9/06/2021

EEE 439: Communication Systems II

Course Teacher: Dr. Md. Saifur Rahman

Professor
Department of EEE, BUET

TCP/IP & OSI Reference Model

Protocol: A protocol is a formally prescribed set of rules that govern
and control the timing and switching of communications.
Standard Interconnection Protocol for ARPANET- Network Control
Protocol (NCP).
TCP/IP Protocol
In 1974: As ARPANET grew rapidly at a tremendous rate, TCP/IP
was developed.
TCP- Transmission Control Protocol
IP- Internet Protocol
Because of the revolutionary role that TCP and IP have played in
the advancement of networking, the entire suite is referred to as
the TCP/IP protocol suite.

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Various Layers of the Old TCP/IP Model
The five layers of the TCP/IP are
• The Physical Layer
• Network Interface Layer
• Internet Layer
• Transport Layer
• Application Layer
We should briefly describe what role these five layers play in the
successful transmission of data from one computer to another.
We should also learn about the communication process between
the layers.

TCP/IP & OSI Reference Model

The Need for a reference Model
Network traffic is generated when a request is made across the
network. The request has to be changed from what the user sees to a
format that can be used on the network. This transformation is made
possible through an open computing standard.
To avoid in compatibility amongst a wide range of networking
products that were introduced into the market, open computing
standards were developed.
A reference model plays a very important role by serving as a
functional guideline for dividing network communication processes
and tasks in the following ways:
• Allows vendors to develop compatible products.
• Makes it easy to understand complex operations.
• Categorize networking technologies and their protocol
implementations, which allows specializes design development of
modular functions. 4

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TCP/IP Protocol
The US Government requested ISO to develop an open reference
model. A seven layer Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference
model was developed (1984), which was to be used as a guideline
for developers of network hardware and software routines.
Over the years, a contemporary
five-layer TCP/IP architecture
model has evolved as an answer
to the existing seven-layer OSI
reference model. The basic
purpose of the model is to
define a set of open standards
for any current or future
developments in the field of
TCP/IP.
A Comparative overview of the
OSI and the TCP/IP reference
model is shown in Fig. 1. Fig.1: The OSI versus the TCP/IP model 5

TCP/IP & OSI Reference Model

TCP/IP Protocol
Initially the OSI did not become popular as people had already
developed everything on the basis of the TCP/IP Protocol.
Thus, it seemed initially that the OSI protocols had quietly vanished,
and the TCP/IP protocol suite became dominant. However, the
situation has now changed considerably.
It should be noted here that each layer of the TCP/IP architecture
model represents a group of specific tasks and facets of
communication.
Since the TCP/IP model is theoretical, these layers neither exist
physically, nor do they actually perform any function(s).
The protocol implementations, which are a combination of
hardware and software, actually perform the functions associated
with the corresponding layers.
To make the fact more clear, let us take a practical example of Fig. 2,
which shows two people engaging in electronic mail transmission. 6

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TCP/IP Protocol
Person A is sending a
message to Person B through
the mediation of software,
computers, and transmission
technologies.
The key to mediated
communication is standards-
expectations of how people
(and technology) are to
behave when they
communicate.

Standards allow the receivers

to react appropriately when
someone (or some hardware
Fig. 2: The Basic (Mediated) Communication Model.
or software processes) sends
In data communications, technical-layer standards have to be multivendor
them a message.
standards so that products from different vendors can work together. 7

TCP/IP & OSI Reference Model

Functions of the 5 Layers of TCP/IP
Physical Layer: This layer provides the physical medium (such as
cables) to transmit data from one computer to another. This layer
is responsible for transferring data (in the form of bits) over the
transmission medium.

Network Interface Layer: This layer identifies devices on a

network on the basis of their hardware addresses. This layer is
responsible for data-flow control, error-control and for organizing
the Physical layer bits into frames.

