Power Quality

Lectures prepared by

Prof. S. Shahnawaz Ahmed

For subsequent materials assistance taken mainly from :

[Link] J. Burke, Power Distribution Engineering Fundamentals and Applications,

Marcel Dekker Inc.,NY, 1994 ; Chapter 7.

[Link] L. Grigsby, editor: ELECTRIC POWER GENERATION, TRANSMISSION, and

DISTRIBUTION , part of Electric Power Engineering Handbook, CRC Press, NY, 2007;
Chapters 28-33.

[Link] A. SALLAM and OM P. MALIK, ELECTRIC DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS, IEEE

and John Wiley & Sons, Inc, NJ 2011; Chapters 3, 7-11.

4. Janaka Ekanayake, Kithsiri Liyanage, Jianzhong Wu, Akihiko Yokoyama and Nick
Jenkins, Smart Grid: Technology and Applications. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, UK. 2012.
Chapter 10.

[Link] Gonen, Electric Power Distribution Engineering, CRC Press, NY, 2014, Chapter
12.
 Introduction
•Power quality in the context of today’s power
system implies mainly the aperiodic disturbances
such as sag, swell, spike/surge/transients,
interruption etc. that occur for a few cycles to
several tens of milliseconds. These affect very
sensitive electronic appliances.

•Besides above, periodic and sustained

disturbances like harmonics, notch and flickers
are also included in power quality category.

•However, the quality issues are contributed not

only due to faults or switching events in power
system but also by consumer end electronic and
Typical voltage disturbances shown digital appliances themselves, fluctuating loads,
in a single conceptual waveform and converter fed large motors or VSDs(variable
speed drives) .
These can be mitigated using very fast acting
•The long duration (several seconds compensators belonging to FACTS family.
and larger) events such as
•Apart from aforesaid voltage or current
overvoltage, under voltage (also
waveform related quality events, grounding,
termed brownout), blackout are unbalance, and power factor are sometimes
tackled in different ways. considered as power quality issues.
 Further illustration
Transients, voltage sag or swell, voltage
unbalance, and voltage distortions are the
nature of the power quality problems.

These distortions result from a wide variety

of events ranging from switching events
within the end-user facility to faults
hundreds of kilometers away on the utility
transmission line.

The main power quality disturbances are

shown in Figure.

The power quality variations due to these

problems can be categorized as transient
disturbances, fundamental frequency
disturbances, and variations in steady state.
Each category can be defined by certain
characteristics as given in Table 7.1. Its
causes are listed in Table 7.2 . Separate illustrations of some of the
power quality events
[Ref.3]
Often more than a minute

0.5 cycles to more than 1 minute

Transients: These refer to a phenomenon or quantity varying between two
consecutive steady states during a time interval that is short compared with
the timescale of interest. A transient can be a unidirectional impulse of
either polarity, or a damped oscillatory wave with the first peak occurring in
either polarity.

Sags: A decrease in root mean square (rms) voltage or current at power

frequency for durations of 0.5 cycles to 30 cycles. A voltage sag of 10%
means that the line voltage is reduced to 10% of the nominal value. Typical
values are 0.1 – 0.9 pu.

Swells: A temporary increase in rms voltage or current of more than 10% of

the nominal value at power system frequency, which lasts from 0.5 cycles
to 30 cycles. Typical rms values are 1.1– 1.8 pu.
Undervoltage: Refers to a voltage having a value less than the nominal voltage
for a period of time greater than 1 min. Typical values are 0.8 – 0.9 pu.

Overvoltage: When used to describe a specific type of long - duration variation,

this refers to a voltage having a value greater than the nominal voltage for a
period of time greater than 1 min. Typical values are 1.1 – 1.2 pu.

Interruptions: The complete loss of voltage (below 0.1 pu) on one or more
phase conductors for a certain period of time. Momentary interruptions are
defined as lasting between 0.5 cycles and 3 s, temporary interruptions have a
time span between 3 and 60 s, and sustained interruptions last for a period
longer than 60 s.

Harmonics: Sinusoidal voltages or currents having frequencies that are multiples

of the fundamental power frequency. Distorted waveforms can be decomposed
into a sum of the fundamental frequency wave and the harmonics caused by
nonlinear characteristics of power system devices and loads.
Interharmonics: Voltages and currents having frequencies that are
not integral multiples of the fundamental power frequency.

Interharmonics are mainly caused by static frequency converters,

cycloconverters, induction motors, and arcing devices, and can have
the effect of inducing visual flicker on display units.

Voltage Flicker: Voltage fluctuations are systematic variations in the

envelope or a series of random voltage changes with a magnitude that
does not normally exceed the voltage ranges of 0.9 – 1.1 pu. Such
voltage variations are often referred to as flicker.
The term flicker is derived from the visible impact of voltage
fluctuations on lamps.

