG is perpendicular to magnetic field i.e. 𝜃 = 90𝑜 . So,
𝐹𝐹𝐺 = 𝐼(𝐹𝐺)𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛90𝑜 = 𝐼(𝐹𝐺)𝐵(1) = 𝐼𝐿𝐵
Force on segment GH: As GH is parallel to magnetic field i.e. 𝜃 = 0𝑜 . So,
𝐹𝐺𝐻 = 𝐼(𝐺𝐻)𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛0𝑜 = 𝐼(𝐺𝐻)𝐵(0) = 0
Force on segment HE: As HE is perpendicular to magnetic field i.e. 𝜃 = 90𝑜 . So,
𝐹𝐻𝐸 = 𝐼(𝐻𝐸)𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛90𝑜 = 𝐼(𝐻𝐸)𝐵(1) = 𝐼𝐿𝐵
𝐹𝐹𝐺 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹𝐻𝐸 are equal and opposite. So, they form a couple. Now,
Torque due to couple = (magnitude of either force) (couple arm)
𝜏 = 𝐼𝐿𝐵 × 𝑎
If the field makes an angle 𝛼 with the plane of coil, then the couple arm become 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼. So,
𝜏 = 𝐼𝐿𝐵 × 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 = 𝐼𝐵(𝐿𝑎)𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 = 𝐼𝐵𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 ∴ 𝐿𝑎 = 𝐴 (𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙)
If there are N number of turns of on coil, then 𝜏 = 𝑁𝐼𝐵𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼
where 𝛼 is the angle between magnetic field and plane coil.

Galvanometer
Galvanometer: It is an electrical device which is used to detect the passage of current through a circuit. It
easily measures small amount of current.
Principle: Torque acts on a current carrying coil when placed in uniform magnetic field. 𝜏 = 𝑁𝐼𝐵𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼
Construction: Galvanometer consist of: (i) A U-shaped magnet (ii) A rectangular coil (iii) A non-magnetic
frame (iv) A suspension wire (v) A loosely wound spiral (vi) An iron cylinder
Working: When the current is passed through the coil, torque acts on the coil and the coil tends to rotate.
This torque is known as deflecting torque.
Deflecting torque: As, 𝜏 = 𝑁𝐼𝐵𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼
Since the coil is always parallel to field i.e. 𝛼 = 0𝑜 . So, 𝜏 = 𝑁𝐼𝐵𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠0𝑜 = 𝑁𝐼𝐵𝐴(1) = 𝑁𝐼𝐵𝐴 … … … (1)
Restoring Torque: It obeys Hook’s law, 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 ∝ 𝜃 ⇒ 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 = 𝐶𝜃 … … … (2)
Equilibrium State: When the coil is in the state of rest or in equilibrium. Then,
𝐶𝜃 𝐶
Deflection Torque = Restoring Torque ⇒ 𝑁𝐼𝐴𝐵 = 𝐶𝜃 ⇒ 𝐼 = 𝑁𝐵𝐴 ⇒𝐼∝𝜃 ∴ 𝐵𝐴𝑁 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡.
So the current passing through the coil is directly proportional to deflection 𝜃.

Current Sensitivity of Galvanometer: The ability of a galvanometer to show a large deflection for a small
current is called sensitivity of galvanometer. Example: Used in null point detection in Wheatstone bridge.
𝜃 𝐵𝑁𝐴
Mathematically, 𝑆 = =
𝐼 𝑐
𝑐 𝜃 𝐵𝑁𝐴
Increases Sensitivity: As we know that, as we know that, 𝐼 = ( )𝜃 So, 𝑆 = =
𝐵𝑁𝐴 𝐼 𝑐
𝑐
Thus, in order to increase the sensitivity, the factor 𝐵𝑁𝐴 must be very small. By increasing B, the increase in
sensitivity is the most effective method for making galvanometer more sensitive.

Dead Beat Galvanometer: It comes to rest quickly without oscillations when current passes. Its purpose is
to give quick, steady readings. Example: Used in moving coil instruments like ammeters and voltmeters.

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Ammeter:
Ammeter: It is an electrical device which is used to measure the current. It is modified form of
galvanometer. It is a low resistance galvanometer. It is always connected in series with circuit. An ideal
ammeter has zero resistance.
Conversion of Galvanometer into Ammeter: To measure large current, a low resistance (shunt) is
connected parallel with galvanometer.
Derivation: Let, 𝐼 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝐼𝑔 = 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑔𝑎𝑙𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟, 𝑅𝑔 = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓
galvanometer, 𝑆 = 𝑠ℎ𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Since, voltage across galvanometer = voltage across shunt ⇒ 𝐼𝑔 𝑅𝑔 = (𝐼 − 𝐼𝑔 )𝑆
𝐼𝑔 𝑅𝑔
So the required parallel resistance is: 𝑆 = (𝐼−𝐼
𝑔)

Thus, galvanometer works as an ammeter of range I.

Voltmeter
Voltmeter: It is an electrical device with is used to measure the potential difference. It is modified form of
galvanometer. It is a high resistance galvanometer. It is always connected in parallel with the circuit. An
ideal voltmeter has infinite resistance.
Conversion of Galvanometer into Voltmeter: To measure potential difference, a high resistance (R) is
connected in series with galvanometer.
Derivation: Let, 𝑉 = 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝐼𝑔 = 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑅𝑔 = resistance of
galvanometer, 𝑅 = 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Since, voltmeter measures, 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑔 (𝑅 + 𝑅𝑔 )
𝑉
So the required series resistance is, 𝑅 = 𝐼 − 𝑅𝑔
𝑔

Thus, galvanometer works as a voltmeter of range V.

Ohmmeter: It is an electrical device which is used to measure the value of unknown resistance.

AVO Meter / Multimeter: It is an electrical instrument which can measure the current in amperes, potential
difference in volts and resistance in ohms.
Digital Multimeter (DMM): It is an electronic instrument which is used to measure current, resistance and
voltage in a circuit. The important feature of digital multimeter is: (i) It is digital version of an AVO meter.
(ii) It is very accurate device. (iii) It is very easy to operate. (iv) It is much easier to read.

Additional Questions
Q1. Distinguish between sensitive and dead-beat galvanometer?
Ans: Sensitive Galvanometer: It shows a large deflection even for a very small current. Its purpose is to
detect weak currents. Example: Used in null point detection in Wheatstone bridge.
Dead-beat Galvanometer: It comes to rest quickly without oscillations when current passes. Its purpose is to
give quick, steady readings. Example: Used in moving coil instruments like ammeters and voltmeters.

Q2. Why is “B” non-zero outside a solenoid?

Ans: The magnetic field outside the solenoid is very small but not exactly zero.
Reason: The magnetic field lines outside the solenoid are far apart and not equidistant. This makes the field
very weak and non-uniform. That is why the field outside the solenoid is very small as compare to the inside
field, but it is not completely zero.

Q3. Can an electron at rest be set in motion with a magnet?

Ans: No, an electron at rest cannot be set in motion with a magnet.

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12th Physics Notes Prof. Irfan Elahi

Reason: Electron at rest cannot be set in motion with a magnet because charge at rest experiences no force
in magnetic field. As we know that, 𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 But 𝑣 = 0 𝑆𝑜, 𝐹 = 𝑞(0)𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 0

Q4. State the principle to determine the charge to mass ration of an electron?
Ans: Principle: The principal to determine the charge mass ratio of an electron is “When an electron enters
perpendicularly in a uniform magnetic field then magnetic force provides the necessary centripetal force and
deflect it into a circular path”. i.e. 𝐹𝑚 = 𝐹𝑐

Exercise Questions
Q1. A plane conducting loop is located in a uniform magnetic field that is directed along the x-axis.
(a) For what orientation of the loop is the flux a maximum?
When the plane of loop is perpendicular to direction of B or in yz plan, then the flux is maximum.
Explanation: In this case, 𝜃 = 0°
𝛷𝐵 = 𝐵. 𝐴 = 𝐵𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝐵𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠0° = 𝐵𝐴 (𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚)
(b) For what orientation is the flux a minimum?
When the plan of loop is parallel to direction of B or in xy plan, then the flux is minimum.
Explanation: In this case, 𝜃 = 90°
𝛷𝐵 = 𝐵. 𝐴 = 𝐵𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝐵𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠90° = 0 (𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚)
Q2. A current in a conductor produces a magnetic field, which can be calculated using Ampere’s law. Since
current is defined as the rate of flow of charge, what can you conclude about the magnetic field due to stationary
charges? What about moving charges?
Ans: (a) Magnetic field due to stationary charges is zero.
Reason: This is because stationary charges do not produce current.
𝜇𝑜 𝐼
So, the magnetic field is: 𝐵 = 2𝜋𝑟 =0 ∴𝐼=0
(b) Magnetic field due to moving charges is not equal to zero.
Reason: This is because moving charges produce current.
𝜇 𝐼
So, the magnetic field is: 𝐵 = 𝑜 ≠ 0 ∴ 𝐼 ≠ 0
2𝜋𝑟

Q3. Describe the change in the magnetic field inside a solenoid carrying a steady current if,
(a) the length of the solenoid is doubled but the number of turns remains the same:
In this case magnetic field is reduced to half.
𝑁𝐼 𝑁
Explanation: As field due to solenoid is: 𝐵 = 𝜇𝑜 𝑛𝐼 = 𝜇𝑜 𝑙 ∴𝑛= 𝑙
𝑁𝐼 1 𝑁𝐼 1
In this case, 𝑙 ′ = 2𝑙 then, 𝐵 ′ = 𝜇𝑜 2𝑙 = 2 𝜇𝑜 𝑙 = 2 𝐵
(b) the number of turns is doubled, but the length remains the same:
In this case magnetic field is increased to doubled.
𝑁𝐼 𝑁
Explanation: As field due to solenoid is: 𝐵 = 𝜇𝑜 𝑛𝐼 = 𝜇𝑜 𝑙 ∴𝑛= 𝑙
2𝑁𝐼 𝑁𝐼
In this case, 𝑁 ′ = 2𝑁 then, 𝐵 ′ = 𝜇𝑜 = 2𝜇𝑜 = 2𝐵
𝑙 𝑙

Q4. At a given instant, a proton moves in the positive x direction in a region where there is a magnetic field in the
negative z direction. What is the direction of the magnetic force? Will the proton continue to move in the positive x
direction? Explain.
Ans: (a) Magnetic force is directed along positive y-direction.
Reason: According to right hand rule, the direction of magnetic force F is
along y-axis because magnetic force acting on proton is: 𝐹 = 𝑞(𝑣 × 𝐵)
(b) Will the proton continue to move in the positive x direction? Explain.
No, the proton will not continue to move in the positive x-direction but proton will now start moving in
circular path in XY-plane under the action of magnetic force.
Q5. Two charged particles are projected into a region where there is a magnetic field perpendicular to their
velocities. If the charges are deflected in opposite directions, what can you say about them?
Ans: The two particles are oppositely charged.
Reason: If the charges are deflected in opposite direction when projected in magnetic field then the particles

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are oppositely charged. One has positive charge and other has negative charge. The magnetic force acting
on a charged particle is: 𝐹 = 𝑞(𝑣 × 𝐵) [𝑓𝑜𝑟 + 𝑣𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒] 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹 = −𝑞(𝑣 × 𝐵) [𝑓𝑜𝑟 − 𝑣𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒]
Q6. Suppose that a charge q is moving in a uniform magnetic field with a velocity v. Why is there no work done by
the magnetic force that acts on the charge q?
Ans: Reason: The magnetic force acting on a charged particle is: 𝐹 = 𝑞(𝑣 × 𝐵)
As magnetic force is always perpendicular to v. therefore, angle between F and d is 90° . (i.e.𝜃 = 90° ).
So, 𝑊 = 𝐹 . 𝑑 = 𝐹𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝐹𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠90° = 0
Hence, no work is done by magnetic force.
Q7. If a charged particle moves in a straight line through some region of space, can you say that the magnetic field
in the region is zero?
Ans: No, it may or may not be zero.
Reason: The magnetic field acting on a charged particle is: 𝐹 = 𝑞(𝑣 × 𝐵) 𝑂𝑅 𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑛̂
𝐹 = 0 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓: (𝑖)𝐵 = 0 (𝑖𝑖)𝜃 = 0° (𝑖𝑖𝑖)𝜃 = 180°
Q8. Why does the picture on a TV screen become distorted when a magnet is brought near the screen?
Ans: Reason: We know that the picture on a TV screen is formed due to the beam of electrons.
When a magnet is brought near screen, it interacts with the magnetic field around the beam of electrons. So
magnetic force acts on the beam, which is given by: 𝐹 = 𝑞(𝑣 × 𝐵)
As a result the picture on TV screen becomes distorted.
Q9. Is it possible to orient a current loop in a uniform magnetic field such that the loop will not tend to rotate?
Explain.
Ans: Yes, it is possible.
Explanation: As we know that the torque acting on a current loop in a magnetic field is: 𝜏 = 𝑁𝐼𝐴𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼
When the plan of loop is held perpendicular to magnetic field. (i.e. 𝛼 = 90° ) then, 𝜏 = 𝑁𝐼𝐴𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠90° = 0
So, loop will not tend to rotate in this case.
Q10. How can a current loop be used to determine the presence of a magnetic field in a given region of space?
Ans: Explanation: As we know that the torque acting on current loop is: 𝜏 = 𝑁𝐼𝐴𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼
So, if a current loop experiences a torque in given region of space, then it shows the presence of magnetic
field. (other than 𝛼 = 90° )
Q11. How can you use a magnetic field to separate isotopes of chemical element?
Ans: When the isotopes of a chemical element are passed through perpendicular magnetic field, they begin
to move in different circular paths due to their different masses.
𝑚𝑣 2 𝑚𝑣
As, 𝑞𝑣𝐵 = ⇒𝑟= ∴ 𝑚, 𝑞 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝑟 ∝ 𝑚
𝑟 𝑞𝐵
In this way isotopes of an element can be separated.
Q12. What should be the orientation of a current carrying coil in a magnetic field so that torque acting upon the
coil is (a) maximum (b) minimum?
Ans: (a) Maximum: When the plane of current carrying coil is parallel to the magnetic field, torque will be
maximum.
Explanation: As, : 𝜏 = 𝑁𝐼𝐴𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 = 𝑁𝐼𝐴𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠0° = 𝑁𝐼𝐴𝐵 (𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚) ∴ 𝛼 = 0°
(b) Minimum: When the plane of current carrying coil is perpendicular to the magnetic field, torque will be
minimum.
Explanation: As, : 𝜏 = 𝑁𝐼𝐴𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 = 𝑁𝐼𝐴𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠90° = 0 (𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚) ∴ 𝛼 = 90°
Q13. A loop of wire is suspended between the poles of a magnet with its plane parallel to the pole faces. What
happens if a direct current is put through the coil? What happens if an alternating current is used instead?
Ans: In both cases (A.C and D.C) the plane of the loop will not rotate.
Reason: Since, in both cases the plane of the loop and magnetic field are perpendicular. So, the torque will
be zero. As, 𝜏 = 𝑁𝐼𝐴𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 = 𝑁𝐼𝐴𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠90° = 0 ∴ 𝛼 = 90°
Q14. Why the resistance of an ammeter should be very low?
Ans: Reason: Ammeter is used to measure the current. It is always connected in series to the circuit. Its

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resistance should be very low so that it does not disturb the circuit. Because if the resistance of the ammeter
is high then it will change the circuit and become a load. So, the current will not be measured accurately.
Q15. Why the voltmeter should have a very high resistance?
Ans: Reason: Voltmeter is used to measure the potential difference. It is always connected in parallel to the
circuit. Its resistance should be very high so that it does not disturb the circuit. Because if the resistance of
the voltmeter is low then it will change the circuit and become a load. So, the potential difference will not be
measured accurately.