Internet Layer: This layer transmits (or routes) data across

different networks. It is responsible for discovering routes to the
destination device, selecting the appropriate path, and routing
packets across different networks on the basis of IP addresses of
the communicating devices.
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Functions of the 5 Layers of TCP/IP
Transport Layer: This layer acts as an Interface between
Application Layer and the lower Layers and delivers data from the
source device to the destination device. This layer is responsible
for organizing messages received from higher layers into
segments, for controlling errors, and for end-to-end flow control.

Application Layer: This layer provides the interface between the

user and the network in the form of applications and network
services.
An Important Note
In a TCP/IP model, the data at the Application Layer is referred to as
message. At the Transport Layer, the data is known as segments or
datagrams. At the Internet Layer, the segments are referred to as
packets. When passed to the Network Interface Layer, the packets
are known as frames, and when passed to the Physical Layer, as
bits or signals. 9

TCP/IP & OSI Reference Model

Communication Between Layers
According to the TCP/IP architecture model, a layer in a stack can
communicate with its peer layer.
Encapsulation
Generally, the requests for network services originate at the
Application Layer.
In this case the message is passed down to the Transport Layer,
which breaks the message into smaller segments that can be
transferred over the transmission medium.
The Transport layer, like its predecessor layer, also adds its own
header to each segment and passes the segments along to the
Internet Layer.
The Internet Layer, in turn, adds its header to each segment and
passes the packet to the Network Interface Layer.
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Communication Between Layers

Fig. 3: Encapsulation and de-encapsulation.

This layer also adds its own header to the packets that it received
from the Internet Layer and sends these frames to the Physical layer.
The signals are then routed to the intended recipient by using the
control information provided by the Internet Layer headers and the
Network Interface Layer headers.
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TCP/IP & OSI Reference Model

De-Encapsulation
The Physical Layer at the recipient takes the signals off the
transmission medium and passes them to the Network Interface
Layer.
The way these signals are processed at the recipient side is exactly
opposite to that at the sender side.
Common TCP/IP Applications
 Providing Internet Access
 File Utilities
 Remote Command Utilities
 Printing Over the Network
 World Wide Web Applications and Protocols
Getting News and mail
Enterprise Information Services
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TCP/IP & OSI Reference Model

Concept of Layering
• Old strategy – hardware of the computer network first and
software is afterthought.
• Situation changed – now software is highly structured.
• To reduce complexity, most networks are organized as a series
of layers or levels.
• Basic idea is to divide the design in small pieces.
• Each layer adds to the services provided by its lower layer so
that the highest layer is provided a full set of services to
manage the communications and run the applications.
• Benefit is modularity and clear interface (open architecture
and comparability between different vendors component).

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TCP/IP & OSI Reference Model

 Basic principle is to ensure independence of layers by defining
services provided by each layer to the next higher layer
without defining how the services are to be performed.
 This permits changes in a layer without affecting other layers.
 The number of layers, functions and contents of each layer
differ from network to network.
 Basic elements of a layered model are:
1. Services
2. Protocol
3. Interface

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Services
• A set of actions that a layer offers to another higher layer.

Protocol
• A formal set of rules and conventions that governs how
computers exchange information over a network medium.
• These rules concern both the contents and the order of the
messages used.
• In an n-layer architecture, layer n on one machine carries on
conversation with layer n on the other machine.
• The rules and conventions used here are collectively known as
the layer-n protocol.
• It is an agreement between the communicating parties on
how communication is to proceed.
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TCP/IP & OSI Reference Model

Interface
• Between each pair of adjacent layers there is an interface.
• The messages from one layer to another are sent through
those interfaces.
• In addition to minimize the amount of information passed
between layers, clean-cut interface also makes it simpler to
replace the implementation of one layer with a completely
different implementation, because the requirements are to
provide the same set of services.

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Fig. 4: Basic Five Layer Architecture.