Among the most common causes of voltage flicker in transmission and

distribution systems are arc furnaces, large motor starting.
 0.9 – 1.1 pu

Comparison among voltage related events

Flicker: sustained or periodic variation 0.9 – 1.1 pu

Sag: aperiodic, 0.3 to 30 cycles, 0.1 to 0.9 pu

Swell: aperiodic, 0.3 to 30 cycles, 1.1– 1.8 pu

UV: >a few seconds to more than a minute; 0.8 – 0.9 pu

OV: >a few seconds to more than a minute; 1.1 – 1.2 pu

Notch: A periodic transient reduction in the magnitude of the quasi - sinusoidal
mains voltage. It lasts less than one half - cycle and usually less than a few milliseconds.
Notching is caused mainly by power electronics devices that draw a heavy load current
during a small portion of the sine wave. Frequency components associated with
notching can, therefore, be very high, and measuring with harmonic analysis
equipment may be difficult.

Noise: Unwanted electric signals that produce undesirable effects in the circuits
of the control systems in which they occur. (The control systems include sensitive
electronic equipment in total or in part.) Noise is a high frequency, low - current, low -
energy waveform superimposed on the sine wave of the alternating current (AC)
mains.

The frequency of noise can range from low kilohertz into megahertz region. This low -
level interference is typically characterized by a voltage less than 50 V and an
associated current of less than 1 A.

Noise is not a component damaging anomaly but can be very costly in the form of
data errors, lost data, or downtime. Potential noise sources in electric distribution
systems include motors, transformers, capacitors, generators, lighting systems, power
conditioning equipment, and surge protective devices (SPDs).
Typical Power Quality Examples
Some examples of power quality problems are listed below :

• Switching an air conditioner “ on ” may cause a sag in the voltage, which might dim
the lights momentarily.
However, plugging in a coffeepot to the same receptacle as a personal computer might
cause voltage sag that could scramble data every time the coffeepot is turned “ on ” or
“ off. ”

•Industrial equipment with microprocessor-based controls and power electronic

devices that are sensitive to disturbances are affected by poor power quality.
Control systems can be affected by momentary voltage sag or small transient
voltages, resulting in nuisance tripping of processes. Furthermore, many of these
sensitive loads are interconnected in extensive network and automated processes.
This interconnected nature makes the whole system dependent on the most sensitive
device when a disturbance occurs.
•The intervention of power electronics in industrial processes may generate
harmonic currents that result in voltage distortion. For instance, VSDs can
generate harmonics. These harmonics are subject to being magnified when
exciting resonance occurs with LV capacitors causing equipment failure.

•A voltage unbalance was observed at a manufacturing plant. A three -phase

autotransformer was used to boost the LV because the distribution transformer
tap setting was low. One phase was used to supply power to the adjacent main
office. The load of this office was large enough to cause unbalance at the plant.
This unbalance resulted in longer motor starting times causing visible light
flicker nuisance.

•A motel repeatedly experienced damage to window air conditioners of the

individual rooms. At first, the utility was blamed because of not providing
overvoltage protection. By studying the problem in depth, it was found that the
electronic circuitry of the control board in the conditioner unit did not have any
surge protection. It was replaced by the same type of device (i.e. control circuit
but without SPD) at each time of damage, so the problem was sustained.
SOLUTIONS OF POWER QUALITY PROBLEMS
The power quality devices [Ref.3] are
used to protect the electric or electronic
equipment or to eliminate the source of
disturbances or to mitigate the effect of
disturbances.

The devices that are commonly used for

this application include the following:

• SPD
• shielding (SH)
• uninterruptible power supply (UPS)
• dynamic voltage restorers (DVRs)
• series capacitors (SCs)
• capacitor voltage transformers (CVTs)
• wiring and grounding (W & G)
• static VAR compensator (SVC)
• ESS
• backup generators (BCKGs)
• isolation transformers (ITRs)
• filters.
(series inductors)
Here line reactor L is used to compensate the
capacitor’s phase shift.

As the voltage across C1 is greater than the C2

exactly to say V2 < V1

[Link]
DVR

Ref. 4
Example 10.7
Part of a distribution network is shown in
Figure 10.26. The load connected to busbar E
is a sensitive load and therefore the voltage
magnitude at that bus should be maintained
at 1 ± 0.1 pu. Calculate the voltage at the load MVA
MVA
bus when a fault occurs on bus F. Using
a phasor diagram, calculate the magnitude of
the DVR voltage that should be injected
to maintain the voltage at the sensitive load
within its limits. Assume before the fault,
voltage at busbar E is 1∠0◦ pu.

Answer
All the quantities were converted to pu values based on a Sbase of 250 MVA. Then Zbase
at 69 kV is 19.04 and Zbase at 13.8 kV is 0.76 .
pu value of 69 kV line = (2.5 + j5)/19.04 = 0.131 + j0.263 pu
pu value of lineBC = (1.5 + j1.5)/0.76 = 1.97 + j1.97 pu
pu value of line BF = (2.0 + j2.0)/0.76 = 2.63 + j2.63 pu
 pu value of 2 × 69/13.8 kV transformer reactances = (½)× 0.15 × 250/30
= 0.625 pu
pu value of 13.8/6.6 kV transformer recatance = 0.15 × 250/10
= 3.75 pu
Load power in pu = 3/250 = 0.012 pu

Load could be represented by a resistance of 1/0.012 = 83.3pu.

