“We only have one Earth.

Let’s take care of it before it’s too late”

 Rocks and minerals and their exploitation
Table of Contents
Energy and the environment

Agriculture and the environment

Water and its management

Oceans and fisheries

Managing natural hazards

The atmosphere and human activities

Human population

Natural ecosystems and human activities

 ROCKS AND MINERALS AND
THEIR EXPLOITATION

1.1 FORMATION OF ROCKS

1.2 EXTRACTION OF ROCKS AND MINERALS FROM THE EARTH
1.3 IMPACT OF ROCK AND MINERAL EXTRACTION
1.4 MANAGING THE IMPACT OF ROCK AND MINERAL EXTRACTION
1.5 SUSTAINABLE USE OF ROCKS AND MINERALS
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1. Rocks and Minerals and their Exploitation

1.1. Formation of Rocks

Types of Rocks

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a b
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The Rock Cycle

e d
Represents the changes between the three rock types and the processes causing
them.

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Rock cycle showing the five materials (such as igneous rocks and sediment) and
the processes by which one changes into another (such as weathering):

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1. Igneous rocks:

Made when liquid magma cools to form solid rock.

Molten rock below the surface is called magma, and
lava when it reaches the surface.
Formation Extrusive igneous rock: if the rock cools quickly,
small crystals, e.g., basalt, are formed.

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Intrusive igneous rock: if the rock cools slowly, large
crystals, e.g., granite, are formed.

Usually contain crystals.

a b
Characteristics
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Size of the crystals depending on the cooling speed.
They do not contain fossils

Examples
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Granite . Basalt, Diorite, Gabbro.

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Using in buildings and countertops Using in constructions and road base

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2. Sedimentary rocks:

Formed by the weathering of existing rocks at the

Earth’s surface.
Sediments (small particles of rocks) accumulate into
layers and get pressurized due to the newer deposits
Formation above them.
The sediments are transported by water and wind
(erosion)
e r
boulders are found in sediments.

a b
Particles like clays, silts, sands, gravels, and small

Characteristics
Made from other rock fragments.
Do not contain mineral crystals. S
Examples
May contain fossils.

e d
limestone, sandstone, flint and shale

Weathering Transportation

a
Deposition m Accumulation Sedimentation
Compaction &
Cementation

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3. Metamorphic rocks:

Formed from existing rocks when heat and/or

pressure, cause changes in the rock crystals without
melting the existing rock.
Formation
The changes can be physical, chemical, or both.
Both sedimentary and igneous rocks can transform
into metamorphic rocks.

contain mineral crystals. (though not formed by

e r
b
Characteristic
cooling magma)
s

a
Do not contain fossils.

Examples
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marble, slate, schist, gneiss, quartzite, anthracite.

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Compaction &
Cementation

Heat & Pressure

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1.2. Extraction of Rocks and Minerals from the Earth

Minerals are the building blocks of rocks, but rocks are not made of minerals.
Mining often involves extracting rocks to get to the valuable minerals within
them.
For example, iron ore is a rock containing iron minerals, and we extract the
iron from the ore.

Exploring for Minerals

Prospecting: a process of searching for minerals by

e r
examining the surface of the rocks
Ore: A rock with enough important minerals to make
it worth mining
a b
Methods of Exploration S
e d
[Link] Sensing: a process in which information is gathered
about the Earth’s surface from above.
Photographs of the area are taken from the air.

a m
The images are carefully analysed for mineral presence.
Aerial photography can cover more ground than a person
on the surface.

h
Working even through cloud cover and at night.
Computers process this data to pinpoint locations for geologists to verify.

2. Satellite Signals:
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Some satellites send signals to the Earth’s surface and collect the reflected
signals, indicating the presence of minerals .
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The unique radiation pattern is processed and analyzed by computers
The system works in all weather conditions.

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The GPS gives the exact location.
Large area covered in low-cost
Most efficient method

3. Geochemical Analysis and Field Surveys:

Analyzing the chemical properties of rocks (by taking samples).
The samples can be taken from stream sediments, soil or rocks (using
shallow drilling).
The location of the sample points can be accurately found using the Global
Positioning System (GPS).

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4. Geophysics: Method to identify mineral ores in rocks

using their physical properties.

A series of vibrations (seismic waves) are sent through

the Earth’s surface.
Several sensors are placed at different distances from
the source of vibrations on the surface.
The vibrations create shock waves that travel down into the rock layers.
They are reflected to the sensors on the surface.
The shock waves record different patterns depending on the minerals
present in the rock layers.
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S
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Methods of Extraction Digging Deeper

There are two methods of extraction

1- Surface mining : includes open-cast (open-pit, open-cut) and strip mining.

2- Sub-surface mining : Deep mining - shaft mining.

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1- Surface mining :

A- Open cast - (open pit - open cut) mining :

is used when a valuable deposit is located near the surface.
The vegetation is cleared, and the topsoil is
b e
removed.
The rocks are broken up and loosened with
explosives. S a
Mining down as series of levels or layers.
The loose rock is removed using diggers.

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The rock or mineral is tipped into trucks or
d
railway wagons .

materials.
a m
Quarrying - specific extraction of stone, sand and gravel and other construction

quarries.

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Quarries are a type of open-pit surface mine but not all surface mines are

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B- Strip mining:
Removal of of soil and rock layers in 'strips' to
expose mineral deposits.
It is mainly used to mine coal and lignite

The overburden (the unwanted overlying rock and soil) is removed as a thin
strip

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Advantages of surface mining:

1- Easier to discover and access.