CHAPTER # 15 — ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Electromagnetic Induction: The production of emf due to change in magnetic flux is called electromagnetic
induction. Its applications are transformer, power generating system, ATM card.

Induced Current: The current produced in a conductor due to induced emf is called induced current.
Induced Emf: The emf produced in a conductor due to change in magnetic flux is called induced emf.

Motional Emf
Motional Emf: The emf induced by the motion of a conductor in a magnetic field is called motional emf.
Mathematically, 𝜀 = −𝑣𝐵𝐿𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Explanation: When the rod moves in a magnetic field, it separates charges. This creates the potential
difference between the ends of the rod. Hence, the rod acts as a source of emf, 𝜀 = 𝑉𝑏 − 𝑉𝑎 = ∆𝑉
Magnetic Force Acting on the Charge: As we know that, 𝐹 = 𝑞(𝑣 × 𝐵 ⃗ ) = 𝑞𝑣𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Since the angle between v and B is 90𝑜 . So, 𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛90𝑜 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵(1) = 𝑞𝑣𝐵 … … … (1)
Electric Force Acting on the Charge: The electrostatic force on the charge is, 𝐹𝑒 = 𝑞𝐸 … … … (2)
Equilibrium State: In equilibrium state, these two forces on the charge are balanced. If 𝐸𝑜 is the electric
intensity in this state. then, 𝑞𝐸𝑜 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵 ⇒ 𝐸𝑜 = 𝑣𝐵 … … … (3)
∆𝑉
Derivation of Motional emf: We know that, 𝐸𝑜 = − … … … (4)
𝐿
∆𝑉
Comparing equations (3) and (4), we have − = 𝑣𝐵 ⇒ ∆𝑉 = −𝑣𝐵𝐿
𝐿
So, the motional emf is, 𝜀 = ∆𝑉 = −𝑣𝐵𝐿 … … … (5)
This is the expression for motional emf. However, if the angle between v and B is 𝜃, then
𝜀 = −𝑣𝐵𝐿𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 … … … (6)
The above equation shows that no current is induced if the rod is stationary.

Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction

Statement: It states that “The average emf induced in a coil of N loops is equal to the negative of time rate
∆𝜙
of change of magnetic flux through the coil”. Mathematically, 𝜀 = −𝑁 ∆𝑡
Explanation: When a rod moves in a magnetic field, if it changes its position
∆𝑥
by ∆𝑥 in ∆𝑡, then its velocity v is, 𝑣 = … … … (1) where ∆𝑥 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1
∆𝑡
Now the motional emf is, 𝜀 = −𝑣𝐵𝐿𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = −𝑣𝐵𝐿𝑠𝑖𝑛90𝑜 = −𝑣𝐵𝐿(1) = −𝑣𝐵𝐿
Putting value of v from equation (1), we get
∆𝑥 ∆𝑥𝐿 𝐵∆𝐴 ∆𝜙
𝜀 = − ( ∆𝑡 ) 𝐵𝐿 = −𝐵 ( ∆𝑡 ) = − ( ) = − ∆𝑡 … … … (2) ∴ ∆𝐴 = ∆𝑥𝐿 ∴ 𝐵∆𝐴 = ∆𝜙
∆𝑡
∆𝜙
If the coil consists of N number of turns then equation (3) becomes, 𝜀 = −𝑁 ∆𝑡
Conclusion: This is the Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. The negative sign shows the direction
of induced emf.

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Lenz’s Law: It states that “The direction of induced current is always such that it opposes the change which
causes current”. Lenz’s law is in accordance with law of conservation of energy.

Mutual Induction
Mutual Induction: The phenomenon in which changing of current in one coil induces an emf in another
coil, is called mutual induction.
Primary and Secondary coils: One coil connected with a battery
through a switch and a rheostat is called primary coil,
while the other connected to a galvanometer is called secondary coil.
EMF Induced in secondary coil: According to Faraday’s Law,
∆𝜙𝑠
induced emf in secondary coil is, 𝜀𝑠 = −𝑁𝑠 … … … (1)
∆𝑡
where 𝑁𝑠 are the number of turns in the secondary coil.
Mutual Inductance: It is the emf induced in the secondary coil when the rate of change of current in the
∆𝐼𝑝
primary coil is one ampere per second. i.e. 𝑀 = 𝜀𝑠 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 = 1𝐴𝑠 −1
∆𝑡
Unit: Its SI unit is 𝑉𝐴−1 𝑠 known as henry (H).
Explanation: As the whole magnetic flux 𝑁𝑠 𝜙𝑠 is directly proportional to current 𝐼𝑝 flowing through the
primary coil. So, 𝑁𝑠 𝜙𝑠 ∝ 𝐼𝑝 ⇒ 𝑁𝑠 𝜙𝑠 = 𝑀𝐼𝑝 … … … (2)
𝑁𝑠 𝜙𝑠
𝑀= … … … (3) where M is the constant of proportionality known as mutual inductance of two coils.
𝐼𝑝
∆(𝑁𝑠 𝜙𝑠 )
From equation (1), we have 𝜀𝑠 = − … … … (4)
∆𝑡
∆(𝑀𝐼𝑝 ) ∆𝐼𝑝 𝜀
Using equation (2) and (4), we have 𝜀𝑠 = − = −𝑀 ⇒ 𝑀 = ∆𝐼𝑝𝑠 … … … (5)
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡 ⁄
∆𝑡
∆𝐼𝑝
Hence, If = 1𝐴𝑠 −1 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑀 = 𝜀𝑠
∆𝑡
Dependence of Mutual Inductance: It depends upon: (i) No. of turns of the coils (ii) Area of cross section of
coils. (iii) Closeness of coils. (iv) Nature of core material. (v) Orientation of the coils.

Henry: If an emf of 1 volt is induced in an inductor when the current through it changes at the rate of 1
ampere per second, then the inductance of the inductor is said to be one henry. 1𝐻 = 1𝑉𝐴−1 𝑠 = 1Ω𝑠

Self-Induction
Self-Induction: The phenomena in which changing of current in a coil induces an emf in itself is called self-
induction.
Self-Inductance: The ratio of induced emf produced in a coil to rate of change of current in the same coil.
Unit: Its SI unit is 𝑉𝐴−1 𝑠 which is equal to henry (H).
Explanation: As the magnetic flux 𝑁𝜙 is directly proportional to current 𝐼 flowing through the coil.
𝑁𝜙
So, 𝑁𝜙 ∝ 𝐼 ⇒ 𝑁𝜙 = 𝐿𝐼 ⇒𝐿= … … … (1)
𝐼
where L is the constant of proportionality known as self-inductance. According to Faraday’s law, the
∆𝜙
induced emf can be expressed as, 𝜀𝐿 = −𝑁 ∆𝑡 … … … (2)
𝑁𝜙 −∆(𝐿𝐼)
𝜀𝐿 = −∆ ( ) = ∴ 𝑁𝜙 = 𝐿𝐼
Δ𝑡 Δ𝑡
∆𝐼 𝜀𝐿
But L is constant. So, 𝜀𝐿 = −𝐿 ∆𝑡 ⇒ 𝐿 = ∆𝐼 … … … (4)
⁄∆𝑡
∆(𝐿𝐼) ∆𝐼 𝜀
Using equation (2) and (4), we have 𝜀𝐿 = − = −𝐿 ∆𝑡 ⇒ 𝐿 = ∆𝐼 𝐿 … … … (5)
∆𝑡 ⁄∆𝑡
∆𝐼
Hence, If = 1𝐴𝑠 −1 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐿 = 𝜀𝐿
∆𝑡

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Energy Stored in an Inductor

Energy Stored in an Inductor: Just as energy can be stored in the electric field between the plates of a
capacitor. Similarly, energy can be stored in the magnetic field of an inductor.
Explanation: Let the work done in moving the small charge ∆𝑞 against the induced emf is, 𝑊 = ∆𝑞𝜀𝐿
Δ𝐼
where 𝜀𝐿 is the magnitude of induced emf and can be expressed as 𝜀𝐿 = 𝐿 Δ𝑡
Δ𝐼 ∆𝑞
So, 𝑊 = ∆𝑞 (𝐿 Δ𝑡) = (𝐿∆𝐼) … … … (1)
∆𝑡
∆𝑞 ∆𝑞 0+𝐼 1
Taking as an average value of current, 𝐼 = = = 2𝐼
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡 2
And change in current is, ∆𝐼 = 𝐼 − 0 = 𝐼
1 1
So, equation (1) becomes 𝑊 = (2 𝐼) (𝐿𝐼) = 2 𝐿𝐼 2
1
As this work done stored in the form of P.E. So, the energy stored in the inductor is, 𝑈𝑚 = 2 𝐿𝐼 2 … … … (2)
𝑁𝜙
Energy Stored in terms of magnetic field: As we know that, 𝑁𝜙 = 𝐿𝐼 ⇒𝐿= 𝐼
𝑁(𝐵𝐴)
As the magnetic flux through the solenoid is 𝜙 = 𝐵𝐴 . So, 𝐿 = 𝐼
𝑁(𝜇𝑜 𝑛𝐼 )𝐴
The magnetic field of a solenoid due to current 𝐼 is 𝐵 = 𝜇𝑜 𝑛𝐼 . So, 𝐿 = 𝐼
𝑁
As n is the number of turns per unit length. i.e. 𝑛 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑁 = 𝑛𝑙 . So, 𝐿 = (𝑛𝑙)𝜇𝑜 𝑛𝐴 = 𝜇𝑜 𝑛2 𝐴𝑙 … … … (3)
𝑙
𝐵
Also by ampere’s law for solenoid is, 𝐼 = 𝜇 … … … (4)
𝑜𝑛
1 𝐵 1 𝐵2 1 𝐵2
Using equation (3) and (4) in (2), we get 𝑈𝑚 = 2 (𝜇𝑜 𝑛2 𝐴𝑙)(𝜇 𝑛)2 = 2 𝜇𝑜 𝑛2 𝐴𝑙 (𝑛2𝜇2 ) = 2 𝜇 (𝐴𝑙)
𝑜 𝑜 𝑜
which is the energy stored in terms of magnetic field (B).
𝑈𝑚 1 𝐵2
Energy Density: Energy stored per unit volume is called energy density. Mathematically, 𝑈𝑚 = = 2𝜇
𝐴𝑙 𝑜

Unit: Its SI unit is 𝐽𝑚−3.

Alternating Current (A.C) Generator

Generator: It is a device which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
A.C Generator: The device which converts the mechanical energy into alternating current signal is called
alternating current generator.
Principle: The Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction is the basic principle of working of an A.C
generator.
Construction: An A.C generator consists of following parts:
(i) Armature (ii) Permanent Magnet (iii) Slip Rings (iv) Carbon Brushes (v) Mechanical Source
Calculation of Induced emf: Let 𝜃 is the angle between magnetic field 𝐵 and velocity 𝑣 of vertical side ab
of loop.
Motional emf in side ab: So the motional emf induced in the side ab is, 𝜀𝑎𝑏 = 𝑣𝐵𝐿𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Motional emf in side cd: The same amount of emf is induced in the side cd, 𝜀𝑐𝑑 = 𝑣𝐵𝐿𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Motional emf by sides bc and da: The emf induced by sides bc and da is zero, 𝜀𝑏𝑐 = 𝜀𝑑𝑎 = 0
Net motional emf: So, the total emf in the loop is, 𝜀 = 𝜀𝑎𝑏 + 𝜀𝑐𝑑 = 𝑣𝐵𝐿𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝑣𝐵𝐿𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 2𝑣𝐵𝐿𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
If there are N turns in the coil then, 𝜀 = 2𝑁𝑣𝐵𝐿𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 2𝑁(𝑟𝜔)𝐵𝐿𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑁𝜔(2𝑟𝐿)𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ∴ 𝑣 = 𝑟𝜔
Now area of coil = 𝐴 = (2𝑟)(𝐿) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃 = 𝜔𝑡 . So, 𝜀 = 𝑁𝜔𝐴𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛(ωt)
Instantaneous emf in terms of maximum emf: It is clear from above equation that induced emf has maximum
value, when 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 = 1 . So, 𝜀𝑜 = 𝜀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑁𝜔𝐴𝐵
So, instantaneous emf can be expressed as, 𝜀 = 𝜀𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 = 𝜀𝑜 sin(2𝜋𝑓𝑡) ∴ 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
This is the relation between instantaneous and maximum emf.

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𝜀
Calculation of Induced current: According to the ohm’s law, the induced current is, 𝐼 =
𝑅
𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑜
Putting the value of 𝜀, we get 𝐼 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑆𝑜, 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 = 𝐼𝑜 sin(2𝜋𝑓𝑡) ∴ = 𝐼𝑜 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
𝑅 𝑅

Back Motor Effect in Generators: When a generator produces current, the current-carrying coil
experiences a force that opposes its rotation. This opposing effect is called back motor effect.
Back Emf in Motors: When a motor runs, the rotating coil cuts the magnetic field and induces an emf
opposite to the applied voltage. This opposing emf is called back emf. Its SI unit is volt (V).

Transformer
Transformer: It is an electrical device which change a given A.C voltage into a larger or smaller A.C
voltage.
Principle: Working principle of transformer is mutual induction between two coils.
Construction: It consists of two copper coils:
Primary Coil: The coil to which A.C power is supplied is called primary coil.
Secondary Coil: The coil to which A.C power is obtained is called secondary coil.
Working:
Emf induced in primary coil: Let, Number of turns of the primary coil = 𝑁𝑝 , Alternating emf applied to the
∆𝜙
primary coil = 𝑉𝑝 , Rate of change of flux in the primary coil = Δ𝑡
∆𝜙
The self-induced emf in primary coil is, 𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑚𝑓 = −𝑁𝑝 = Δ𝑡
If the resistance of the coil is negligible then the back emf is equal and opposite to applied voltage 𝑉𝑝 so,
∆𝜙
𝑉𝑝 = −𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑒𝑚𝑓 Since, 𝑉𝑝 = 𝜀 + 𝐼𝑅; 𝐼𝑓 𝑅 = 0 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑉𝑝 = 𝜀 𝑆𝑜, 𝑉𝑝 = 𝑁𝑝 … … … (1)
∆𝑡
Emf Induced in secondary coil: Let, Number of turns of the secondary coil = 𝑁𝑠 , Alternating emf applied to
∆𝜙
the secondary coil = 𝑉𝑠 , Rate of change of flux in the secondary coil = Δ𝑡
∆𝜙
So, emf induced in the secondary is, 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑁𝑠 … … … (2)
∆𝑡
∆𝜙
𝑉𝑠 𝑁𝑠 𝑉 𝑁
Transformation Ratio: Dividing equation (2) by (1), = ∆𝑡
∆𝜙 ⇒ 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑁𝑠
𝑉𝑝 𝑁𝑝 𝑝 𝑝
∆𝑡
This equation is called transformation ratio.
Types of Transformer: There are two types of transformer:
(i) Step Up transformer (ii) Step Down transformer
(i) Step Up Transformer: A transformer in which secondary voltage is greater than primary voltage is called
a step up transformer. Mathematically, if 𝑁𝑠 > 𝑁𝑝 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑉𝑠 > 𝑉𝑝
(ii) Step Down Transformer: A transformer in which secondary voltage is less than primary voltage is called a
step-down transformer. Mathematically, 𝑖𝑓 𝑁𝑠 < 𝑁𝑝 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑉𝑠 < 𝑉𝑝

Power Losses in Transformer

Power Losses in Transformer: Following are the main causes of power losses in a transformer:
(i) Hysteresis Loss: The loss of energy in a magnetic material due to its repeated magnetization and
demagnetization by alternating current is called hysteresis loss. Reduction: It can be reduced by use of soft
iron core.
(ii) Eddy Currents: The circular currents induced in a conductor when it is placed in a changing magnetic
field are called eddy currents. These eddy currents cause the energy loss. Reduction: It can be reduced by
using laminated core with insulation.