The one-line representation of the distribution network shown in Figure 10.26 was redrawn
using its circuit representation as shown in Figure 10.27 (this makes calculations clearer).
For this calculation, the DVR was disconnected from the circuit.

83.4

Figure 10.27 Equivalent circuit of Figure 10.26

Vinj+VE=VE_bf =1.0‹0°

gives
Vinj=1.73 kV
 Other FACTS devices usable for sag mitigation:

Thyristor controlled voltage regulator

Static Synchronous Series Compensator
 SPD: Surge Protection Device
Internal surges are generated within a The SPD is a nonlinear element (such as ZnO)
facility by the user’s equipment. acting as an isolating switch in the normal
They result from switching processes, for conditions where its resistance is very high.
example, switching inductive or capacitive When the voltage (e,g. surge) increases and
loads, fuse, or breaker opening in an reaches a certain value called “ clamping
inductive circuit. voltage, ” the SPD will change rapidly (in
nanoseconds) from a very high resistance
External surges are generated outside a mode to a very low resistance mode.
facility and brought into the facility by Then, the majority of surge energy is directed
utility wires. through SPD, and most of this energy is
They result from fuse operation, power dissipated in its internal resistance and
system switching, and lightning. remaining is diverted to neutral or earth.

The SPDs protect the equipment against

these surges by limiting the amount of
undesired surge energy that reaches the
equipment.
The surge energy is dissipated and
diverted to a path -neutral or earth,
rather than the equipment itself .

Ref. 3
 UPS : Uninterruptible power supply
The UPS is an alternative power source
to supply power to the load during
interruption or outage of the main
power source (e.g., utility source).
 It includes a rectifier circuit to
convert AC input power into direct
current (DC) power. The DC power
charges a set of batteries to store
energy and an inverter to convert the
DC stored energy back onto AC power During normal operation, the utility supplies
for the load (Fig. 7.9 ). Six or twelve or power to both the load directly bypassing the
twenty - four diode bridges can UPS unit and to the UPS to charge its batteries via
constitute the rectifier circuit. the rectifier circuit.
From the point of view of frequency In an emergency operation, for instance an
stability as well as voltage stability, the
outage of utility power source, the UPS supplies
inverter that constitutes the UPS
generator has performance superior to power to the load fast enough (few
that of the mains. It is designed to milliseconds) to avoid any damage resulting from
generate sinusoidal voltage (typical load interruption. This necessitates using an
maximum THD 3%) even when electronic transfer switch to change the power
supplying nonlinear loads, that is, source to load.
dealing with highly distorted currents.
UPSs are effective for microprocessor - based loads such as computer
systems and PLCs where the loss of data is avoided. On the other hand, they
have deficiencies where the transfer switch and rectifier are exposed to line
disturbances in normal operating conditions. In emergencies, the operation
time of UPS is limited by the capacity of batteries.

The design of UPSs and, generally, ESS depends on the required mode of
operation. Three modes of operation are considered: standby (off - line), on -
line, and line interactive.

•The standby mode of operation means that the ESS operates only during
the interruption time,

•while it operates full time in the case of on-line mode of operation.

•Line- interactive mode of operation includes both of these two modes.

 Back up generators
BCKGs In large industries and for long - duration
interruptions, backup generation is essential to
supply at least the critical loads. It is common to use
diesel - generator set with rating sufficient for
feeding these critical loads such as emergency
lighting system, electric lifts, industrial processes that
cannot withstand long interruption, and hospitals.

Usually, the backup generator is used as a standby

unit and connected to the distribution system of the
industry at the main LV entrance (Fig. 7.7 ).

An automatic transfer switch (ATS) can be used to

automatically transfer the power source from the
utility incoming feeder to the backup generator in
emergency cases. An electric interlock is provided
between both sources to avoid parallel operation.
Some of the outgoing feeders of uncritical loads may
be disconnected to keep the power demand within
generator rating that is mostly less than the rating of
the utility source.
 Isolation transformers
ITRs They are generally composed of
two separate windings with a magnetic
shield between these windings to offer
noise control. The noise can be
transported to the electric device by
electromagnetic coupling (EMC) in two
basic ways: a differential mode noise
and a common mode noise as shown in
Fig. 7.11.

The ITR is connected between the

power source and the electric device.

Therefore, it carries the full load

current, and thus must be suitably sized.
The main benefit offered by ITRs is the
isolation between two circuits, by
converting electric energy to magnetic
energy and back to electric energy, thus
acting as a new power source.
Let a high voltage, high - current transient If, on the other hand, these transients are
be introduced into a power line by the direct common mode, then a suitable shielded ITR
and indirect (induced) effects of lightning will provide effective protection against such
surges. This is because a common mode
activity or a switching surge.
transient is split in two between a pair of
If these transients are differential mode, power lines, and they proceed in the same
then the ITR will effectively pass these direction. They flow into the transformer
transients with little or no attenuation. from its terminals and run in the primary coil,
This occurs because the ITR is designed to finally going out to the earth through the
pass power frequencies in the differential shield plate. At this moment, they run in the
mode, and the frequency make up of a coil in opposite directions, canceling their
lightning transient is such that most of the inductive effects in the secondary side.
Therefore, a common mode transient does
energy content is in the frequency
not reach the secondary side.
components below a few tens of kilohertz,
that is, within the pass band of most ITRs. It can thus be seen that the shielded
transformer will provide effective protection
against common mode surges provided the
peak voltage does not exceed the insulation
rating of the transformer. However, for
differential mode surges It is less effective
and additional protective devices like filters,
SPDs are required besides ITRs.
More Details on following events.
Sag
Flicker
Harmonics
Grounding
Sag
Voltage sags are short duration reductions in rms voltage, mainly caused by short
circuits and starting of large motors. A voltage sag is not as damaging to industry as
a long or short interruption, but occurs more frequently.