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TCP/IP & OSI Reference Model

• The entities comprising the corresponding layers on different
machines are called peers.
• The peers communicate using protocols.
• In reality no data is transferred from layer n on one machine
to layer n of another machine
• Instead, each layer passes data and control information to the
layer immediately below it, until the lowest layer is reached.
• The bottom layer-1 is the physical media through which actual
communication occurs.
• A set of layers and protocols is known as network
architecture.
• A list of protocols used by a certain system, one protocol per
layer, is called a protocol stack.
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Why Layered Architecture?
• To make the design process easy by breaking unmanageable
tasks into several smaller and manageable tasks.
• Modularity and clear interfaces, so as to provide comparability
between the different provider’s components.
• Ensure independence of layers, so that implementation of each
layer can be changed or modified without affecting other layers.
• Each layer can be analyzed and tested independently of all other
layers.
• Describes how information from a software application in one
computer moves through a network medium to a software
application in another computer.

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TCP/IP & OSI Reference Model

OSI Reference Model
The US Government requested ISO to develop an open reference
model. A seven layer Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference
model was developed (1984), which was to be used as a guideline
for developers of network hardware and software routines.
 Describes how information from a software application in one
computer moves through a network medium to a software
application in another computer.
 Composed of seven layers, each specifying particular network
functions.
 It was developed in 1984 by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO).
 It is considered as the primary architecture model for the inter-
computer communications.
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 It divides the tasks to seven smaller, more manageable task
groups.
 A task or group of tasks is then assigned to each of the seven
OSI layers.
 The tasks assigned to each layer can be implemented
independently, as the layers are self-contained.
 So, one layer can be updated without adversely affecting the
other layers.

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TCP/IP & OSI Reference Model

The Seven Layers of OSI Reference Model
7. Application layer: Provides applications with access
to network service.
6. Presentation layer: Determines the format used to
exchange data among networked computers.
5. Session layer
Allows two applications to establish, use and disconnect
a connection between them called a session.
Provides for name recognition, security needed to allow applications
to communicate over the network.
4. Transport layer
Ensures that data is delivered error free, in sequence and with no
loss, duplication or corruption. 22

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Repackages data by assembling long messages into lots of smaller
messages for sending.
Repackaging the smaller messages into the original larger message
at the receiving end.
3. Network Layer
Responsible for addressing messages and data so they
are sent to the correct destination.
Responsible for translating logical addresses and
names into physical addresses.
Responsible for finding a path through the network to
the destination computer.

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TCP/IP & OSI Reference Model

2. Data-link Layer
Takes the data frames or messages from the Network layer and
provides for their actual transmission.
The same layer at the other receiving computer after receiving the
incoming data sends it to the Network layer above for handling.
Provides error free delivery of data between the two
computers by using physical layer.
It does this by packaging the data from the Network
layer into a frame, which includes error detection
information.
At the receiving computer, this layer reads the incoming
frame, and generates its own error detection
information, based on the received frame data.
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After receiving the entire frame, it
then compares its error detection
value with that of the incoming
frames, if they match, the frame has
been received correctly.

Fig.2: Two sets of layers

make up the OSI layers.
1. Physical layer
Controls the transmission of the actual data onto the network
cable.
Defines the electrical signals, line states and encoding of the
data and the connector types used (An example is 10BaseT–
unshielded twisted-pair wire). 25

TCP/IP & OSI Reference Model

Characteristics of the OSI Layers
Seven layer are divided into two categories: upper layers and
lower layers.
Upper layers of the OSI model deals with application issues
and generally are implemented only in software.
The application layer is the closest to the end user.
Both user and application layer processes interact with
the software applications that contain a communications
component.