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Additional Questions
Q1. How the efficiency of a transformer can be improved? OR Write methods to minimize power losses in
transformer?
Ans: The power losses in transformer can be minimized by following methods:
(i) Provide proper cooling to avoid overheating. (ii) Use thick copper wire to reduce copper loss. (iii) Use
soft iron core to reduce hysteresis loss. (iv) Use laminated core with insulation to reduce eddy current loss.

Q2. Difference b/w motor and generator?

Ans: Motor is a device which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. The working principle of
motor is torque produced in the current carrying coil placed in magnetic field.
Generator is a device which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. The working principle of
generator is Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic induction.

Exercise Questions
Q1. Does the induced emf in a circuit depend on the resistance of the circuit? Does the induced current depend on
the resistance of the circuit?
Ans: (a) No, induced emf does not depends upon the resistance of circuit.
∆𝜙
Reason: According to Faraday’s law, 𝜀 = −𝑁
∆𝑡
This shows that induced emf does not depends upon resistance of circuit.
(b) Yes, induced current depends upon resistance of the circuit.
𝜀
Reason: As induced current is: 𝐼 = 𝑅
This shows that induced current varies inversely with resistance of the circuit.
Q2. A square loop of wire is moving through a uniform magnetic field. The normal to the loop is oriented parallel
to the magnetic field. Is an emf induced in the loop? Give a reason for your answer.
Ans: No, emf is not induced in the square loop.
∆𝜙
Reason: As we know that the Faraday’s law is: 𝜀 = −𝑁 ∆𝑡
In this case, 𝜙 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 ⇒ ∆𝜙 = 0 Hence, 𝜀 = 0
Q5. Does the induced emf always act to decrease the magnetic flux through a circuit?
Ans: No, it always opposes the change in magnetic flux through a circuit.
Explanation: According to Lenz’s law, the induced emf always opposes the cause that produces it. So, if
magnetic flux is decreasing through a circuit induced emf acts to increase the magnetic flux through the
circuit and vice versa.
Q8. How would you position a flat loop of wire in a changing magnetic field so that there is no emf induced in the
loop?
Ans: If the flat loop of wire is placed parallel in a changing magnetic field. so there will be no emf induced
in the loop.
∆𝜙
Reason: According to Faraday’s law: 𝜀 = −𝑁 ∆𝑡
In this case, 𝜙 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 ⇒ ∆𝜙 = 0 Hence, 𝜀 = 0
Q9. In a certain region the earth’s magnetic field point vertically down. When a plane flies due north, which
wingtip is positively charged?
Ans: West wing tip is positively charged.
Reason: As we know that the magnetic force on a charged particle is: 𝐹 = 𝑞(𝑣 × 𝐵)
According to right hand rule, this force is directed towards west on the positive charged particles. Hence
west wing is positively charged.
𝜟𝜱
Q10. Show that ε and 𝜟𝒕
have the same units.
𝐽 𝛥𝛷 𝑊𝑏 𝑁𝑚𝐴−1 𝑁𝑚 𝐽
Ans: 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝜀 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 = 𝐶 , 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 = = 𝐴 𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 𝐶 ∴ 𝑊𝑏 = 𝑁𝑚𝐴−1 , 𝐽 =
𝛥𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑐

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𝑁𝑚 , 𝐴𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 𝐶
𝛥𝛷
Hence, it is clear that 𝜀 and 𝛥𝑡 have same units.

Q11. When an electric motor, such as an electric drill, is being used, does it also act as an electric generator? If so,
what is the consequence of this?
Ans: Yes, it acts like a generator.
Reason: When the coil of the motor rotates in the magnetic field, the magnetic flux through coil changes.
Which produces an induced emf. This is also called back emf of the motor.
𝑉−𝜀
Consequence: It limits the current flowing through coil of motor. (i.e. 𝐼 = 𝑅 )

Q12. Can a D.C. motor be turned into a D.C. generator? What changes are required to be done?
Ans: Yes, a D.C. motor can be changed into a D.C. generator because the construction of D.C. motor is
similar to that of D.C generator.
Explanation: For conversion, following changes are required to be done: (i) Electromagnet is replaced by
permanent magnet. (ii) Battery is replaced by load. (iii) Rotate the coil mechanically.
Q13. Is it possible to change both the area of the loop and the magnetic field passing through it so that no net emf
is induced in the loop?
Ans: Yes, it is possible.
Explanation: As magnetic flux is, 𝛷𝐵 = 𝐵. 𝐴
So, if we change both B and A of loop in such a way that product of two remains constant, then
𝛷𝐵 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 ⇒ ∆𝛷𝐵 = 0
∆𝜙
According to Faraday’s law, 𝜀 = −𝑁 ∆𝑡 = 0

Q14. Can an electric motor be used to drive an electric generator with the output from the generator being used to
operate the motor?
Ans: No, it is not possible.
Reason: Because if it is possible then it will become a self-operating system which needs no energy from an
external source (except initial push to start the motor) and this is against the law of conservation of energy.
Q15. A suspended magnet is oscillating freely in a horizontal plane. The oscillations are strongly damped when a
metal plate is placed under the magnet. Explain why this occurs?
Ans: Reason: When the metal plate is placed under the magnet, a changing magnetic flux passes through
the plate which produces an induced emf in it. According to Lenz’s law, this induced emf oppose the free
oscillations of magnet. Hence the oscillations of magnet are damped strongly.
Q16. Four unmarked wires emerge from a transformer. What steps would you take to determine the turns ratio?
𝑁
Ans: Steps to determine turns ratio (𝑁𝑠 ):
𝑝
(1) Coils are separated as primary and secondary by using ohm-meter.
(2) An A.C. voltage 𝑉𝑝 is supplied to primary coil and the magnitude of secondary voltage is measured.
𝑁 𝑉
(3) The turns ratio of the coils is determined by the following relation: 𝑁𝑠 = 𝑉𝑠
𝑝 𝑝

Q17. (a) Can a step-up transformer increase the power level?

Ans: No, it cannot increase power level.
Reason: In ideal transformer, power input is always equal to the power output. Therefore, a step-up
transformer cannot increase power level because it is against the law of conservation of energy. It may
increase the voltage level.
(b) In a transformer, there is no transfer of charge from the primary to the secondary. How is, then, the power
transferred?
Explanation: There is no electrical connection between the coil but they are magnetically linked. So, power
is transferred magnetically.
Q18. When the primary of a transformer is connected to A.C. mains the current in it:
(a) is very small if the secondary circuit is open, but
Ans: Reason: In transformer, power input = power output ⇒ 𝑉𝑝 𝐼𝑝 = 𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑠
If secondary circuit is open then 𝐼𝑠 = 0 ⇒ 𝑉𝑝 𝐼𝑝 ≈ 0 Since, 𝑉𝑝 ≠ 0 therefore, 𝐼𝑝 ≈ 0

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(b) increases when the secondary circuit is closed. Explain these facts.
Reason: When the secondary circuit is closed, the output power is increased. Since, in a transformer input
power is nearly equal to output power. Therefore, input power is also increased. Now, Power input = 𝑉𝑝 𝐼𝑝
Since, 𝑉𝑝 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡, So to increase the input power, 𝐼𝑝 should be increased.

CHAPTER # 16 — ALTERNATING CURRENT

Alternating Current: The current whose magnitude and direction change periodically with time is called
alternating current.

A.C Through a Capacitor

A.C Through a Capacitor: Consider a capacitor connected to an alternating current (AC) source. When AC
is applied, the capacitor charges and discharges continuously as the current changes its direction.
Explanation: The relation between the charge q on a capacitor and the voltage V across its plates is,
𝑞 = 𝐶𝑉 As, 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 … … … (1) and 𝑞 = 𝐶𝑉 = 𝐶𝑉𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 … … … (2)
Since C and 𝑉𝑜 are constants, therefore V and q are in phase.
∆𝑞
As we know that, 𝐼 = … … … (3)
∆𝑡
This is the slope of q-t graph, which shows how the charge q varies with time.
Capacitive Reactance: The opposition offered by a capacitor in the flow of A.C is called capacitive
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
reactance. It is represented by 𝑋𝑐 . The capacitive reactance is given by, 𝑋𝑐 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
where 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 is the rms value of alternating voltage across the capacitor and 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 is the rms value of current
passing through the capacitor.
Unit: The SI unit of reactance is ohm.
Dependence of Reactance: The reactance 𝑋𝑐 depends upon frequency and capacitance C and is given by,
1 1
𝑋𝑐 = = ∴ 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
𝜔𝐶 2𝜋𝑓𝐶
Thus, the reactance of the coil depends upon the frequency of the A.C; the reactance increases as frequency f
decreases and reactance decreases as frequency f increases.

A.C Through an Inductor

A.C Through an Inductor: An inductor connected to an alternating current (AC) source. When AC flows,
the inductor opposes the change in current by producing a back emf.
Explanation: Consider an alternating voltage V is applied across an inductor L, then self-inductance is
Δ𝐼
given by, 𝜀𝐿 = 𝐿 Δ𝑡
where L is the inductance of coil, while the alternating current may be expressed as, 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
Δ𝐼
As the resistance of the coil is negligible then the applied voltage must be equal to the back emf. 𝑉 = 𝐿 Δ𝑡
Δ𝐼 Δ𝐼
Since L is constant, so V is proportional to Δ𝑡 , 𝑉 ∝ Δ𝑡
This is the slope of I-t graph, which shows how the current I varies with time.
Inductive Reactance: The resistance offered by the inductor in the flow of A.C is known as inductive
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
reactance. It is represented by 𝑋𝐿 . The inductive reactance is given by, 𝑋𝐿 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 and 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 are the root mean square speed of voltage and current.
Unit: The SI unit of reactance is ohm.
Dependence of Reactance: The reactance 𝑋𝐿 depends upon frequency and Inductance L and is given by,
𝑋𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 ∴ 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓

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Thus, the reactance of the coil depends upon the frequency of the A.C and inductance L. The reactance
increases as f or L decreases and reactance decreases as f or L increases.

A.C Through R-C Series Circuit

A.C Through R-C Series Circuit: Consider a resistance R and capacitor C connected in series to a source
of alternating voltage. The voltage across R is, 𝑉𝑅 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑅
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 1
and voltage across the capacitor is, 𝑉𝐶 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑋𝐶 = ∴ 𝑋𝐶 = 𝜔𝐶
𝜔𝐶
The resultant voltage 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 is obtained as,

𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √𝑉𝑅2 + 𝑉𝐶2 = √(𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑅)2 + (𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑋𝐶 )2

1
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 2 [𝑅 2 + (1/𝜔𝐶)2 ] = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 √(𝑅)2 + (1/𝜔𝐶)2 ∴ 𝑋𝐶 =
𝜔𝐶
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 √(𝑅)2 +(1/𝜔𝐶)2
So, the impedance becomes, 𝑍 = = = √(𝑅)2 + (1/𝜔𝐶)2
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
Thus, the current leads the applied voltage by an angle 𝜃 such that,
𝑉 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 ⁄𝜔𝐶 1 1
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 𝑉𝐶 = = 𝜔𝐶𝑅 ⇒ 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝜔𝐶𝑅)
𝑅 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑅
We can find the impedance of R-C series circuit by vector addition. And, the impedance Z is the vector sum
of resistance and reactance.
𝑋𝐶 1⁄𝜔𝐶 1
The current is leading the voltage across the capacitor by angle, 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = = ⇒ 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝜔𝐶𝑅)
𝑅 𝑅

A.C Through R-L Series Circuit

A.C Through R-L Series Circuit: Consider a resistance R and inductor L are connected in series to a
source of alternating voltage. The voltage across inductor is, 𝑉𝐿 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑋𝐿
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 1
and voltage across the capacitor is, 𝑉𝐶 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑋𝐶 = ∴ 𝑋𝐶 =
𝜔𝐶 𝜔𝐶
The resultant voltage 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 is obtained as,

𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √𝑉𝑅2 + 𝑉𝐿2 = √(𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑅)2 + (𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑋𝐿 )2

𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 2 [𝑅 2 + (𝜔𝐿)2 ] = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 √(𝑅)2 + (𝜔𝐿)2 ∴ 𝑋𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿

𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 √(𝑅)2 +(𝜔𝐿)2
So, the impedance becomes, 𝑍 = = = √(𝑅)2 + (𝜔𝐿)2
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
Thus, the current lags the applied voltage by an angle 𝜃 such that,
𝑉 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝜔𝐿 𝜔𝐿
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 𝑉 𝐿 = ⇒ 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( 𝑅 )
𝑅 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑅
We can find the impedance of R-L series circuit by vector addition. And, the impedance Z is the vector sum
of resistance and reactance.
𝑋𝐿 𝜔𝐿 𝜔𝐿
The current is lagging the voltage across the inductor by angle, 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = = ⇒ 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( 𝑅 )
𝑅 𝑅

Series Resonance Circuit (Acceptor Circuit)

Series Resonance Circuit: Consider an RLC series circuit in which a resistance R, inductance L and
capacitance C are connected in series to a source of alternating voltage.
1
Impedance diagram shows that, Resistance = 𝑅, Capacitive reactance = 𝑋𝐶 = 𝜔𝐶 ,
Inductive reactance = 𝑋𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿 𝑋𝐿 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑋𝐶 𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛. (𝜃 = 180𝑜 )
At high frequency: The value of 𝑋𝐿 is greater than 𝑋𝐶 . i.e. 𝑋𝐿 > 𝑋𝐶 . So, the inductance dominates and
circuit behaves as R-L circuit.
At low frequency: The value of 𝑋𝐶 is greater than 𝑋𝐿 . i.e. 𝑋𝐶 > 𝑋𝐿 . So, the capacitance dominates and circuit

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behaves as R-C circuit.