The interest in voltage sags is due to the problems they cause on several types of
equipment.

Adjustable-speed drives, process-control equipment, and computers are especially

notorious for their sensitivity to sag.

Some pieces of equipment trip when the rms voltage drops below 90% for longer
than one or two cycles. Such a piece of equipment will trip tens of times a year. If this is
the process-control equipment of a paper mill, one can imagine that the costs due to
voltage sags can be enormous.

[Ref. 2]
 2.5cycles It is correct to say that the voltage
sags to 0.2 pu

•This event can be characterized as a voltage sag with a magnitude (peak value) of 20%
and a duration of 2.5 cycles.
•The magnitude of a voltage sag is determined from the rms voltage. The rms voltage for
the sag in Fig has been calculated over a one-cycle sliding window:
 A fault in the transmission network, fault
Propagation of sag caused by fault position 1, will cause a serious sag for both
substations bordering the faulted line. This sag is
transferred down to all customers fed from these
two substations. As there is normally no
generation connected at lower voltage levels,
there is nothing to keep up the voltage. The result
is that all customers (A, B, C, and D) experience a
deep sag.
The sag experienced by A is likely to be somewhat
less deep, as the generators connected to that
substation will keep up the voltage.

A fault at position 2 will not cause much

voltage drop for customer A. The impedance of
the transformers between the transmission and
the subtransmission system are large enough to
considerably limit the voltage drop at high-
voltage side of the transformer.
The sag experienced by customer A is further
mitigated by the generators feeding into its local
transmission substation. The fault at position 2
will, however, cause a deep sag at both
subtransmission substations and thus for all
customers fed from here (B, C, and D).
A fault at position 3 will cause a short or long
interruption for customer D when the protection clears the Fault 4 causes a deep sag for customer C and a shallow
fault. Customer C will only experience a deep sag. Customer one for customer D.
B will experience a shallow sag due to the fault at position 3, For fault 5, the result is the other way around: a deep sag
for customer D and a shallow one for customer C. Customers
again due to the transformer impedance. Customer A will A and B will not experience any significant drop in voltage
probably not notice anything from this fault. due to faults 4 and 5.
 Voltage Sag Magnitude in a radial system
•To quantify sag magnitude in radial systems, the
voltage divider model, shown in Fig. 31.4, can be
used, where ZS is the source impedance at the point
of common coupling; and ZF is the impedance
between the point-of-common coupling and the
fault.

•The point-of-common coupling (pcc) is the point

from which both the fault and the load are fed.

•In the voltage divider model, the load current

before, as well as during the fault is neglected.

•The voltage (pu) at the pcc is found from: All impedances

either in ohms or pu

where it is assumed that the pre-event voltage is exactly 1 pu, thus E=1.

•Equation (31.2) can be used to calculate the sag magnitude as a function of the distance
to the fault. Therefore, we write ZF = z d, with z the impedance of the feeder per unit
length and d the distance between the fault and the pcc, leading to:
•This expression has been used to calculate
the sag magnitude as a function of the
distance to the fault for a typical 11 kV
overhead line, resulting in Fig. 31.5.

For the calculations, a 150-mm2 overhead line

was used and PCC fault levels of 750 MVA, 200
MVA, and 75 MVA.

•The fault level is used to calculate the source Vsag means voltage reduces to Vsag
impedance at the pcc.

e.g. for a fault MVA 750

Zs =j 100 MVAb/750 MVA x (112/100)
=j 0.161 ohms

•The impedance of the 150 mm2 overhead Fig. Sag magnitude as a function of the distance
line z =0.117 +j 0.315 Ω/km is used to
to the fault in a typical 11 kV feeder.
calculate the impedance (z.d) between the
pcc and the fault. More the fault MVA at PCC less is the dip i.e.
PCC voltage sags to a higher value for the same
distance to the fault location. Also for
same fault MVA if distance to fault increases PCC
voltage sags to a higher value.
 •It is also possible to calculate the sag magnitude directly from fault levels at the pcc and at the
fault position.
Let SFLT be the fault level at the fault position and SPCC at the point-of-common coupling.
The sag voltage at the pcc can be written as:

SFLT and SPCC in MVA

when fault occurs at a lower voltage level and PCC is at a higher voltage level

•This equation can be used to calculate the magnitude of sags due to faults at voltage levels other
than the point-of-common coupling.

•Consider typical fault levels as shown in Table 30.1. This data has been used to obtain Table 30.2,
showing the effect of a short circuit fault at a lower voltage level than the pcc.
It can be seen that sags are significantly ‘‘damped’’ when they propagate upwards in the power
system.