(* The term upper layer is sometimes used to refer to any layer

above another layer in the OSI model)

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Characteristics of the OSI Layers
Lower layers of the OSI model handle the data transport issues.
The physical layer and the data link layer are implemented in
hardware and software.
Physical layer is the closest to the physical network medium (the
network cable) and responsible for actually placing information
on the medium.
Different Protocols
LAN protocols: Operates at physical layer and data-link layers of
the OSI model and define communications over the various
LAN media.
WAN protocols: Operate at lower three layers of the OSI model
and define communication over various WAN media.
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TCP/IP & OSI Reference Model

Characteristics of the OSI Layers
Routing protocols: Are network layer protocols that are
responsible for exchanging information between routers so
that the routers can select the proper path for network traffic.
Many routing protocols use network protocols to
exchange information between routers.
Network protocols: Various upper layer protocols that exist in a
given protocol suite. Operate at lower three layers of the OSI
model and define communication over various WAN media.

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OSI Model and Communication
between Systems
If a software application in System A has information to transmit to
a software application in System B:
 The application program in System A will pass its information to
the application layer (Layer 7) of System A.
 The application layer then passes the information to the
presentation layer (Layer 6)
 It relays the data to the session layer (Layer 5), and so on down
to the physical layer (Layer 1).
 At the physical layer, the information is placed on the physical
network medium and is sent across the medium to System B.
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TCP/IP & OSI Reference Model

OSI Model and Communication
between Systems
 The physical layer of System B removes the information from
the physical medium.
 Then its physical layer passes the information up to the data
link layer (Layer 2).
 It passes it to the network layer (Layer 3), and so on, until it
reaches the application layer (Layer 7) of System B.
 Finally, the application layer of System B passes the
information to the recipient application program to complete
the communication process.

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OSI Reference Model

Fig.5: Communication through the OSI Layers.

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TCP/IP & OSI Reference Model

Interaction between OSI Model Layers
A layer in the OSI model generally communicate with three other
OSI layers -
• The layer directly above
• The layer directly below
• Its peer layer in the other networked computer.

Fig. 6: OSI Model Layers Communicate with the other Layers.

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OSI Model Layers and Information Exchange
 OSI layers use various forms of control information to
communicate with their peer layers.
 This control information consists of specific requests and
instructions that are exchanged between peer OSI layers.
 Control request takes one of the two forms:
Headers: Are prepended to data that has been passed down
from the upper layers.
Trailers: Are appended to data that has been passed down from
the upper layers.

Header, trailer and data are relative concepts, depending on

the layer that analyses the information unit.

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TCP/IP & OSI Reference Model

OSI Model Layers and Information Exchange
For instance, an information unit in layer 3 consists of header
and data. At the layer 2 this whole unit will be treated as data
when passed down by the layer 3.
So, the data portion of an information unit at a given OSI layer
potentially can contain headers, trailers and data from all the
higher layers.
In the present layer the information unit will be encapsulated
by a header and in some cases a trailer also.
At the receiving end, the peers read corresponding headers
and remove those before forwarding the information to the
upper layer.

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INTERNET TECHNOLOGY
•Introduction
•Applications of Internet
•Communication Technologies in Internet
•Data Processing Technologies in Internet
•Next Generation of Internet
•Standardizing Organizations in Internet

Dr. Md. Saifur Rahman

Professor (Communication and Signal Processing group)
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology

INTRODUCTION INTERNET TECHNOLOGY

THE INTERNET
THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE INTERNET FROM ARPANET

The Internet originated over 52 years ago with the Department

of Defense/Advanced Research Project Agency (DOD/ARPA),
which wanted a national communication system so that
computers around the country and the world could send and
receive information.
Technically, the government did not intend to build what we
know now as the Internet; they simply wanted to create a
communication system for defense.
Mid 1960s: DOD wanted a command and control network that
could survive a nuclear war.
1968*: DOD undertook a project to connect various research
centers through a network called ARPANET*.
Standard interconnection protocol - (NCP) .
Traditional circuit-switched telephone networks, were
considered too vulnerable.

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INTRODUCTION INTERNET TECHNOLOGY

THE INTERNET
ARPA decided to adopt a packet-switched network, consisting of
a subnet and host computers.
The subnet consisted of minicomputers called IMPs (Interface
Message Processors).