Resonance Frequency: In between these frequencies there will be a certain value of frequency 𝜔𝑟 at which
𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶 . This is called the condition of resonance and this particular value of frequency is called resonance
1 1 1 1 1
frequency. As, 𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶 ⇒ 𝜔𝑟 𝐿 = 𝜔 ⇒ 𝜔𝑟2 = 𝐿𝐶 ⇒ 𝜔𝑟 = ⇒ 2𝜋𝑓𝑟 = ⇒ 𝑓𝑟 = 2𝜋√𝐿𝐶
𝑟𝐶 √𝐿𝐶 √𝐿𝐶
This frequency is known as resonance frequency.
Properties: Following are the properties of series resonance circuit:
1
(i) The resonance frequency is given by, 𝑓𝑟 = 2𝜋√𝐿𝐶
(ii) At resonance, inductive reactance is equal to the capacitive reactance. i.e. 𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶
(iii) The impedance of the circuit is minimum at resonance.
𝑉𝑜
(iv) The current is maximum at the resonance frequency and its value is 𝐼 = .
𝑅
(v) The power factor is unity (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 1), because current and voltage are in phase.

Parallel Resonance Circuit (Rejecter Circuit)

Parallel Resonance Circuit (Rejecter Circuit): Consider an L-C parallel circuit in which the circuit
resonates at a frequency 𝜔 = 𝜔𝑟 which makes 𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶 . So,
1 1 1 1 1
As, 𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶 ⇒ 𝜔𝑟 𝐿 = 𝜔 ⇒ 𝜔𝑟2 = 𝐿𝐶 ⇒ 𝜔𝑟 = ⇒ 2𝜋𝑓𝑟 = ⇒ 𝑓𝑟 = 2𝜋√𝐿𝐶
𝑟𝐶 √𝐿𝐶 √𝐿𝐶
Properties: Following are the properties of parallel resonance circuit:
1
(i) The resonance frequency is given by, 𝑓𝑟 = 2𝜋√𝐿𝐶
(ii) At resonance, inductive reactance is equal to the capacitive reactance. i.e. 𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶
(iii) The impedance of the circuit is maximum at resonance.
(iv) The line current is minimum, but branch currents 𝐼𝐿 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼𝐶 may be large.
(v) The power factor is unity (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 1), because current and voltage are in phase.

Electromagnetic Waves
Maxwell’s Equations: In 1864 British physicist Maxwell proposed a set of equations known as Maxwell’s
equations which explained the various electromagnetic phenomena.
Electromagnetic Waves: Waves that consist of oscillating electric and magnetic fields, which are
perpendicular to each other and to the direction of wave propagation, are called electromagnetic waves.
For example: light waves, radio waves, X-rays etc.
Properties: Following are the properties of electromagnetic waves:
(i) They are produced by oscillating electric and magnetic fields.
(ii) They don’t require any medium for their propagation.
(iii) They travel in vacuum with speed 3 × 108 𝑚𝑠 −1.
(iv) The formula for speed of electromagnetic waves is 𝑐 = 𝑓𝜆
Principle of Generation: Electromagnetic waves are produced when charges vibrate. This vibration creates
a changing electric and magnetic fields, and together they travel outward as electromagnetic waves.
Principle of Transmission: These waves are sent into space with the help of a transmitter antenna. The
alternating current in the antenna makes electrons oscillate, and this produces waves that spread out in all
directions at the speed of light.
Principle of Reception: When these waves reach a receiving antenna, they cause electrons in it to oscillate.
This produces a weak alternating current. The signal is then amplified and changed into useful forms like
sound, images, or data.

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Additional Questions
Q1. What is choke/choke coil? Write its advantages/use.
Ans: Choke: A choke is simply a coil of insulated wire wound around an iron core. It has very small
resistance but a large inductance.
Uses/Advantage: (i) It controls current in an A.C. circuit without energy loss. (ii) It saves energy compared
to a resistor. (iii) It is used in fluorescent tubes to limit current.

Q2. What is impedance? Explain.

Ans: Impedance: The combined effect of resistance and reactance in an alternating current circuit is known
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
as impedance. Mathematically, 𝑍 = Unit: Its SI unit is ohm.
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠

Q3. What do mean by root mean square value of voltage?

Ans: Root Mean Square (rms) Value: It is the effective value of A.C. It produces the same heating effect in a
resistor as produces by same amount of d.c.
𝑉2 𝑉𝑜
Mathematically, 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √ 2𝑜 = = 0.707𝑉𝑜 Similarly, 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 0.707𝐼𝑜
√2

Q4. What is the main advantage of three phase A.C supply?

Ans: Advantages of Three Phase A.C supply: (i) It delivers almost constant power. (ii) It transmits more
power using less conductor material. (iii) Three phase motors are self-starting, simple and more efficient.
Q5. Define peak value and peak to peak value?
Ans: Peak Value: The maximum value of alternating current or voltage is called its peak value.
Peak to Peak Value: The total value measured from the maximum positive peak to the maximum negative
peak is called peak-to-peak value. For Example: If peak value is 10𝑉, then peak-to-peak value = 20𝑉.

Q6. Define phase lag and phase lead?

Ans: Phase Lag: When the current or voltage falls behind another quantity in phase, it is called phase lag.
e.g. inductive circuit.
Phase Lead: When the current or voltage goes ahead of another quantity in phase, it is called phase lead.
e.g. capacitive circuit.

Q7. What is meant by instantaneous value?

Ans: Instantaneous Value: The value of an alternating current or voltage at any particular instant of time t
is called its instantaneous value.

Exercise Questions
Q1. A sinusoidal current has rms value of 10 A. What is the maximum or peak value?
Data: 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 10𝐴 , 𝐼𝑜 =?
𝐼
Solution: 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑜 ⇒ 𝐼𝑜 = √2 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √2 × 10 = 14.14𝐴
√2

Q2. Name the device that will

(a) permit flow of direct current but oppose the flow of alternating current
The device that permits flow of direct current but oppose the flow of alternating current is inductor.
𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝐷. 𝐶 𝑓 = 0 𝑠𝑜 𝑋𝐿 = 0. ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐼 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚.
(b) permit flow of alternating current but not the direct current.
The device that permits flow of alternating current but not the direct current is capacitor.
1
𝑋𝐶 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝐷. 𝐶 𝑓 = 0 𝑠𝑜, 𝑋𝐶 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒. ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝐼 𝑖𝑠 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜.
2𝜋𝑓𝐶

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Q3. How many times per second will an incandescent lamp reach maximum brilliance when connected to a 50 Hz
source?
Ans: It reaches maximum brilliance 100 times per second.
Reason: The lamp shows maximum brilliance when A.C reaches its peak value and A.C reaches its peak
value twice a cycle. As, frequency of A.C is 50Hz. So, Maximum brilliance = 2 × 50 = 100 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠/𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
Q4. A circuit contains an iron-cored inductor, a switch and a D.C. source arranged in series. The switch is closed
and after an interval reopened. Explain why a spark jumps across the switch contacts?
Ans: When switch is reopened, the current in the circuit decreases from its maximum value to zero, this
changing current produces an emf across the inductor which produces spark across the switch contacts.
Q5. How does doubling the frequency affect the reactance of (a) an inductor (b) a capacitor?
Ans: (a) The reactance of inductor becomes double.
Explanation: As reactance of an inductor is, 𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿
If 𝑓 ′ = 2𝑓 then, 𝑋𝐿′ = 2𝜋(2𝑓)𝐿 = 2(2𝜋𝑓𝐿) = 2𝑋𝐿
(b) The reactance of capacitor becomes half.
1
Explanation: As reactance of capacitor is, 𝑋𝐶 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐶
1 1 1 1
If 𝑓 ′ = 2𝑓 then, 𝑋𝐶′ = 2𝜋(2𝑓)𝐶 = 2 (2𝜋𝑓𝐶 ) = 2 𝑋𝐶

Q6. In R-L circuit, will the current lag or lead the voltage? Illustrate your answer by a vector diagram.
Ans: In R-L circuit the current lags the voltage.
𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑋𝐿 𝑋𝐿
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
𝑉𝑅 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑅 𝑅
Q7. (a) A choke coil placed in series with an electric lamp in an A.C. circuit causes the lamp to become dim. Why is
it so?
𝑉
Reason: As we know that, 𝑍 = √𝑋𝐿2 + 𝑅 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼 = 𝑍
When a choke coil is placed in series with an electric lamp in A.C circuit, the impedance Z of circuit is
increased. Therefore, the current is decreased. Hence, the lamp becomes dim due to low current.
(b) A variable capacitor added in series in this circuit may be adjusted until the lamp glows with normal brilliance.
Explain how this is possible.
𝑉
Reason: As we know that, 𝑍 = √(𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2 + 𝑅 2 = 𝑅 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼 = 𝑍
When the variable capacitor is connected in series with inductor and adjusted until 𝑋𝐶 = 𝑋𝐿 . Under this
condition, they cancel each other’s effect. Due to this, impedance Z becomes minimum and current I
becomes maximum. Thus, lamp glows with normal brilliance.
Q8. Explain the conditions under which electromagnetic waves are produced by a source?
Ans: Electromagnetic waves can be produced in several ways:
(i) by changing electric or magnetic field
(ii) by accelerating or oscillating the charge particles using an A.C source.
For Example: Radio transmitting antenna provides good example of generating electromagnetic waves.
Q9. How the reception of a particular radio station is selected on your radio?
Ans: A particular radio station can be selected by tuning the radio set.
Explanation: The frequency of L-C circuit is made to match with the frequency of electromagnetic signals
from certain radio station. Due to resonance, impedance of a circuit is minimum and current is maximum.
1
So, particular radio station is selected. 𝑓 = 2𝜋√𝐿𝐶

Q10. What is meant by A.M. and F.M.?

Ans: A.M stands for amplitude modulation: A type of modulation in which amplitude of carrier wave is
increased or decreased as the amplitude of superposing modulating signals increases or decreases. Range:
540KHz to 1600KHz
F.M stands for frequency modulation: A type of modulation in which frequency of carrier wave is increased
or decreased as the amplitude of superposing modulating signals increases or decreases but the amplitude
of carrier waves remains constant. Range: 88MHz to 108MHz

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CHAPTER # 17 — PHYSICS OF SOLIDS

Solid State Physics: The branch of physics that deals with the study of structure and properties of solids is
known as solid state physics.

Difference b/w Crystalline & Amorphous Solids:

Crystalline Solids Amorphous / Glassy Solids

(i) There is a regular arrangement of molecules. (i) There is no regular arrangement of molecules.
(ii) There is an ordered structure. (ii) There is no ordered structure.
(iii) The transition from solid to liquid is abrupt. (iii) The transition from solid to liquid is gradual.
(iv) They have definite melting point. (iv) They do not have definite melting point.
(v) e.g. metals i.e. copper, iron, zinc etc. (v) e.g. ordinary glass etc.
Polymeric Solids:
(i)- They have very low specific gravity.
(ii) They form a large group of naturally occurring and synthetic materials.
(iii) They can be classified as partially or poorly crystalline solids.
(iv) They are more or less solid materials.
(v) e.g. plastic, synthetic rubber etc.

Crystal Lattice: The three-dimensional pattern that repeats itself over and over in the crystal is called
crystal lattice. e.g. NaCl crystal lattice.
Unit Cell: The smallest three-dimensional basic structure is called unit cell. e.g. NaCl.

Elasticity: The property of a material by which it returns to its original shape and size after the removal of
deforming force is called elasticity.
Plasticity: The property of a material by which it does not return to its original shape after the removal of
deforming force is called plasticity.

Stress & Types

Stress: The force applied on unit area to produce any change in length, volume or shape of a body is called
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹
stress. Mathematically, 𝜎 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝐴 Unit: Its SI unit is N/𝑚2 = 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙
Types of Stress:
Tensile stress: When stress increases the length of a body by stretching it, is called tensile stress.
Compressive Stress: When stress decreases the length of a body by pressing it, is called compressive stress.
Volumetric Stress: When stress changes the volume of a body is called volumetric stress.
Shear Stress: When stress changes the shape of a body is called shear stress.

Strain & Types

Strain: It is the measure of deformation of a solid material when stress is applied on it. It has no unit.
∆𝑙
𝑀𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦, 𝜀 = 𝑙 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑙 = 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∆𝑙 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ.
Types of Strain:
Tensile / Compressive strain: The fractional change in length of a body is called tensile or compressive strain.
∆𝑙
Mathematically, compressive / tensile strain (𝜀) = 𝑙
Volumetric Strain: The fractional change in volume of a body is called volumetric strain.
∆𝑉
Mathematically, volumetric strain = 𝑉
Shear Strain: The fractional change in shape of a body is called shear strain.
∆𝑎
Mathematically, 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝑎 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃

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Modulus of Elasticity & Types

Modulus of Elasticity: The ratio of stress to strain remains constant, this constant is known as elastic
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
constant or modulus of elasticity. Mathematically, 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (𝐸) = Its SI unit is pascal.
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑁
Unit of Modulus of Elasticity and Stress: As, 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = = 𝑚2 = 𝑁𝑚−2 = 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙 (proved)
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎

Types of Modulus of Elasticity:

(i) Young’s Modulus: The ratio of tensile stress to the tensile strain is called Young’s modulus.
𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝐹⁄ 𝐹𝑙
Mathematically, 𝑌𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔′ 𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 = 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 ⇒ 𝑌 = ∆𝑙 𝐴 = ∆𝑙𝐴
⁄𝑙
(ii) Bulk Modulus: The ratio of volumetric stress to the volumetric strain is called Bulk modulus.
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝐹⁄ 𝐹𝑉
Mathematically, 𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 ⇒ 𝐾 = ∆𝑉 𝐴 = ∆𝑉𝐴
⁄𝑉
(iii) Shear Modulus: The ratio of shear stress to the shear strain is called shear modulus.
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝐹⁄
𝐴
Mathematically, 𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 = 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 ⇒ 𝐺 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃

Elastic Limit: The maximum stress that a material can withstand without any permanent change in the
shape or dimensions is called elastic limit. It is denoted by 𝜎𝑒 .
Yield Point: The point on which permanent deformation occurs in the material by increasing the stress is
called yield point.
Ultimate tensile stress (UTS): The maximum stress that a material can withstand is called ultimate tensile
stress. It represents the highest point on a stress-strain curve. Its SI unit is pascal.
Fracture stress: The stress at which a material breaks under a load is called fracture stress.
Types of Fracture Stress: It has two types:
(a) Brittle Substances: The material that does not undergo any permanent deformation before breaking is
called brittle fracture. e.g. glass, cast iron etc.
(b) Ductile Substances: The material that undergoes any permanent deformation before breaking is called
ductile fracture. e.g. mild steel, aluminum, lead, copper etc.
Strain Energy: The work done in deforming the material is called strain energy. SI unit of energy is joule.
Determination: It can be calculated by area under the force extension graph.
Total work done is equal to the area of triangle ∆𝑂𝐴𝐵. So, 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 ∆𝑂𝐴𝐵
1 1
𝑊 = 2 (𝑂𝐴)(𝐴𝐵) = 2 𝐹𝐼 𝑙𝐼
Therefore, 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 So, This work is stored in form of strain energy.
Energy Band Theory in Solids
Energy Band Theory in Solids: In solid, atoms are brought near to each other. then, each level is split up
into two sublevels called states. These allowed states are closely spaced and appear to form a continuous
energy band. Following are the main energy bands:
Valance Band: The band occupied by valance electrons is called valance band.
Conduction Band: The band above the valance band is called conduction band.
Filled Band: The band below the valance band is called filled band.
Difference b/w Insulators, Conductors & Semiconductors on the Basis of Energy Band Theory:
Insulators: In terms of energy band theory, insulators are those materials which have:
(i) an empty conduction band.
(ii) a filled valance band.
(iii) a large energy gap of several eV.
Conductors: In terms of energy band theory, conductors are those materials which have:
(i) a partially filled conduction band.
(ii) a partially filled valance band.
(iii) No energy gap.
Semi-Conductors: In terms of energy band theory, semi-conductors are those materials which have:
(i) a partially filled conduction band.