•In a sags study, we typically only have to take faults one voltage level down from the pcc into account.
and even those are seldom of serious concern. Note, however, that faults at a lower voltage level may
be associated with a longer fault-clearing time and thus a longer sag duration. This especially holds
for faults on distribution feeders, where fault-clearing times in excess of one second are possible.
 Critical Distance

Equation (31.3) gives the voltage as a function of distance to the fault. From this equation we
can obtain the distance at which a fault will lead to a sag of a given magnitude V, by
rewriting this as equation as follows:

•If V in 31.5 is chosen to be the voltage such that a piece of equipment trips when
the voltage drops below this V then V is the critical voltage. We then refer to the
distance as the critical distance.
•The definition of critical distance is such that each fault within the critical distance
will cause the equipment to trip.
•This concept can be used to estimate the expected number of equipment trips due
to voltage sags.
•The critical distance has been calculated for different voltage levels, using typical
fault levels and feeder impedances. The data used and the results obtained are
summarized in Table 30.3 for the critical voltage of 50%.

Note: The critical distance increases proportionally with the system voltage level
and hence fault MVA

e.g. for 400 kV system base MVA=100, MVAFLT at PCC= 10000,

Zs= 100/10000=0.01 pu;
Zbase=kV2/100= 1600 ohms; z=290 mΩ/km =0.00018 pu/km
so that for a sag voltage of V=0.5 pu
eqn 31.5 gives dcrit = (0.01/0.00018)x(0.5/(1-0.5))≈ 55 km
Flicker
Some electric equipment such as lamps,
computers and electronic devices, are
sensitive not only to voltage magnitude
but also rapid changes in voltage, called
“ voltage flicker. ” This also irritates
human eyes.
The traditional voltage regulation
equipment augmented by utilities cannot
compensate for instantaneous voltage
fluctuations. The main reason of these
fluctuations is the sudden application of
low power factor loads, such as motors,
welding machines, and arc furnaces.
These loads do not demand constant
current and generate variable voltage dips
along the distribution feeder.
This may cause disturbances noticed by
other loads connected to the same
feeder.
For instance, the operation of arc furnace
shown in Figure 8.6 a may cause a flicker
problem to other domestic loads. It is
better to supply power by separate [Ref. 3]
feeders as shown in Figure 8.6 b.
The borderline of irritation that indicates the maximum permissible voltage flicker
before it becomes objectionable to the customer is shown in Figure 8.7 .

For example, the allowable number of flickers for elevators is three times per
minute when the voltage variation is of order of 2%. Usually the less the %
voltage change the more is the allowable fluctuation frequency.

Often a simplified
formulation is used to
calculate this voltage
change.

[Ref. 1]
For fluctuating loads that are best represented by a
constant power model (arc furnaces and load
torque variations on a running motor), basic load
flow techniques can be used to determine the full-
load and no-load (or ‘‘normal condition’’) voltages at
the ‘‘critical’’ or ‘‘point of common coupling’’ bus
where other customers might be served.

For fluctuating loads that are best represented by a

constant impedance model (motor in starting
condition), basic circuit analysis techniques readily
Square wave flicker
provide the full-load and no-load (‘‘normal
condition’’) voltages at the critical bus (1)

But frequency of this change is difficult to determine.

The flicker is often considered as a power frequency voltage
with its amplitude modulated either by a low frequency (2)
sinusoid or a square wave. In above equations, V or Vsquare corresponds to flicker
voltage or voltage change in % of Vrms and ωm
corresponds to the frequency of fluctuation.
 Limitations of flicker curve and alternative method
When the flicker voltage magnitude and frequency are not constant it is very difficult
to decide the flicker severity and effectiveness of flicker mitigating devices simply on
the basis of a flicker curve similar to that shown in Fig. 8.7.

Alternative approaches based on an instrument called a flicker meter as developed by

the International Union for Electroheat (UIE: Union Internationale d’Electrothermie)
and the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) in Europe, appear to offer
solutions to many of the problems with the flicker curve methodology.

Many years of industrial experience have been obtained with the flicker meter
approach, and its output has been well-correlated with complaints of utility customers.
At this time, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) is working toward
adopting the flicker meter methodology for use in North America.

The flicker meter is a continuous time measuring system that takes voltage as an input
and produces three output indices that are related to customer perception.

These outputs are: (1) instantaneous flicker sensation, Pinst, (2) short-term flicker
severity, Pst, and (3) long-term flicker severity, Plt.

A block diagram of a flicker meter is shown in Fig. 32.6.

 [Ref. 2]

•Blocks 1 and 2 act to process the input voltage signal and to partially isolate only the
modulating term in Eqs. (1) or (2).
•Block 3 completes the isolation of the modulating signal through complex filtering
and applies frequency-sensitive weighting to the ‘‘pure’’ modulating signal.
• Block 4 models the physiological response of the human observer, specifically the
short-term memory tendency of the brain to correlate the voltage modulating signal
with a human perception ability. The instantaneous flicker sensation is the output of
Block 4. Pinst is available as an output quantity on a continuous basis, and a value of
1.0 corresponds with the threshold of visibility curve in Fig. 32.2.
•Block 5 performs statistical analysis on the output of Block 4 to capture the
cumulative effects of fluctuations over time. The short- and long-term severity
indices are the outputs of Block 5 . This block performs on-line statistical analysis
on Pinst, to obtain Pst and Plt.