Figure 3: The original ARPANET design

The subnet was a datagram subnet, if some lines and IMPs were destroyrd,
messages could be automatically rerouted along alternative paths.

INTRODUCTION INTERNET TECHNOLOGY

THE INTERNET
Figure 4 shows how rapidly the ARPANET grew in the first 3
years.
(a) 1969
December
(b) 1970
July
(c) 1971
December Figure 4: Growth of the ARPANET

(d) 1972
April

(e) 1972
September

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THE INTERNET
However, NCP failed to keep up ARPANET as it grew rapidly.
Therefore, in 1974, TCP/IP was developed.
Actually TCP and IP are two protocols. However, they are not
stand-alone protocols. Rather they belong to the TCP/IP
protocol suite.
A protocol suite is a hierarchical collection of related protocols.
Late 1970s: NSF (the US National Science Foundation) saw the
enormous impact the ARPANET was having on university
research.
NSF set up a virtual network, CSNET, which supported dial-up
lines and had connections to the ARPANET and other networks.
Using CSNET, academic researchers could call up and leave email
for other people to pick up later.
On January 1 1983: TCP/IP became the only official protocol.
The number of networks, machines, and users connected to the
ARPANET grew rapidly. The growth became exponential.

INTRODUCTION INTERNET TECHNOLOGY

THE INTERNET
1984: NSF began designing a high-speed successor to the
ARPANET. NSF decided to build a backbone network to connect
its six supercomputer centers. NSF also funded about 20 regional
networks.

Figure 5: The NSFNET backbone in 1988

The complete network, including the backbone and the regional networks, was called NSFNET.

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THE INTERNET

The regional networks were connected to the backbone to allow

users at thousands of universities, research labs, libraries, and
museums to access any of the supercomputers and to
communicate with one another.
The NSF used the same ARPANET hardware technology and the
same TCP/IP protocol.
The subnets were connected with 56kbps leased lines.

Sometimes in the Mid 1980s: People began viewing the collection

of network as an internet, and later as the Internet.

Growth continued exponentially.

By 1990 : The Internet had grown to 3000 networks and 200,000
computers.

In 1992 : The One-Millionth host was attached.

INTRODUCTION INTERNET TECHNOLOGY

THE INTERNET
By 1995 : There
were multiple
backbones,
hundreds of mid-
level networks,
ten thousands of
LANs, millions of
hosts, and tens of
millions of users
on the Internet.

The size doubles

approximately
every year
(Paxson, 1994)
Figure 6: The Internet- A Global Network:
a network of networks.

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INTRODUCTION INTERNET TECHNOLOGY

THE INTERNET
•The glue that holds the Internet together is the TCP/IP
reference model and TCP/IP protocol stack.
•TCP/IP makes universal service possible and can be compared
to the telephone system.

A machine is on the Internet if it runs the TCP/IP protocol stack,

has an IP address, and has the ability to send IP packets to all
the other machines on the Internet.

By 1995, the NSFNET backbone was no longer needed to

interconnect the NSF regional networks because numerous
companies were already running commercial IP networks.

Today, the original ARPANET does no longer exist, but it is the

ARPANET, which let us enjoy the fruits of the Internet.

INTERNET TECHNOLOGY

INTERNET APPLICATIONS
Traditionally, the Internet had four main applications.

THE FOUR MAIN APPLICATIONS

•E-mail : The ability to compose, send and receive electronic

mail has been around since the early days of the ARPANET and
is enormously popular.

•News : Newsgroups are specialized forums in which users with

a common interest can exchange messages.
Worldwide newsgroup discusses their topic of interest among a
select group of people.

•Remote Login : Using the Telnet, Rlogin, or other programs,

users anywhere on the Internet can log on to any other machine
on which they have an account.