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(ii) a partially filled valance band.

(iii) a narrow energy gap (1eV).
Intrinsic & Extrinsic Semiconductors
Intrinsic semi-conductor: A pure form of semi-conductor material is called intrinsic semi-conductors. e.g.
pure Ge and Si are intrinsic semi-conductor.
Extrinsic semi-conductor: An impure form of semi-conductor material is called extrinsic semi-conductors.
e.g. phosphorus, aluminum.
There are two types of extrinsic semi-conductors: (i) N-type Semiconductor (ii) P-type Semiconductor
N-type Semiconductor: The semi-conductor which is formed by adding pentavalent impurity to a pure semi-
conductor is called n-type semi-conductor.
Obtaining n-type material from pure silicon: When a small amount of a
pentavalent atom (e.g., Phosphorus) is added to pure silicon,
four covalent bonds are formed, while the extra electron becomes free.
Thus, free electrons are the majority carriers.
P-type Semiconductor: The semi-conductor which is formed by adding trivalent impurity to a pure semi-
conductor is called p-type semi-conductor.
Obtaining p-type material from pure silicon: When a small amount of a trivalent atom (e.g., Aluminum) is
added to pure silicon, three covalent bonds are formed, and a hole is created due to the missing electron.
Thus, holes are the majority carriers.
Majority charge carriers: The charge carriers present in a semiconductor in large numbers are called
majority charge carriers. e.g. In n-type semiconductor, electrons are majority carriers.
Minority charge carriers: The charge carriers present in a semiconductor in small numbers are called
minority charge carriers. e.g. In n-type semi-conductor, holes are minority carriers.
Critical temperature: The temperature at which the electrical resistance becomes zero is called critical
temperature. e.g. critical temperature of mercury is 4.2 K.
Superconductors: The material whose resistance reduces to zero below the critical temperature are called
superconductors. e.g. mercury, lead etc.
Uses / Applications: Superconductors are used in:
(i) Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
(ii) Magnetic Levitation trains
(iii) Powerful and small motors (iv) Fast computer chips
Paramagnetic Substances: The substances in which the magnetic fields produced by orbital and spin
motions of electrons support each other in such a way that the atoms show a weak magnetic effect are called
paramagnetic substances. e.g. Platinum, Sodium, Oxygen gas.
Ferromagnetic Substances: The substances in which the magnetic fields produced by orbital and spin
motions of electrons support each other in such a way that the atoms show a strong magnetic effect are
called ferromagnetic substances. e.g. Iron, Cobalt, Nickel.
Diamagnetic Substances: The substances in which the magnetic fields produced by orbital and spin motions
of electrons cancel each other’s effects in such a way that the atoms show zero magnetic effect are called
diamagnetic substances. e.g. Water, Copper, Silver.
Hard magnetic materials: The material that retain their magnetism for a long time after removing the
external magnetizing field is called hard magnetic material. e.g. Steel, Alnico.
Soft magnetic materials: The material that lose their magnetism quickly after removing the external
magnetizing field is called soft magnetic material. e.g. Iron, Silicon steel.
Curie Temperature: The temperature above which a ferromagnetic substance becomes paramagnetic is
called Curie temperature. e.g. Iron has a Curie temperature of 750°C.
Hysteresis / Hysteresis Loop: When a material is magnetized and demagnetized, magnetism does not
disappear immediately; this delay is called hysteresis, and the curve showing this delay is called the
hysteresis loop.

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Q: Energy dissipated per cycle for steel is more as compared to iron. Why?
Ans: Reason: Because steel has larger hysteresis loop than iron. Therefore, more energy is lost as heat in
steel as compared to iron.
Hysteresis Loss: During every cycle of magnetization and demagnetization, some energy is lost as heat
inside the material. This energy loss is called hysteresis loss.
Importance in transformer: Hysteresis loss is useful to decide either the material is suitable for construction
of transformer or not So that the loss of energy is minimized.
Remanence / Retentivity: The ability of a material to retain its magnetism after the removal of external
magnetizing field is called retentivity.
Coercivity: The reverse magnetic force required to demagnetize a material after it has been magnetized is
called coercivity.

Exercise Questions
Q1. Distinguish between crystalline, amorphous and polymeric solids.
Ans: See answer inside the above chapter.
Q2. Define stress and strain. What are their SI units? Differentiate between tensile, compressive and shear modes
of stress and strain.
Ans: See answer inside the above chapter.
Q3. Define modulus of elasticity / Elastic constants. Show that the units of modulus of elasticity and stress are the
same. Also discuss its three kinds.
Ans: See answer inside the above chapter.
Q5. What is meant by strain energy? How can it be determined from the force-extension graph?
Ans: See answer inside the above chapter.
Q6. Describe the formation of energy bands in solids. Explain the difference amongst electrical behaviour of
conductors, insulators and semi-conductors in terms of energy band theory.
Ans: See answer inside the above chapter.
Q7. Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic semi-conductors.
Ans: See answer inside the above chapter.
(b) How would you obtain n-type and p-type material from pure silicon? Illustrate it by schematic
diagram.
Ans: See answer inside the above chapter.
Q8. Discuss the mechanism of electrical conduction by holes and electrons in a pure semi-conductor element.
Ans: Explanation: In a pure semiconductor, when temperature increases, some valence electrons jump to the
conduction band and act as free electrons (negative carriers). The empty places left behind are called holes
(positive carriers). Hence, conduction takes place by both electrons and holes, and the total current is the
sum of electron current and hole current.
Q9. Write a note on superconductors.
Ans: See answer inside the above chapter.
Q10. What is meant by para, Dia and ferromagnetic substances? Give examples for each.
Ans: See answer inside the above chapter.
Q11. What is meant by hysteresis loss? How is it used in the construction of a transformer?
Ans: See answer inside the above chapter.
Q4. Draw a stress-strain curve for a ductile material, and then define the terms: Elastic limit, Yield point and
Ultimate tensile stress.
Ans: See answer inside the above chapter.

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CHAPTER # 18 — ELECTRONICS
Electronics: The branch of physics that deals with the study of the motion and behavior of electrons in
vacuum, gases, or semiconductors is called electronics.

P-N Junction
P-N Junction: A p-n junction is formed when the crystal of
germanium or silicon is made in such a way that one part is
doped with trivalent impurity and the other part is doped
with a pentavalent impurity.
Depletion Region: The region around the p-n junction where no free charge carriers (electrons or holes) are
left due to recombination is called the depletion region.
Potential Barrier: The potential difference develops across the depletion region, which stops the further
movement of electrons and holes. This potential difference is called potential barrier. The value of potential
barrier for Ge is 0.3 volts while for Si is 0.7 volts.
Biasing of pn-junction: When an external voltage is applied across the pn-junction, it is called biased
junction. It can be done in two ways: (i) Forward biased pn-junction (ii) Reverse biased pn-junction
(i) Forward Biased: When the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the p-side and the negative
terminal to the n-side of a p-n junction, it is called forward biased. In this case, current flows easily.
Forward biased resistance / Dynamic Resistance: The reciprocal of the slope represents the forward biased
1 ∆𝑉𝑓
resistance. 𝑟𝑓 = 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = ∆𝐼𝑓
(ii) Reverse Biased: When the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the n-side and the negative
terminal to the p-side of a p-n junction, it is called reverse biased. In this case, almost no current flows.

Rectification
Rectification: The conversion of alternating current into direct current is called rectification. The circuit
used for this purpose, is called rectifier.
Types: Rectifier circuits are of two types: (i) Half wave rectifier (ii) Full wave rectifier
(i) Half Wave Rectification: The circuit which converts half of the alternating current cycle into direct
current is called half wave rectifier circuit.
Explanation: A half wave rectifier circuit uses a single diode.
During the Positive Half Cycle: During the positive half cycle of
an A.C input, the diode is forward biased.
So, it offers low resistance and current flows through it.
During the Negative Half Cycle: During the negative half cycle of
an A.C input, the diode is reverse biased. So, it offers very high resistance and no current flows through it.
Conclusion: The same process continues for next half cycles and so on for an A.C input. Thus, in half wave
rectification the current flows in one direction and the final output is pulsating D.C.
(ii) Full Wave Rectification: The circuit which converts the whole alternating current cycle into direct
current is called full wave rectifier circuit.
Explanation: A full wave rectifier circuit uses four diodes in form of bridge. That is why it is also called
bridge wave rectifier circuit.
During the Positive Half Cycle: During the positive half cycle of an A.C input, two diodes are forward biased
and the current flows through the load in one direction
During the Negative Half Cycle: During the negative half cycle of an A.C input, the other two diodes are also
forward biased and again the current flows through the load in one direction

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Conclusion: Thus, in full wave rectification the current flows in same direction and the final output is
pulsating D.C. It is more efficient than half wave rectification.

Specially Designed p-n Junctions

Specially Designed p-n Junctions: P-n junction may be developed for some special purposes. The most
commonly diodes are: (i) Light emitting diode (ii) Photo diode (iii) Photo voltaic cell
(i) Light Emitting Diode (LED): An LED is a special diode that gives off light when current flows through it
in the forward direction. The energy released by electrons is in the form of visible light.
Uses: It is used in indicator lights, T.V, mobile displays, traffic signals, digital watches, torches, calculators.
(ii) Photo Diode: It is a semiconductor diode that allows current to flow when light falls on it. The more the
light, the more current it produces. It works in reverse bias and acts as a light sensor.
Uses: It is used in automatic street lights, smoke detectors, light sensors, remote control receivers, security
systems, automatic switching.
(iii) Photovoltaic Cell (Solar Cells): It is a semiconductor device that converts sunlight energy directly into
electrical energy using a photovoltaic effect. It is the reverse process of LED.
Uses: It is used in solar panels, calculators, solar watches, street lights, satellites.

Transistor: It is a semiconductor device made up of two layers with two p-n junctions. It has three
terminals: emitter, base and collector. It is mainly used for amplifying signals and as an electronic switch.

Current Gain: The ratio of collector current 𝐼𝑐 to base current 𝐼𝐵 is a constant, known as current gain 𝛽.
𝐼
Mathematically, 𝛽 = 𝐼 𝑐 Its value ranges from 30 to 500.
𝐵

Transistor as an Amplifier
Transistor as an Amplifier: A device which can amplify the input signals is called amplifier. In most
electronic circuits, we use the transistor as an amplifier.
Explanation: An amplifier uses the base-emitter junction as input and the base-collector junction as output.
𝑉𝐵𝐸
𝑉𝐵𝐸 and 𝑉𝐶𝐸 are the input and output voltages respectively. The base current is, 𝐼𝐵 = 𝑟𝑖𝑒
where 𝑟𝑖𝑒 is base emitter resistance of the transistor. The transistor amplifies the base current by 𝛽 times. So,
𝑉𝐵𝐸
𝐼𝑐 = 𝛽𝐼𝐵 = 𝛽 𝑟𝑖𝑒
The output voltage 𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝐶𝐸 is determined by Kirchhoff’s voltage law. So, 𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 𝐼𝐶 𝑅𝐶 + 𝑉𝐶𝐸
𝑉𝐵𝐸
𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝐼𝐶 𝑅𝐶 ⇒ 𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝐼𝐶 𝑅𝐶 ⇒ 𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝛽 𝑅 … … … (1)
𝑟𝑖𝑒 𝐶
When a small signal ∆𝑉𝑖𝑛 is applied at the input terminal, then the following changes occur;
𝑉𝐵𝐸 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑉𝐵𝐸 + ∆𝑉𝑖𝑛 , 𝐼𝐵 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝐼𝐵 + ∆𝐼𝐵 , 𝐼𝑐 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝐼𝑐 + ∆𝐼𝑐 , 𝑉𝑜 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑉𝑜 + ∆𝑉𝑜
𝑉𝐵𝐸 +∆𝑉𝑖𝑛
Putting the changed values in equation (i), we get 𝑉𝑜 + ∆𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝑐𝑐 − 𝛽 𝑅𝑐 … … … (2)
𝑟𝑖𝑒
𝑉𝐵𝐸 +∆𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝐵𝐸
Subtracting equation (1) from (2), 𝑉𝑜 + ∆𝑉𝑜 − 𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝑐𝑐 − 𝛽 𝑅𝑐 − 𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝛽 𝑅𝐶
𝑟𝑖𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑒
𝑉𝐵𝐸 ∆𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝐵𝐸
𝑉𝑜 + ∆𝑉𝑜 − 𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝛽 𝑅𝐶 − 𝛽 𝑅𝐶 − 𝑉𝑐𝑐 + 𝛽 𝑅
𝑟𝑖𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑒 𝐶
∆𝑉𝑖𝑛 ∆𝑉𝑜 𝑅𝐶
∆𝑉𝑜 = −𝛽 𝑅 ⇒ = −𝛽
𝑟𝑖𝑒 𝐶 ∆𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑖𝑒
𝑅
Therefore, the gain of the amplifier is, 𝐴 = −𝛽 𝑟 𝐶
𝑖𝑒

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Operational Amplifier
Operational Amplifier: Amplifiers are very commonly used important electronic circuit. An op-amp is a
high-gain electronic device with two input terminals (inverting and non-inverting) and one output terminal.
It amplifies the voltage difference between its two inputs.
Inverting Input (-): When a signal is applied at the inverting input,
it appears with the phase difference of 180𝑜 after the amplification.
Non-inverting Input (+): When a signal is applied at the non-inverting
input, it appears without any phase change after amplification.
Characteristics of OP-AMP:
High Input Resistance: It is the resistance between the input terminals of the op-amp. Its value is very high
(in mega ohms), so almost no current flows into the op-amp. In the ideal case, input resistance is infinite.
Low Output Resistance: It is the resistance between the output terminal and ground. Its value is very small
(only a few ohms), so all the output voltage is delivered to the load. In the ideal case, output resistance is
zero.
Open Loop Gain: The gain of an operational amplifier without any external connection between the input
𝑉𝑜 𝑉
and output is called open loop gain. Mathematically, 𝐴𝑂𝐿 = 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑜
+ −𝑉− 𝑖

OP-AMP as Inverting Amplifier

OP-AMP as Inverting Amplifier: Consider a circuit of inverting amplifier. The input voltage 𝑉𝑖 is applied
across the inverting terminal (-).
Derivation for Gain: For any value of 𝑉𝑜 , 𝑉+ − 𝑉− = 0 ⇒ 𝑉+ = 𝑉−
Since, 𝑉+ is at ground so 𝑉− is virtually at ground (i.e. 𝑉− = 0) So, according to figure.
𝑉𝑖 −𝑉− 𝑉𝑖 −0 𝑉 𝑉− −𝑉𝑜 0−𝑉𝑜 𝑉
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑅1 = 𝐼1 = = = 𝑅 𝑖 , Current through 𝑅2 = 𝐼2 = = = − 𝑅𝑜
𝑅1 𝑅1 1 𝑅2 𝑅2 2
𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑜 𝑉𝑜 𝑅2
So according to Kirchhoff’s rule, 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 ⇒ 𝑅 = −𝑅 ⇒ 𝑉 = −𝑅
1 2 𝑖 1
𝑉𝑜 𝑅2
= Gain of amplifier = 𝐺 ⇒𝐺=−
𝑉𝑖 𝑅1
𝑜
The negative sign shows that the output signal is 180 out of phase

OP-AMP as Non-Inverting Amplifier

OP-AMP as Non-Inverting Amplifier: Consider the circuit of non-inverting amplifier. The input voltage 𝑉𝑖
is applied across the non-inverting terminal (+).
Derivation for Gain: Since, OP-AMP has high gain. 𝑉− = 𝑉+ = 𝑉𝑖
0−𝑉− 0−𝑉𝑖 𝑉 𝑉− −𝑉𝑜 𝑉𝑖 −𝑉𝑜
As, 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑅1 = 𝐼1 = = = − 𝑅 𝑖 , Current through 𝑅2 = 𝐼2 = =
𝑅1 𝑅1 1 𝑅2 𝑅2
So according to Kirchhoff’s rule, 𝐼1 = 𝐼2
𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑖 − 𝑉𝑜 𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑜 𝑉𝑜 𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑖
− = ⇒− = − ⇒ = −
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅2 𝑅2 𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑉𝑜 1 1 𝑉𝑜 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
= 𝑉𝑖 ( − ) ⇒ = 𝑉𝑖 ( )
𝑅2 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅2 𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑉𝑜 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑉𝑜 𝑅1 𝑅2
=( ) ⇒ =( + )
𝑉𝑖 𝑅1 𝑉𝑖 𝑅1 𝑅1
𝑉𝑜 𝑅2 𝑉𝑜 𝑅2
=1+ ⇒ = 𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑟 = 𝐺 ⇒𝐺 = 1+
𝑉𝑖 𝑅1 𝑉𝑖 𝑅1
Positive sign of gain shows that input and output signals are in phase.