Pst: Short Term Flicker Severity - an index of visual severity evaluated over a
10 minute period.
Plt: Long Term Flicker Severity - an index of visual severity evaluated over a 2
hour period.

•Pst is calculated using the formula,

P0.1, P1, P3, P10 and P50 are the durations in % of 10 minutes, when Pinst
exceeded 0.1, 1, 3, 10 and 50 respectively.
•The method for calculating Plt is based on the cubic geometric average of the 12
values of Pst (1 value every 10 minute) in a period of 2 hours, according to the
expression:
•A single Pst value is available as an output every ten minutes, and a value of Pst = 1.0
corresponds to the threshold of irritation curve in Fig. 32.2.

Note: Threshold of visibility imposes more stringent value on the allowable limit
 •Pst and Plt should not exceed the planning levels given in following Table more
than 1% of the time (99% probability level) with a minimum assessment period of
one week.

Table : IEC Recommended Pst and Plt at Planning Levels

MV MV-EHV
Pst 0.9 0.8
Plt 0.7 0.6

•However, during operation of the flicker generating devices Pst should be less than
or equal to 1.0 in order to remain within the borderline irritation curve.

•Because the short-term flicker severity output of the flicker meter, Pst, is linearly
dependent on voltage fluctuation magnitude over a wide range, it is possible to linearly
scale the Pst measurements from one location to predict those at another location
where the supply impedance is different.

•In most cases, voltage fluctuations are directly related to the supply impedance; a
system with 10% higher supply impedance would expect 10% greater voltage
fluctuation for the same load change.
Remedies to Flicker
Using either the flicker curve for simple evaluations or the flicker meter
methodology for more complex evaluations, it is possible to predict if a given
fluctuating load will produce complaints from other customers.

In the event that complaints are predicted, modifications must be made prior to
granting service. The possible modifications can be made either on the utility side
or on the customer (load) side or both.

Utility side: In most cases, the most effective, but not least cost, ways to reduce or
eliminate flicker complaints are to

either (1) reduce the supply system impedance of the whole path from source to
fluctuating load,

or (2) serve the fluctuating load from a dedicated and electrically remote (from
other customers) circuit. In most cases, utility revenue projections for customers
with fluctuating loads do not justify such expenses, and the burden of mitigation is
shifted to the consumer.
Customer side: Customers with fluctuating load equipment have
two main options regarding voltage flicker mitigation.

In some cases, the load can be adjusted to the point that the
frequency(ies) of the fluctuations are such that complaints are
eliminated.

In other cases, direct voltage compensation can be achieved

through high-speed static compensators. Either thyristor-switched
capacitor banks (often called adaptive var compensators or AVCs)
or fixed capacitors in parallel with thyristor-switched reactors
(often called static var compensators or SVCs) or converter
interfaced capacitor termed STATCOM can be used to provide
voltage support through reactive compensation in about one cycle.

•For loads where the main contributor to a large voltage

fluctuation is a large reactive power change, reactive
compensators can significantly reduce or eliminate the potential for
flicker complaints.

In cases where voltage fluctuations are due to large real power

Ref. Iron and Steel Technology,
changes, reactive compensation offers only small improvements
May 2010, pp.296-304
and can, in some cases, make the problem worse.

In both cases STATCOM which can provide P or Q or both is

suitable.
 Pst for EAF (Electric Arc Furnace) and LRF ( Ladle Refining Furnaces) from
short circuit MVAs

•According to UIE the uncompensated flicker level of an AC arc furnace during scrap
melting can be calculated as follows .

Pst = Kst x (MVA SC furnace/ MVA sc PCC)

when Kst is the furnace severity factor describing the arc furnace characteristics as a
flicker generator. The Kst factor varies from furnace to furnace, a range of 48 ... 85.
However, Kst=75 is a typical choice for cold start up of an arc furnace.

The MVA drawn by the arc furnace in short circuit condition (MVA SC furnace) is
calculated by “dividing the square of the PCC nominal voltage (in kV) by the
total series reactance X (in ohms) from PCC up to the furnace” or
(1.0/X pu) * Base MVA.

The short circuit MVA at PCC (MVA sc PCC ) is obtained by 1.732 x PCC nominal
voltage (kV) x three phase fault current (kA) into the bus.