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INTERNET APPLICATIONS INTERNET TECHNOLOGY

THE FOUR MAIN APPLICATIONS
•File Transfer : Using the FTP program, it is possible to copy
files from one machine on the Internet to another. Vast numbers
of articles, databases, and other information are available this
way.
THE OTHER APPLICATIONS
•World Wide Web (WWW) : Up until the early 1990s, the
Internet was largely populated by academic, government, and
industrial researchers. One new application, the WWW changed
all that and brought millions of new, nonacademic users to the
net.
–This was originally invented by Tim Berners-Lee, the Physicist
working in CERN. Later, the WWW developers modified it for
easy use, but did not change any of the underlying facilities.
–The WWW made it possible for a site to set up a number of
pages of information containing text, pictures, sound and video
with embedded links to other pages.

INTERNET APPLICATIONS INTERNET TECHNOLOGY

THE OTHER APPLICATIONS

–Numerous other kinds of pages have come into existence in a

very short time, including maps, stock market tables, library
and catalogs, recorded radio programs, and even page pointing
to the complete text of many books whose copyrights have
expired.
–Many people also have personal pages (home pages).

•Video Conferencing : Although Internet links tend to be rather

slow, some operate at hundreds of kilobits per second. This
allows slow to moderate speed video conferencing.
–This service requires a camera and a sound card on the PC and
the video conferencing software.
–Using this service, virtual meetings could be used for remote
school, getting medical opinions from distant specialists, and
numerous other applications.

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THE OTHER APPLICATIONS
•Internet Telephone Service : It is easier to provide voice
telephone service over the Internet compared to Video
Conferencing. This is known as Internet Telephony or Voice over
IP.
–This requires a full duplex sound card and a full-duplex
modem.

–Several standards for Internet Telephone Service are now in

use. Of course, telephone companies seriously object to “free” long
distance calling on the Internet.
–This service also allows teleconferencing, voice chat, and voice-
mail.
•Entertainment Industry : Entertainment industry over the
Internet is a huge and growing industry. This includes
–On-line Radio, Web TV, Interactive Real time simulation
games, Interactive TV, Video on demand.

INTERNET APPLICATIONS INTERNET TECHNOLOGY

THE OTHER APPLICATIONS
•Also, there are on-line newspapers, magazines, scientific
journals, and on-line digital library, access to remote
information in financial institutions and Net banking facilities.

FUTURE OF THE INTERNET

There has recently been a great deal of public debate over the
future of the Internet. The following issues will shape/modify the
Internet

•Funding : The Internet is a cooperative system. Different

organizations own different parts of the overall system.
–Some of the Internet’s transmission capacity is subsidized by
governments.
–Some government officials want to completely privatize the
Internet.
–Others fear that this could kill the Internet.

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FUTURE OF THE INTERNET
•Crime/Netiquette : Laws to govern behavior on a network
are unclear.
–Even if they are clear, they are very difficult to enforce.
•Internet community always believed in Open Culture.
–Saying nasty things and sending too many messages were
considered Poor Taste but hardly Criminal

•A growing number of true criminals are taking advantages of

this open culture.
–Stealing Credit Card numbers from buyers.
–Some invite to take part in criminal acts.
–Some Internet users report being sexually harassed by Internet
stalkers who keep sending unwanted messages asking for dates
or sending messages with sexually explicit contents.
–Child molesters and Pornography are also of great concern.

INTERNET APPLICATIONS INTERNET TECHNOLOGY

FUTURE OF THE INTERNET
•Speed : Today’s typical Internet speeds are no longer
sufficient. LANs now run at 100Mbps or higher. Frame relay
may run more than 1Mbps, and ATM may run in some Gbps.
–When many users have access to services offering such speeds
at work they will begin to demand higher Internet access speeds.

–Extensive research is being carried out to achieve higher

speeds.

–Although the path to higher-speed service is unclear, it is likely

that the Internet in the year 2010 will be a very different
network than it is today in terms of transfer speeds.