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Digital Systems: A type of system that deals with quantities or variables which have only two discrete values
or states is called digital system. e.g. statement can either true or false, switch can open or closed etc.
Boolean Algebra: The branch of mathematics that deals with the operations on binary numbers (0 and 1) is
called Boolean algebra. And the variables 0 and 1 are called Boolean variables. Boolean algebra based
upon three basic operations: (i) AND operation (ii) OR operation (iii) NOT operation

Logic Gates
Logic Gates: An electronic circuit that performs logic operations is called a logic gate..
Types of Gates: Logic gates are divided into three categories:
(1) Fundamental Gates (OR Gate, AND Gate, NOT Gate) (2) Universal Gates (NOR Gate, NAND Gate),
(3) Exclusive Gates (XOR Gate, XNOR Gate)
(1) Fundamental Gates: Following are three fundamental logic gates.
(i) AND Gate: It is a logic gate that gives 1 only when all inputs are 1,
otherwise the output is 0. Mathematically, 𝑋 = 𝐴 ∙ 𝐵
(ii) OR Gate: It is a logic gate that gives 0 only when all inputs are 0,
otherwise the output is 1. Mathematically, 𝑋 = 𝐴 + 𝐵
(iii) NOT Gate: It is a logic gate that gives inverse of the input.
It performs operation of inversion. That is why it is also known as inverter.
Mathematically, 𝑋 = 𝐴̅
(2) Universal Gates: Following are two universal logic gates:
(i) NOR Gate: The combination of NOT and OR gate is called NOR gate.
Mathematically, 𝑋 = 𝐴 ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
+𝐵
(ii) NAND Gate: The combination of NOT and AND gate is called NAND gate.
Mathematically, 𝑋 = 𝐴 ̅̅̅̅̅̅
∙𝐵
(3) Exclusive Gates: Following are two exclusive logic gates:
(i) XOR Gate (Exclusive OR): The XOR gate gives output 1 only
when two inputs are different, otherwise the output is 0.
Mathematically, 𝑋 = 𝐴𝐵̅ + 𝐴̅𝐵
(ii) XNOR Gate (Exclusive XNOR): The XNOR gate gives output 1 only
when two inputs are same, otherwise the output is 0.
Mathematically, 𝑋 = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵̅ + 𝐴̅𝐵

Applications of Gates in Control System: Gates are widely used in control system. These systems can
monitor the physical parameters such as temperature, pressure or some other physical quantities. As gates
operates with electrical voltage only, so some sensors are required.
Sensors: The device which converts various physical quantities into electrical voltage is called sensor. E.g.
microphone is a sound sensor, thermistor is a temperature sensor, LDR is a light sensor etc.

Exercise Questions
Q1. How does the motion of an electron in an n-type substance differ from the motion of holes in a p-type
substance?
Ans: (1) When a battery is connected to n-type, electrons drift towards the positive end while in p-type, holes
drift towards the negative ends of battery.
(2) The motion of electrons in n-type is much faster than the motion of holes in p-type.
Q2. What is the net charge on an n-type or a p-type substance?
Ans: The net charge on n-type or a p-type substance is zero.
Reason: All the atoms in n-type or p-type substance are electrically neutral. So, the proportion of negative
and positive charges does not change by adding impurity. Hence the net charge on n-type or p-type is zero.

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Q3. The anode of a diode is 0.2 V positive with respect to its cathode. Is it forward biased?
Ans: Yes, the diode is forward biased.
Reason: When the anode (p-type) is positive with respect to its cathode (n-type), it is said to be forward
biased, which is satisfied for this case. Thus, it is forward biased but since the applied voltage (0.2V) is less
than the potential barrier (Ge=0.3V and Si=0.7V). So, it will not conduct current.
Q4. Why charge carriers are not present in the depletion region?
Ans: Reason: Charge carriers are not present in the depletion region because electrons move from the n-
region to the p-region and recombine with holes. This recombination removes all free electrons and holes,
and leaves only fixed positive and negative ions. Since, no free charges are left in depletion region.
Q5. What is the effect of forward and reverse biasing of a diode on the width of depletion region?
Ans: (a) Forward biasing of diode: When diode is forward biased, the width of depletion region decreases.
(b) Reverse biasing of diode: When the diode is reversed biased, the width of depletion region increases.
Q6. Why ordinary silicon diodes do not emit light?
Ans: Reason: Ordinary silicon diodes do not emit light because: (i) Silicon is opaque in nature.
(ii) When electrons recombine with holes, most of the energy is released as heat.
Q7. Why a photo diode is operated in reverse biased state?
Ans: Reason: A photo diode is a device which is used for the detection of light. In reverse biased state,
current is very small in the absence of light. As light falls on it, electron-hole pair is created, which increases
the reverse current. In this way light can be detected.
Q8. Why is the base current in a transistor very small?
Ans: Reason: The base current in a transistor is very small because: (i) The base is very thin (10−6m).
(ii) The base has very few impurities. (iii) The collector-base voltage is very large.
Q9. What is the biasing requirement of the junctions of a transistor for its normal operation? Explain how these
requirements are met in a common emitter amplifier?
Ans: Biasing requirement: For the normal operation of a transistor,
(i) Emitter-base junction is forward biased (ii) Collector-base junction is reversed biased.
For Common Emitter Amplifier: (i) The base-emitter is used as the input terminal and the collector-emitter
is used as the output terminal. (ii) Emitter-base junction is forward biased and collector-base junction is
reverse biased.
Q10. What is the principle of virtual ground? Apply it to find the gain of an inverting amplifier.
Ans: Principle of virtual ground: In an op-amp with very high gain, the voltage difference between the
inverting (–) and non-inverting (+) terminals is almost zero. If the non-inverting terminal is grounded, the
inverting terminal also remains at nearly zero volts. This condition is called virtual ground.
𝑉 −𝑉 𝑉 −0 𝑉
Gain of an inverting amplifier: As, Current through 𝑅1 = 𝐼1 = 𝐼𝑅 − = 𝑅𝐼 = 𝑅 𝐼
1 1 1
𝑉− −𝑉𝑜 0−𝑉𝑜 −𝑉𝑜
Similarly, Current through 𝑅2 = 𝐼2 = = =
𝑅2 𝑅2 𝑅2
Since, no current flows between (+) and (-) terminals
𝑉 −𝑉 𝑉 −𝑅 𝑉 −𝑅2
So, 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 ⇒ 𝐼= 𝑜 ⇒ 𝑜= 2 ∴ 𝑜=𝐺 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝐺 =
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑉𝐼 𝑅1 𝑉𝐼 𝑅1

Q11. The inputs of a gate are 1 and 0. Identify the gate if its output is (a) 0 (b) 1.
(a) The gate may be AND, NOR or XNOR. (b) The gate may be OR, NAND or XOR
If 𝐴 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = 0 then, If 𝐴 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = 0 then,
For AND gate, 𝑋 = 𝐴 ∙ 𝐵 = 1 ∙ 0 = 0 For OR gate, 𝑋 = 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 1 + 0 = 1
For NOR gate, 𝑋 = 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 1 + 0 = 1 = 0 For NAND gate, 𝑋 = 𝐴 ∙ 𝐵 = 1 ∙ 0 = 0 = 1
For XNOR gate, 𝑋 = 𝐴 ∙ 𝐵 + 𝐴 ∙ 𝐵 = 1 ∙ 0 + 1 ∙ 0 For XOR gate, 𝑋 = 𝐴 ∙ 𝐵 + 𝐴 ∙ 𝐵 = 1 ∙ 0 + 1 ∙ 0
=1∙1+0∙0=1 =0 =1∙1+0∙0=1

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12th Physics Notes Prof. Irfan Elahi

CHAPTER # 19 — DAWN OF MODERN PHYSICS

Additional Questions
Q1. Define special theory of relativity and write its two postulates?
Ans: Special Theory of Relativity: The special theory of relativity deals with the laws of physics in inertial
frames of reference.
Postulates: It has two postulates:
(i) All the laws of physics are same for all inertial frames.
(ii) Speed of light is constant in free space for all inertial observers.
Q2. Define stopping potential, threshold frequency and work function?
Ans: Stopping potential: The negative potential at which the photoelectric current becomes zero is called
1
the stopping potential (𝑉𝑜 ). Mathematically, 𝑉𝑜 𝑒 = 2 𝑚𝑣 2
Threshold frequency: The minimum frequency of light required to emit electrons from the metal surface is
𝜙
called threshold frequency (𝑓𝑜 ). Mathematically, 𝑓𝑜 = ℎ
Work function: The minimum energy required to remove an electron from the metal surface is called the
work function (𝜙). Mathematically, 𝜙 = ℎ𝑓𝑜 here h is Planck’s constant.
Q3. List any four uses of photocell?
Ans: Uses of Photocells: Photocells are used in: (i) Automatic street lighting. (ii) Security system.
(iii) Automatic opening of doors. (iv) Sound tract of movies. (v) Automatic counting system.
Q5. State the Heisenberg uncertainty principle?
Ans: Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle: It states that it is impossible to measure the position and momentum
of a particle simultaneously with perfect accuracy. Mathematically,
1st Form: For uncertainty in position and momentum: (∆𝑥)(∆𝑝) ≈ ℎ
where, ∆𝑥 = uncertainty in position, ∆𝑝 = uncertainty in momentum and ℎ = Planck’s constant
2nd Form: For uncertainty in energy and time: (∆𝐸)(∆𝑡) ≈ ℎ
Where, ∆𝐸 = uncertainty in energy and ∆𝑡 = uncertainty in time and ℎ = Planck’s constant
Q6. Define Compton effect. Write the formula of Compton shift for scattering angle 𝜽?
Ans: Compton Effect: The phenomenon of change in the wavelength of an x-ray after collision with electron
is called Compton effect. Mathematically, 𝜆𝑠 > 𝜆𝑖
ℎ
Compton Shift for scattering angle 𝜃 is: ∆𝜆 = 𝑚 𝑐 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) where, ∆𝜆 shows the change in wavelength
𝑜
known as Compton shift for scattering angle 𝜃. 𝑚𝑜 is the rest mass of the electron, c is the velocity of light.
Q7. What do you mean by annihilation of matter and pair production?
Ans: Pair production: The process in which a high-energy photon is converted into an electron-positron
pair near a nucleus is called pair production. e.g. 𝛾 → 𝑒 − + 𝑒 +
Annihilation of matter: The process in which an electron and a positron collide and converted into two
photons is called annihilation of matter. e.g. 𝑒 − + 𝑒 + → 𝛾 + 𝛾

Exercise Questions
Q1. What are the measurements on which two observers in relative motion will always agree upon?
Ans: The measurements on which two observers in relative motion will always agree upon are:
(i) Speed of light in free space. (ii) Force on a moving object.
Q2. Does the dilation mean that time really passes more slowly in moving system or that it only seems to pass more
slowly?
Ans: Explanation: According to the special theory of relativity, time depends on the motion of the frame of
reference. Experiments show that a moving clock actually runs slower as compared to a stationary one. So,
time does not only seem to pass more slowly, it really passes more slowly in a moving system.