•So to maintain a PSt=1.0 (i.e. borderline) or less, a furnace shall be connected to a

bus whose short circuit MVA is at least 75 times more than the furnace short circuit
MVA.
Harmonics:
Causes: Nonlinear sources such as inverter interfaced generators: PV,
wind, VERs (variable energy resources) etc. and nonlinear loads. Effects:
•Overheating of generators,
In broad terms, nonlinear loads (i.e. not obeying ohms law) that transformers.
produce harmonics can be grouped into three main categories as
follows:
•Increased I2R loss.
(1) arcing loads (e.g. arc furnace, welding machine, fluoresent/mercury
vapour lamp),
(2) semiconductor converter loads (e.g. HVDC, FACTS, Power Supplies, •Loss of utility revenue because
ASD, CFL lamps, LED lamps, ESS (energy storage systems) etc., actual pf =ΣVhIhcosΦh /VrmsIrms is less
(3) loads with magnetic saturation of iron cores (e.g. magnetic than fundamental frequency
amplifiers, transformers as far as its no load and inrush/energisation pf=cosΦ] V1 . Customers are
I1
currents are concerned). penalized for low power factor that
are computed by most of the energy
Arcing loads (e.g. electric arc furnaces and florescent lamps) tend to
produce harmonics across a wide range of frequencies with a generally meters based on only fundamental
decreasing relationship with frequency. frequency.

Semiconductor loads, such as adjustable-speed motor drives, tend to •Interference with neighbouring
produce certain harmonic patterns with relatively predictable communication lines by higher
amplitudes at known harmonics. harmonics .
Saturated magnetic elements, like overexcited transformers, also tend
to produce certain “characteristic” harmonics. •Excessive capacitor fuse blowing.

Like arcing loads, both semiconductor converters and saturated •Mal-operation of ground fault relay
magnetic core produce harmonics that generally decrease with
frequency.
Ref.1
 Remedies: Use of passive and active filters so that THD or TDD can be within IEEE Std.
519-2014 prescribed limits.

[Ref. 2]
If PFI plant exists then usually passive filtering is
Active filters generate harmonic preferred from cost point of view. Passive filters are
components that are needed by the load simple LC circuits tuned to the harmonic fh=1/2π√(LC).
so that the harmonics flow within a loop It is connected as shunt in parallel with the load and
between active filter and the load without the harmonics generated by the load are absorbed by
flowing to the grid. the filter. The capacitors are connected in delta to
reduce the required size of capacitors. It should be
noted that the inductances also act as current limiters
for the capacitors. Passive filters inject VAR and
improve power factor at fundamental frequency while
act as filter at harmonic frequencies.
# Active filter for harmonics reduction/elimination :

•A shunt active filter consists of a PWM-

controlled current or voltage source converter.

• It injects the harmonic currents needed

(absorbed) by the non-linear load such as an
arc furnace, a rectifier-fed load (motor, heater)
or a thyristor control motor drive.

Current drawn by a DC motor drive

Supply current=Load current -

compensation current
so that resultant current (supply)
drawn from source is sinusoidal

Compensating currents are the

necessary harmonics in the load current
 IEEE Std 519™-2014

[Ref.5]

F is V or I
IEEE-519 recommends that the maximum
demand load current (IL) be calculated as
the average current of the maximum
demand for 12 months.
 Grounding (Earthing)
The following is a list of standards and
Grounding: A conducting connection,
recommended practice pertaining to
whether intentional or accidental, by
wiring and grounding issues.
which an electric circuit or equipment
is connected to the earth, or to some
National Electric Code Handbook, 1996
conducting body of relatively large
edition.
extent that serves in place of the
earth.
IEEE Std. 1100–1999. IEEE
Recommended Practice for Powering and
Grounding Electronic Equipment.

IEEE Std. 142–1991. IEEE

Recommended Practice for Grounding
Industrial and Commercial Power
Systems.
Ungrounded System: This is a system, circuit, or apparatus without an intentional
connection to ground, except through potential indicating or measuring devices or
other very high impedance devices.

The unearthed systems have two advantages, one is technical and the other is
economical:
• Technical : The earth fault on an unearthed system causes a small earth current to
flow, so the system operation may be continued even in the presence of earth fault,
thus improving the system availability.
• Economical : There are no expenditures required for earthling equipment or earthed
system conductors.

•On the other hand, a risk of high internal overvoltages makes it advisable to
reinforce the unearthed equipment insulation. Also, difficulties of implementing
selective protection upon occurrence of the first fault are involved. The phase - to -
earth insulation level of equipment must be at least equal to the phase - to – phase
level. This is because in the event of the occurrence of a permanent phase - to - earth
fault, the voltage of both unaffected phases in relation to earth takes on the value of
the phase - to - phase voltage if tripping is not triggered on the occurrence of the first
fault.
Grounded System: A system of conductors in which at least one
conductor or point (usually the middle wire or neutral point of
transformer or generator windings) is intentionally grounded,
either solidly or through an impedance.

The earthed systems have multiple advantages:

• greater safety;
• no excessive system overvoltages that can occur on
unearthed systems during arcing, resonant, or near - resonant
earth faults; and
• easier detection and location of faults when they occur.
Reasons for Grounding Figure 1 is for a person touching a faulty appliance
There are three basic reasons for that is connected to the source with an earthed end
grounding a power system: but no earth return from the appliance to the
source. As the appliance body is not earthed, the
personal safety,
human body will complete the path of the leakage
protective device operation, current IL . In most humans, currents of 60 – 100 mA.
noise control. will cause ventricular fibrillation.
Personal Safety Clearly, the first - hand solution is to connect the appliance
The most important reason for grounding a device body (case) to the earthed neutral and for simplicity via the
neutral as shown in Figure 2.
on a power system is personal safety. The safety
ground, as it is sometimes called, is provided to
reduce or eliminate the chance of a high touch
potential if a fault occurs in a piece of electrical
In USA L-N
equipment. voltage is
120 V
• Touch potential is defined as the voltage
potential between any two conducting materials
that can be touched simultaneously by an Fig.1
individual or animal.

•Another voltage termed step potential is the

voltage induced between two feet of a man while
walking but not touching any object in the vicinity
of an earthed equipment specially in a substation.
This is the reason a substation switchyard must
have a properly designed grounding mat to
provide an equipotential surface. Fig.2
  Protective device operation
There must be a path for fault current to return to the source if protective devices
are to operate during L-G i.e. earth fault conditions.
The National Electric Code (NEC) requires that an effective grounding path must
be mechanically and electrically continuous, and must have the capacity to carry
any fault currents imposed on it without damage.
The NEC also states that the ground path must have sufficiently low impedance
to limit the voltage and facilitate protective device operation.
The formula to determine the maximum circuit impedance for the grounding path
is:

208 V L-L 480 V L-L system

system in USA In USA

Apart from protection device operation, grounding the neutral point of a transformer
has other benefits of stabilizing the phase voltages in case of unbalanced loading or a fault.
 Noise control

Noise is defined as unwanted voltages and currents on a grounding system. This

includes signals from all sources whether it is radiated (EMC: electromagnetic
compatibility) or conducted.

As stated, the primary reason for grounding is safety and is regulated by the NEC and
local codes. Any changes to the grounding system to improve performance or
eliminate noise control must be in addition to the minimum NEC requirements.
When potential differences occur between different grounding systems, insulation
can be stressed and circulating currents can be created in low voltage cables (e.g.,
communications cables).

In today’s electrical environment, buildings that are separated by large physical
distances are typically connected via a communication circuit. An example of this
would be a college campus that may cover several square miles.

Each building has its own grounding system. If these grounding systems are not tied
together, a potential difference on the grounding circuit for the communication cable
can occur.

The idea behind grounding for noise control is to create an equipotential grounding
system, which in turn limits or even eliminates the potential differences between the
grounding systems.
•Supplemental conductors, ground reference grids, and ground plates can all be
used to improve the performance of the system as it relates to power quality.
Optically isolated communications can also improve the performance of the
system.

•Separation of loads is another method used to control noise.

Automatic Data Processing units

Less separation More separation

Typical Wiring and Grounding Problems
Typical wiring and grounding problems as related to power quality, as well as the
possible causes for the problems being observed on the grounding system are shown in
the Table below.
Ground Loops
Ground loops can
occur for several
reasons. One is when
two or more pieces of
equipment share a
common circuit like a
communication circuit, A
but have separate Circulating currents can flow in data cable in Fig. A because
grounding systems as of potential difference between two grounds
in Fig. A.
To avoid this problem,
only one ground
should be used for
grounding systems in a
building. More than
one grounding
electrode can be used,
but they must be tied
together (NEC 250-81,
250-83, and 250-84) as
B
illustrated in Fig. B.
 Multiple Neutral to Ground Bonds
Only one neutral-to-ground bond is permitted in a system or sub-system. This
typically occurs at the service entrance to a facility unless there is a separately
derived system.

In Fig. a, no undesired current

in data cable.

(a)
As seen in Fig. (b), neutral current can
find its way onto the ground system
due to the extra neutral-to-ground
bond in the secondary panel board.
Notice that not only will current flow
in the ground wire for the power
system, but currents can flow in the
shield wire for the communication
cable between the two PCs.
(b)
Insufficient Neutral Conductor
•With the increased use of electronic equipment
in commercial buildings, there is a growing
concern for the increased current imposed on the
grounded conductor (neutral conductor). With a
typical three phase load that is balanced, there is
theoretically no current flowing in the neutral
conductor.
However, PCs, laser printers, and other pieces of
The concern with devices that incorporate the use of SMPS
electronic office equipment all use the same basic is that they introduce triplen harmonics into the power
technology for receiving the power that they need system. Triplen harmonics are those that are odd multiples
to operate. of the 3rd harmonic frequency component (h= 3, 9, 15, 21, . .
Figure illustrates the typical power supply of a PC. . ).. The triplen harmonics add in the neutral and maximum
value would be 1.732 times the fundamental phase current
The input power is generally 120 volts AC (in USA), in the worst case.
This becomes a problem in office buildings when multiple
single phase. The internal electronic parts require
single-phase loads are supplied from a three-phase system.
various levels of DC voltage (e.g., +5, 12 volts DC) Separate undersized neutral wires are run with each circuit,
to operate. This DC voltage is obtained by therefore the neutral current will be equivalent to the line
converting the AC voltage through some type of current. However, when the multiple neutral currents are
rectifier circuit as shown. The capacitor is used for returned to the panel or transformer serving the loads, the
filtering and smoothing the rectified AC signal. triplen currents will add in the common neutral for the
These types of power supplies are referred to as panel and this can cause over heating and eventually cause
switch mode power supplies (SMPS). failure of the neutral conductor..
So neutral conductor should be of same size
as the phase conductors.