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Q3. If you are moving in a spaceship at a very high-speed relative to the Earth, would you notice a difference (
Ans: (a) in your pulse rate
Explanation: If we are moving in a spaceship at a very high speed, there is no relative motion. So, we will
feel no change in the pulse rate.
b) in the pulse rate of people on Earth?
Explanation: The people on the earth are in relative motion with respect to the observer in the spaceship. So,
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒𝑠
the time with respect to observer will increase. As, 𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
As time increases, the pulse rate of people on earth will decrease.
Q4. If the speed of light were infinite, what would the equations of special theory of relativity reduce to?
𝑣2
Ans: If 𝑐 → ∞, then =0 So, the equations of special theory of relativity reduce to:
𝑐2
𝑡𝑜 𝑚𝑜
(1) 𝑡 = 2
⇒ 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑜 (3) 𝑚 = 2
⇒ 𝑚 = 𝑚𝑜
√1−𝑣2 √1−𝑣2
𝑐 𝑐

𝑣2
(2) 𝑙 = 𝑙𝑜 √1 − 2 ⇒ 𝑙 = 𝑙𝑜 (4) ∆𝐸 = ∆𝑚𝑐 2 ⇒ ∆𝐸 = 0
𝑐

Q5. Since mass is a form of energy, can we conclude that a compressed spring has more mass than the same spring
when it is not compressed?
Ans: Yes, the compressed spring will have more mass than uncompressed spring.
∆𝐸
Explanation: As we know that the Einstein mass energy relation is, ∆𝐸 = ∆𝑚𝑐 2 ⇒ ∆𝑚 = 𝑐 2
When a spring is compressed its energy increases. Due to this increase, its mass also increases. Hence, a
compressed spring has slightly more mass than the same spring when it is not compressed.
Q6. As a solid is heated and begins to glow, why does it first appear red?
Ans: Reason: We know that when a body is heated it emits radiations, which depends on its temperature. At
low temperature, it emits radiations of longer wavelength. Since, the longer visible wavelength is red. hence,
it first appears red.
Q7. What happens to total radiation from a black body if its absolute temperature is doubled?
Ans: The total energy radiated per second is increased to 16 times.
Reason: According to Boltzmann law, 𝐸 = 𝜎𝑇 4
If 𝑇 ′ = 2𝑇 then, 𝐸 = 𝜎(2𝑇)4 = 16𝜎𝑇 4 = 16𝐸
Q8. A beam of red light and a beam of blue light have exactly the same energy. Which beam contains the greater
number of photons?
Ans: Beam of red light contains greater number of photons.
ℎ𝑐
Reason: As energy of photon is, 𝐸 = ℎ𝑓 = 𝜆 ∴ 𝑣 = 𝑓𝜆
ℎ𝑐 𝑛 𝐸 𝜆
So, 𝐸𝑛 = 𝑛 𝜆 ⇒ 𝑛 = ℎ𝑐 As 𝐸𝑛 , ℎ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒. So, 𝑛 ∝ 𝜆
As, 𝜆𝑟𝑒𝑑 > 𝜆𝑏𝑙𝑢𝑒 , so red beam will have greater number of photons.
Q9. Which photon, red, green, or blue carries the most (a) energy and (b) momentum?
Ans: Blue light has most energy and momentum.
ℎ𝑐 ℎ
Reason: As energy and momentum of photon are: 𝐸 = 𝜆 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝 = 𝜆
Since, blue photon has shortest wave length so according to above equation it carries most E and p.
Q10. Which has the lower energy quanta? Radio waves or X-rays?
Ans: Radio waves have lower energy quanta.
ℎ𝑐
Reason: As energy of quanta (photon) is: 𝐸 = 𝜆
Since, the wavelength of radio waves is longer than that of X-rays. So according to above equation it has
lower energy quanta.
Q11. Does the brightness of a beam of light primarily depend on the frequency of photons or on the number of
photons?
Ans: It depends upon number of photons.
Explanation: As brightness or intensity mean the energy delivered per unit time per unit area. So, the

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brightness of beam of light depends upon the number of photons of light not on the frequency. The energy of
photons depends upon the frequency.
Q12. When ultraviolet light falls on certain dyes, visible light is emitted. Why does this not happen when infrared
light falls on these dyes?
Ans: Reason: In the case of ultraviolet light, the photons absorbed by the atoms of dyes have frequencies
higher than the minimum frequency required to emit visible light.
On the other hand, in the case of infrared light, the photons absorbed by the atoms of dyes have frequencies
lower than the minimum frequency required to emit visible light. Therefore, no visible light is emitted.
Q13. Will bright light eject more electrons from a metal surface than dimmer light of the same color?
Ans: Yes, bright light will eject more electrons from a metal surface.
Reason: As we know that the number of electrons emitted from a metal surface depends upon the intensity of
light. Therefore, greater the intensity of light, greater will be the number of electrons emitted and vice versa.
Hence, bright light (high intense) ejects more electrons than the dimmer light (low intense).
Q14. Will higher frequency light eject greater number of electrons than low frequency light?
Ans: Both higher and lower frequency of light will eject same number of electrons.
Reason: Because the number of electrons emitted from a metal surface depends upon the intensity of light,
not on the frequency. Therefore, higher frequency and lower frequency will eject same number of electrons.
Q15. When light shines on a surface, is momentum transferred to the metal surface?
Ans: Yes, the momentum is transferred to the metal surface.
Reason: According to Einstein, light photons behave like particles. Each photon carries energy and
momentum. When light shines on a metal surface, both energy and momentum are transferred to it. A good
example of this is photoelectric effect.
Q16. Why can red light be used in a photographic dark room when developing films, but a blue or white light
cannot?
ℎ𝑐 𝑣
Ans: The energy of photon of light is, 𝐸 = ℎ𝑓 = 𝜆 ∴ 𝑣 = 𝑓𝜆 𝑂𝑅 𝑓 = 𝜆
As red light has largest wavelength, therefore it has least energy. So, it cannot affect the photographic film.
That is why red light can be used but blue or white light cannot be used.
Q17. Photon A has twice the energy of photon B. What is the ratio of the momentum of A to that of B?
Ans: Data: 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝐴 = 𝐸𝐴 , 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝐵 = 𝐸𝐵
𝑝𝐴
𝐴𝑠, 𝐸𝐴 = 2𝐸𝐵 , 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝐴 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐵 = =?
𝑝𝐵
𝐸 2𝐸
Solution: Momentum of photon A= 𝑝𝐴 = 𝑐𝐴 = 𝑐 𝐵 … … … . (1)
𝐸𝐵
Momentum of photon B= 𝑝𝐵 = … … … . (2)
𝑐
2𝐸𝐵⁄
𝑝𝐴 𝑐 2
Dividing equation (1) and (2), we get, = 𝐸𝐵⁄ =1=2
𝑝𝐵 𝑐
So, the momentum of photon A is also twice the momentum of photon B.
Q18. Why don’t we observe a Compton effect with visible light?
Ans: Reason: We do not observe a Compton effect with visible light because photons of visible light have
smaller energy and momentum than the photons of X-rays. Therefore, Compton’s effect cannot be observed
with visible light, it can only be observed by X-rays.
Q19. Can pair production take place in vacuum? Explain.
Ans: No, it cannot take place in vacuum.
Reason: Because in vacuum there is no heavy nucleus. If pair production takes place in vacuum, it will be
the violation of law of conservation of momentum. So, to conserve momentum, a heavy nucleus is needed.
Q20. Is it possible to create a single electron from energy? Explain.
Ans: No, it is not possible to create a single electron from energy.
Reason: If it is possible then it will be violation of law of conservation of charge and momentum. Whenever,
pair production takes place, electron and positron are created at the same time to move in opposite
direction.

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Q21. If electrons behaved only like particles, what pattern would you expect on the screen after the electrons
passes through the double slit?
Ans: Explanation: If electrons behaved like particles, then on screen no interference pattern is observed. As
the electrons pass straight through the double slits, only the slit images are seen on the screen.
Q22. If an electron and a proton have the same de Broglie wavelength, which particle has greater speed?
Ans: Electron will have the greater speed.
ℎ ℎ
Reason: According to de-Broglie’s hypothesis, 𝜆 = 𝑚𝑣 ⇒ 𝑣 = 𝑚𝜆
1
As 𝜆 is same for both electron and proton. Then, 𝑣 ∝ 𝑚
As mass of proton is greater than that of electron, therefore the electron will have greater speed.
Q23. We do not notice the de Broglie wavelength for a pitched cricket ball. Why?
ℎ
Ans: Reason: According to de-Broglie’s hypothesis, 𝜆 = 𝑚𝑣
A cricket ball has large mass, therefore wave associated with it is so small. So, it is impossible to measure
de-Broglie wavelength for a pitched cricket ball.
Q24. If the following particles have the same energy, which has the shortest wavelength: Electron, alpha particle,
neutron, proton.
Ans: 𝛼-particle will have the shortest wavelength associated with it.
ℎ
Reason: As we know that, 𝜆 = 𝑚𝑣
1
Also, the energy of moving particle is, 𝐾. 𝐸 = 2 𝑚𝑣 2
𝑚2 𝑣 2 ℎ
𝐾. 𝐸 = ⇒ 𝑚2 𝑣 2 = 2𝑚(𝐾. 𝐸) ⇒ 𝑚𝑣 = √2𝑚(𝐾. 𝐸) 𝑆𝑜, 𝜆 =
2𝑚 √2𝑚(𝐾. 𝐸)
1
As all the given particles have same energy. Therefore, 𝜆 ∝
√𝑚
As 𝛼-particle has greatest mass therefore it will have the shortest wave length.
Q25. When does light behave as a wave? When does it behave as a particle?
Ans: Light as Wave: When the energy of photons of light is about 10−10 𝑒𝑉, it cannot be detected as quanta.
So, it behaves like waves. e.g. interference, diffraction, polarization etc.
Light as particle: When the energy of photons of light is about 1𝑀𝑒𝑉, it is easily detected as quanta. So, it
behaves like particles. e.g. photoelectric effect, Compton’s effect, pair production etc.
Q26. What advantages an electron microscope has over an optical microscope?
Ans: Advantages: Following are the main advantages of electron microscope over an optical microscope:
(i) Resolving power of electron microscope is thousand times higher than that of optical microscope.
(ii) Magnification of electron microscope is about 1000 times greater than that of optical microscope.
(iii) With an electron microscope, minor details are visible that cannot be seen with an optical microscope.
(iv) A 3-D image of remarkable quality can be obtained by it.
Q27. If measurements show a precise position for an electron, can those measurements show precise momentum
also? Explain.
Ans: No, those measurements cannot show precise momentum.
Reason: According to Heisenberg uncertainty principle, position and momentum of a particle cannot be
measured simultaneously with perfect accuracy.
ℎ
Mathematically, ∆𝑥 × ∆𝑝 ≈ ℎ ⇒ ∆𝑝 ≈ ∆𝑥
So, if ∆𝑥 is very small then, ∆𝑝 will be large.

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CHAPTER # 20 — ATOMIC SPECTRA

Additional Questions
Q1. What is meant by CAT-scanner?
Ans: CAT-Scanner stands for Computed Axial Tomography scanner. It is a medical imaging device that uses
X-rays and a computer to take the images of the body. These images help doctors to see inside organs,
bones, and tissues in detail. It is widely used as a source of medical diagnostics.
Q2. What are biological effects of X-rays?
Ans: Harmful effects: (i) It can damage body cells and tissues. (ii) It may cause burns, cancer or genetic
mutation. (iii) It can reduce white blood cells and weaken immunity.
Useful effects: (i) It is used in medical imaging (X-rays, CT scans). (ii) It helps in treatment of cancer.
Q3. Write down the uses of LASER?
Ans: Uses of LASER: (i) It is used in eye surgery, skin treatment and cancer therapy. (ii) It is used in fiber
optic communication. (iii) It is used in cutting, welding and drilling metals. (iv) It is used in CD/DVD,
barcode scanners and laser printers.
Q4. Define (a) Population inversion (b) Metastable state (c) Lasing action
Ans: Population Inversion: The condition in which more atoms are present in higher energy state than in
lower energy state is called population inversion. It plays an important role in the operation of laser.
Metastable state: An excited state of an atom in which electrons stay for a longer time before coming back to
the ground state is called metastable state. It plays a key role in achieving population inversion for lasers.
Lasing action: The process of producing a strong, coherent, and monochromatic beam of light by stimulated
emission of photons under population inversion is called lasing action.
Q6. Define continuous spectra, band spectra and line spectra OR describe the types of spectra?
Ans: Line Spectra or Spectrum / Discrete Spectrum: A spectrum that consist of discrete lines, where each
line represents a specific wavelength is called line spectrum (plural line spectra). e.g. atomic spectra.
Continuous Spectrum: A spectrum that contains all the wavelengths in a continuous range without any gaps
is called continuous spectrum. e.g. sunlight through a prism.
Band Spectrum: A spectrum made up of groups of very close lines that look like bands is called band
spectrum. e.g. molecular spectrum.
Q8. What is difference between excitation and ionization energy OR excitation potential and ionization potential?
Ans: Excitation: The minimum energy required to move an electron from a lower energy level to a higher
energy level in an atom is called excitation and corresponding potential is called excitation potential.
Ionization Energy: The minimum energy required to remove an electron completely from an atom is called
ionization energy and corresponding potential is called ionization potential.
Q9. What is the difference between spontaneous and stimulated emission?
Ans: Spontaneous emission: When an excited atom returns to a lower energy state by itself and emits a
photon randomly is called spontaneous emission.
Stimulated emission / Induced emission: When an excited atom returns to a lower energy state due to an
incoming photon and emits another identical photon is called stimulated emission.
Q10. Give two postulates of Bohr’s model of hydrogen or Bohr’s atomic model?
Ans: Postulates: Following are the main postulates of Bohr’s atomic model:
(i) Electrons revolve around the nucleus in fixed orbits without losing energy.
(ii) Electrons absorb or emit energy only when they jump from one orbit to another.
Q11. Define characteristic X-rays and continuous X-rays?
Ans: Characteristic X-rays: X-rays produced when electrons from higher energy level fills an empty inner
shell of an atom are called characteristic X-rays. Their energy is specific to the element.
Continuous X-rays: X-rays produced when fast electrons are slowed down after hitting a metal target are
called continuous X-rays. They have a continuous range of wavelengths.

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Q12. What is spectroscopy and spectra?

Ans: Spectroscopy: The study of the interaction between matter and light is called spectroscopy. It helps us
to understand the composition, structure, and properties of substances.
Spectra: The patterns of light emitted, absorbed or scattered by substances, usually arranged by wavelength
or frequency are called spectra. line, band and continuous spectrum are its three types.

Exercise Questions
Q1. Bohr’s theory of hydrogen atom is based upon several assumptions. Do any of these assumptions contradict
classical physics?
Ans: Yes, the first postulate of Bohr’s theory of hydrogen atom contradicts classical physics.
Explanation: According to classical physics, every moving particle radiate energy continuously. Therefore,
accelerated electron must radiate energy but according to Bohr’s theory an electron does not radiate energy
when moving around the nucleus.
Q2. What is meant by a line spectrum? Explain, how line spectrum can be used for the identification of elements?
Ans: Line Spectrum: A spectrum that consists of discrete lines, where each line represents a specific
wavelength is called line spectrum (plural line spectra).
Identification of elements: We can identify different elements by using line spectrum because each element
has its own set of wavelengths in line spectrum.
Q3. Can the electron in the ground state of hydrogen absorb a photon of energy 13.6 eV and greater than 13.6 eV?
Ans: Yes, electron in the ground state of hydrogen atom can absorb a photon of energy 13.6𝑒𝑉 and greater
than 13.6𝑒𝑉.
Reason: Ionization energy of hydrogen atom is 13.6𝑒𝑉. But if energy of photon is greater than 13.6𝑒𝑉, then
the extra energy becomes kinetic energy of electron.
Q4. How can the spectrum of hydrogen contain so many lines when hydrogen contains one electron?
Ans: Explanation: A hydrogen atom has only one electron, but when it is excited to higher levels and return
to the ground state through many possible steps. Each step gives light of a different wavelength, so the
spectrum shows many lines.
Q5. Is energy conserved when an atom emits a photon of light?
Ans: Yes, energy is conserved when an atom emits a photon of light.
Reason: When an electron jumps from lower energy state to a higher energy state it absorbs a photon of
energy and when it de-excites, it emits a photon of same energy. So, energy is conserved.
Q6. Explain why a glowing gas gives only certain wavelengths of light and why that gas is capable of absorbing the
same wavelengths? Give a reason why it is transparent to other wavelengths?
Ans: (a) When an electron jumps higher energy state to lower energy state it emits a photon whose energy is
equal to the difference between the two states. As energy levels are discrete so only certain wavelengths are
emitted.
(b) When an electron jumps from lower energy state to a higher energy state it absorbs a photon whose
energy is equal to the energy difference between the two states.
(c) An atom absorbs only those photons whose energy is equal to energy difference between the two states.
Therefore, it is transparent to other photons.
Q7. What do we mean when we say that the atom is excited?
Ans: Excited atom: When an electron absorbs energy and jumps from a lower energy level to a higher
energy level, the atom is said to be excited.
Q8. Can X-rays be reflected, refracted, diffracted and polarized just like any other waves? Explain.
Ans: Yes, X-rays can be reflected, refracted, diffracted and polarized.
Explanation: This is because that X-rays are electromagnetic waves. As the wavelength of X-rays is much
shorter than that of ordinary light waves. So, the circumstances for these phenomena may be different.
For example, X-rays can be diffracted by crystals only.

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Q9. What are the advantages of lasers over ordinary light?

Ans: Advantages of LASER over ordinary light:
(i) It is intense beam of light. (ii) It is monochromatic. (iii) It is unidirectional. (iv)It is coherent.
Q10. Explain why laser action could not occur without population inversion between atomic levels?
Ans: Reason: Laser action needs stimulated emission, which happens only when more atoms are in the
excited state than in the ground state (population inversion). Without this, most photons get absorbed
instead of emitted and no laser action can occur.

CHAPTER # 21 — NUCLEAR PHYSICS

Additional Questions
Q1. Distinguish between nuclear fission and nuclear fusion?
Ans: Nuclear fission / Fission Reaction: A reaction in which a heavy nucleus (like uranium) splits up into
two or more smaller nuclei is called fission reaction. It releases a large amount of energy during reaction.
Nuclear fusion / Fusion reaction: A reaction in which two light nuclei (like hydrogen isotopes) combine to
form a heavy nucleus is called a fusion reaction. It releases much more energy than a fission reaction.
Q2. If 𝟐𝟑𝟑
𝟗𝟐𝑼 decays twice by 𝜶-emission what is the resulting isotopes?
Data: 233
92𝑈 decays twice by 𝛼-emission , Resulting isotope= ?
Solution: In 𝛼-emission, mass number decreases by 4 and atomic number decreases by 2, thus reaction can
be written as, 233 229 4
92𝑈 → 90𝑋 + 2𝐻𝑒 and after second 𝛼-emission:
229 225 4
90𝑋 → 88𝑌 + 2𝐻𝑒
Thus when 233 225
92𝑈 decays twice by 𝛼-emission. Then radium-88 is formed. Hence resulting isotope is 88𝑅𝑎 .

Q3. Enlist the basic forces of nature?

Ans: Basic Forces of Nature: There are five basic forces of nature:
(i) Gravitational force (ii) Magnetic force (iii) Electric force (iv) Weak nuclear force (v) Strong nuclear force
Q4. Show that 𝟏𝒂𝒎𝒖 = 𝟗𝟑𝟏𝑴𝒆𝑽?
Ans: As, 1𝑎𝑚𝑢 = 1.660565 × 10−27 𝑘𝑔, 𝑐 = 2.988 × 108 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠, 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2
So, 𝐸 𝑜𝑓 1𝑎𝑚𝑢 = 1.660565 × 10−27 (2.988 × 108 )2 = 1.4925 × 10−10 𝐽
1
As, 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒 = 1.602×10−19 𝑒𝑉 𝑆𝑜, 𝑏𝑦 𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡,
1.4925 × 10−10
1𝑎𝑚𝑢 = 𝑒𝑉 = 931.64 × 106 𝑒𝑉 = 931𝑀𝑒𝑉 ∴ 106 = 𝑀
1.602 × 10−19
Q6. Define the terms mass defect and binding energy?
Ans: Mass defect: The difference between masses of nucleons and mass of nucleus is called mass defect.
Mathematically, ∆𝑚 = [𝑍𝑚𝑝 + (𝐴 − 𝑍)𝑚𝑛 ] − 𝑚𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑢𝑠
Binding energy: The energy required to break the nucleus into its nucleons is called binding energy.
Mathematically, 𝐵. 𝐸 = ∆𝑚𝑐 2
Q7. What is the difference between natural and artificial radioactivity?
Ans: Natural Radioactivity: The process of emitting radiations randomly and spontaneously is called
natural radioactivity.
Artificial Radioactivity: The process in which radioactivity is created by bombarding stable nuclei with
particles is called artificial radioactivity.
Q8. Give some examples of thermonuclear fusion reaction?
Ans: Examples of thermonuclear fusion:
(i) Hydrogen bomb (ii) Energy of the Sun (iii) Energy of stars (iv) Fusion Reactors
Q9. What do you mean by absorbed dose and equivalent dose?
Ans: Absorbed dose (D): The amount of radiation energy absorbed per unit mass of a body is called
𝐸
absorbed dose. Mathematically, 𝐷 = 𝑚 Unit: Its SI unit is gray Gy.
Equivalent dose: The absorbed dose multiplied by a quality factor (RBE) is called equivalent dose. RBE

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stands for relative biological effectiveness, which shows how harmful the radiation is.
Mathematically, 𝐷𝑒 = 𝐷 × 𝑅𝐵𝐸 Unit: Its SI unit is sievert (Sv).
Q10. Differentiate between Baryons and Mesons?
Ans: Baryons: The particles having mass equal or greater than protons are called baryons.
Mesons: The particles having mass less than protons are called mesons.
Q11: Difference between hadrons and Leptons?
Ans: Hadrons: The particles that experiences strong nuclear force are called hadrons. Examples: protons,
neutrons, mesons, baryons etc.
Leptons: The particles that do not experiences strong nuclear force are called leptons. Examples: electrons,
muons, neutrinos.
Q12: What is radioactivity?
Ans: Radioactivity: Radioactivity is the process in which unstable nuclei emit radiations to become stable.
The elements that show this property are called radioactive elements. 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛾 are the three types emitted
radiations.
Q13: Define half-life decay? Also write its formula?
Ans: Half-Life: The period in which half of atoms decay is called half-life 𝑇1⁄2 of a radioactive element.
0.693
Formula: 𝑇1⁄2 = 𝜆 where 𝑇1⁄2 is a half-life and 𝜆 is decay constant.

Q14: In 𝟐𝟑𝟓
𝟗𝟐𝑼 find: (a) Atomic number (b) Charge number (c) Number of neutrons (d) Number of electrons
Ans: (a) Atomic Number (Z)= 92 , Mass Number= 235
(b) Charge number= 92
(c) Number of Neutrons: 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 − 𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 = 235 − 92 = 143
(d) Number of Electrons: 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 = 𝑍 = 92
Q15: Write the names of hydrogen isotopes?
Ans: Hydrogen has three isotopes: (i) Protium ( 11𝐻 ) (ii) Deuterium ( 21𝐻 ) (iii) Tritium ( 31𝐻 )
Q16: What do you mean by Quark?
Ans: Quarks are the fundamental particles that combine to form proton, neutron and hadrons. They are the
basic building block of matter and cannot be broken into smaller particles.
Q17: What is nuclear reactor. Also Write its uses?
Ans: Nuclear Reactor: A nuclear reactor is a device in which a controlled chain reaction of nuclear fission
takes place to produce energy.
Uses: It is used: (i) to produce electricity. (ii) to produce radioisotopes (iii) In ships and submarines

Exercise Questions
Q1. What are isotopes? What do they have in common and what are their differences?
Ans: Isotopes: Atoms of an element having same number of protons but different number of neutrons are
called isotopes. e.g. isotopes of helium, hydrogen etc.
Similarities & Differences: (i) They have same number of protons but different number of neutrons.
(ii) They have same chemical properties but different physical properties.
Q2. Why are heavy nuclei unstable?
Ans: Reason: Heavy nuclei are unstable because their binding energy per nucleon is very small. In such
nuclei, the strong nuclear force between nucleons becomes weak due to large distance. As a result, the
nucleus becomes unstable and can easily split.
Q3. If a nucleus has a half-life of 1 year, does this mean that it will be completely decayed after 2 years? Explain.
Ans: No, it does not mean that it will completely decay after 2 years.
Explanation: If, 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑁𝑜
1 𝑛
Number of un-decayed atoms after n-half lives = (2) 𝑁𝑜

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1 2 1
So, for 𝑛 = 2, Number of un-decayed atoms after two half lives = (2) 𝑁𝑜 = 4 𝑁𝑜 ⇒ 25%
This shows that 25% nuclei are left un-decayed after two half lives and 75% of the nuclei are decayed. Total
decay is possible only after infinite years.
Q4. What fraction of a radioactive sample decays after two half-lives have elapsed?
Ans: 75% of radioactive sample decays after 2 half-lives.
1 𝑛
Explanation: If 𝑁𝑜 = 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠, Number of un-decayed atoms after n-half lives = (2) 𝑁𝑜
1 2 1
As, 𝑛 = 2, Number of un-decayed atoms after two half lives = (2) 𝑁𝑜 = 4 𝑁𝑜 ⇒ 25%
1 3 3
So, Number of decayed atoms= 𝑁𝑜 − 4 𝑁𝑜 = 4 𝑁𝑜 ⇒ 75% So, the fraction of decayed nuclei= 4

Q5. The radioactive element ²²⁶Ra has a half-life of 1.6 × 10³ years. Since the Earth is about 5 billion years old,
how can you explain why we still can find this element in nature?
Ans: Reason: According to radioactive decay law, 𝑁 = 𝑁𝑜 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
This equation shows that an infinite time (t) is required for an element to decay completely. That is why we
still can find 226
88𝑅𝑎 in nature.

Q6. Describe a brief account of interaction of various types of radiations with matter.
Ans: Following are the interaction of various types of particles with matter:
𝛼 -particles: They are heavy, travel only a short distance, and can be stopped by a sheet of paper.
𝛽-particles: They are lighter, travel farther than alpha particles, and can be stopped by a thin sheet of metal.
𝛾-particles: They are neutral, travel the farthest, and can be stopped only by thick lead or concrete.
Q7. Explain how α and β particles may ionize an atom without directly hitting the electrons? What is the difference
in the action of the two particles for producing ionization?
Ans: Ionization by 𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽 without hitting: (i) 𝛼-particle may ionize the atom by electrostatic attraction.
(ii) 𝛽-particle may ionize the atom by electrostatic repulsion.
Difference in the action: 𝛼-particle attracts the electron while 𝛽-particle repels the electron of an atom.
Q8. A particle which produces more ionization is less penetrating. Why?
Ans: Reason: A particle which produces more ionization is less penetrating because it loses most of its
energy in ionizing the atoms. So, it travels a very small distance in the medium before coming to rest. e.g. 𝛼-
particle is highly ionizing therefore its penetration is less.
Q9. What information is revealed by the length and shape of the tracks of an incident particle in Wilson cloud
chamber?
Ans: (i) 𝛼-particle: If the track is thick, short and continuous then it represents 𝛼-particles, which have
large mass, strong ionizing power and weak penetrating power.
(ii) 𝛽-particle: If the track is thin, long and discontinuous then it represents 𝛽-particles, which have smaller
mass, weaker ionizing power and stronger penetrating power.
(iii) 𝛾-particle: If the track is faint, longest and irregular then it represents 𝛾-particles, which have no mass,
weakest ionizing power and strongest penetrating power.
Q10. Why must a Geiger Muller tube for detecting α-particles have a very thin end window? Why does a Geiger
Muller tube for detecting γ-rays not need a window at all?
Ans: For detecting 𝛼-particles: As the penetrating power of 𝛼-particle is very small due to its greater mass
so a very thin window is kept in GM-tube so that 𝛼-particle can penetrate into the tube.
For detecting 𝛾-particles: Since the penetrating power of 𝛾-particle is much greater so these is no need to
keep window in the tube.
Q11. Describe the principle of operation of a solid-state detector of ionizing radiation in terms of generation and
detection of charge carriers.
Ans: Explanation: A solid-state detector works on the principle that when ionizing radiation (like α, β, or γ
rays) enters in a semiconductor, it gives energy to the atoms and creates electron-hole pairs.
An electric field inside the detector quickly separates these electron-hole pairs, creating a small current
pulse. This pulse is then detected and measured.

50 | P a g e Written & Designed by Saqlain Ahmad

12th Physics Notes Prof. Irfan Elahi

Q12. What do we mean by the term critical mass?

Ans: Critical mass: The minimum amount of fissionable material required so that one neutron from each
fission reaction produces another fission is called critical mass. And the volume of this mass of uranium is
called critical volume.
Q13. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of nuclear power compared to the use of fossil fuel generated
power.
Advantages Disadvantages
(i) Much more energy is produced. (i) Uranium mining is more dangerous than coal.
(ii) No environmental pollution and smoke. (ii) Nuclear waste cannot be transported through
(iii) Electricity produced by this way is cheaper. areas of population.
(iv) Nuclear waste can be re-used. (iii) Nuclear waste is very harmful to living things.

Q14. What factors make a fusion reaction difficult to achieve?

Ans: Difficulty Factors: This reaction required large amount of energy and temperature up to millions
degree centigrade. At this temperature the nuclei get sufficient thermal K.E. But such a high temperature is
not possible to achieve. So, the fusion reaction is very difficult to achieve.
Q15. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of fission power from the point of safety, pollution and resources.
Ans: Advantages: (i) A small amount of fuel gives a lot of energy. (ii) No smoke or harmful gases are
produced. (iii) Uranium fuel is cheaper and widely available.
Disadvantages: (i) Produces dangerous radioactive waste. (ii) Nuclear accidents can be very harmful.
(iii) Handling and storing waste is difficult and costly.
Q16. What do you understand by "background radiation"? State two sources of this radiation.
Ans: Background Radiations: The radiations present in our surrounding, even without any nearby
radioactive source are called background radiations.
Sources: (i) Cosmic rays which comes from outer space (ii) Radioactive substances present in the earth
(iii) Radioactive potassium and carbon in the body
Q17. If someone accidently swallows an α-source and a β-source which would be the more dangerous to him?
Explain why?
Ans: 𝛼-source will be more dangerous than 𝛽-source.
Reason: It is because that the ionizing power of 𝛼-particle is greater than 𝛽-particle. So 𝛼-particle can
cause more damage to our body.
Q18. Which radiation dose would deposit more energy to the body (a) 10 mGy to the hand, or (b) 1 mGy dose to the
entire body.
Ans: 1mGy dose deposits more energy to our body.
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 𝐸
Reason: As we know that, 𝐷𝑜𝑠𝑒 = ⇒𝐷=𝑚 ⇒𝐸 =𝑚×𝐷
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
As mass of whole body is much greater than that of hand. Therefore, according to above equation 1mGy
does deposits more energy.
Q19. What is a radioactive tracer? Describe one application each in medicine, agriculture and industry.
Ans: Radioactive Tracer: A radioactive isotope behaves in the same way as the normal isotope inside a
living organism. A radioactive isotope can be used a tracer to find what happens in a chemical / biological
process. Applications:
(i) In medicine: Tracer is used in medicine to detect the malignant tumors.
(ii) In Agriculture: It is used to measure the amount of fertilizer absorbed by a plant.
(iii) In Industry: It is also used in tyre manufacturing industries.
Q20. How can radioactivity help in the treatment of cancer?
Ans: Explanation: Radiotherapy with 𝛾-rays from cobalt 60 is often used in the treatment of cancer. The 𝛾-
rays are carefully focused on the malignant tissues. The cancerous cells that multiply rapidly absorb more
radiations and are more easily destroyed than normal cells.

51 | P a g e Written & Designed by Saqlain Ahmad

12th Physics Notes Prof. Irfan Elahi

52 | P a g e Written & Designed by Saqlain Ahmad