2- Cheaper to extract.
3- Quicker.
4- Less risk of injury due to less risk of
collapse, suffocation, and explosion.

Disadvantages of surface mining:

1- Destroys habitat so reduce biodiversity.

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2- Noise pollution.
3- Visual pollution.
4- large waste heaps.
a b
5- Cost of remedial work after completion.

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2- Sub-surface mining:
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includes deep and shaft mining.

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A vertical shaft is sunk down to the rock layer containing minerals.
A horizontal tunnel is made, following the mineral layer.

a m
The minerals are extracted by digging (by machines and miners).
The loose rock is brought from the mine and piled up on waste heaps on
the surface.

trains

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The minerals are brought to the surface and transported in trucks or

Resources: Gold, Lead, and Silver.

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Deep mining is more dangerous because

High risk of roof collapsing.
less chance of surviving in case of flooding
and fire.
Miners work at extreme condition (high
temperature, less supply of oxygen).
Some mines ignore safety measurements.

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a b
S
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Surface mining causes more damage than sub-surface mining : (Why) ?
Removing vast amounts of soil, vegetation, and rock.
Loss of more habitat will lead to a loss of biodiversity.

a m
Contaminate local water sources by exposing toxic minerals and chemicals
Release more dust and particulate matter into the air (reducing air quality).

h
More Noise pollution from blasting, heavy machinery, and transportation,
disturbing local wildlife and nearby residents.

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More visual pollution.
Disrupt more land than sub-surface mining by removing large areas of the

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Earth's surface.

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What factors need to be considered before starting up a new mine?

A mineral resource must be viable. It means that a mineral/rock/resource must be

worthy for a company to invest in mining. It should be large and have sufficient
value for it to be deemed economically viable.

1- The costs of exploration and extraction:

Assess expenses for extraction, machinery, and labor. Mining costs money.
Low value ores or small sizes of deposits might not be worth mining.
Sub-surface mining is more expensive than surface mining.

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2- Geology:

a b
High-grade ores yield more of the required chemical elements than low-
grade ores.
Small deposits of high-grade ore are worth mining.
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Small deposits of low-grade ore that cannot be mined at a profit are left as
reserves.

3- Accessibility:
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Transporting the ore from the mine to processing plants can be difficult
and expensive.

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The cost of building road or rail links to the processing plant or the nearest

a
export port must be considered.

h
Carrying out some processing at the mine reduces transport costs.
The mining company must be given a licence before extracting a deposit.

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A long-term agreement between the government and mining companies
must be reached to avoid rapid rises in the tax, which makes mining

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unprofitable.

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4- Environmental Impact Assessment

Certain countries might have stricter environmental laws that could impact
project feasibility.
For the license application to be approved, the company must have a plan to
keep:

[Link] loss of habitat & damage to the environment minimal,

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[Link] by the restoration of land after the completion of mining to
encourage the company to dispose the waste safely.
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The assessment should include :
a b
[Link] choice of site for mine waste should also be considered.

- Local people's views

- How the waste will be dealt with S
- How the land will be restored
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- Named pollution and how it will be controlled .
- Risk to health

- Surveying the wildlife and ensuring there are no

endangered species

a m
5- Climate:

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Temperature extremes affect equipment, can be a risk to worker safety and
operational schedules

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Nature of extraction in arid climates vs cold regions can have their own
limitations. Mining processes require large water quantities which may be

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hard to obtain in torrid zones. In polar regions frozen ground complicates
excavation and transportation.

DNatural disaster can cause damage to infrastructure, halt operations and

increase costs.

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6- Supply and demand:

The relation between how much of a commodity is available and how much
is needed or wanted by the consumers.

Demand for minerals fluctuates. It rises in times of industrial growth and

falls during an economic recession.
An increase in world demand for any mineral ore will elevate the prices.
High prices encourage more production.
The profit from a working mine depends on changes in supply and
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demand.

b
If the demand is too high, mines that were not profitable before

a
becomes worth mining, even small mines in remote areas can be
profitable.
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If the demand falls, working mines may lose due to the transport and

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extraction expenses. Also, low demand could rationally lower the price of
the output. This also reduces the production of the output. Production is
then confined to only large, well-located mines where costs of
production are low.

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High demand low supply (or) demand low and supply high.

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High supply + low demand low price
Low supply + high demand high price

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1.3. Impact of Rock and Mineral Extraction The Price of Progress

A. Environmental impacts:
Generally mining affects the environment negatively in different forms:

1- Ecological impacts:
Loss of habitat as the vegetation is cleared, so the animals
depending on them for food and shelter are affected which cause
loss of biodiversity .
After mining has been working for several years; more habitats will
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Pollution:
a b
be destroyed due to the increased overburden above ground.

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Noise pollution: due to machinery and explosives, so disturbs the
behavior of animal species and causes hearing problems for people.

of heavy metals with causes :

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Water pollution: water supplies may also be polluted due to leaching

Making it unsafe for people to drink.

a m
The water may become acidic and dissolve toxic metal ions.
This combination kills many aquatic organisms.
This reduce crop growth.

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Bioaccumulation : organisms ingest the toxin; the concentration of the
toxin increases in the body. The ingestion rate is higher than excretion
rate.

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Biomagnification : the concentration of the toxin increases higher up the
food chain and cause depth of top consumers.

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Land pollution: The toxic nature of the waste doesn’t allow plant
growth even years after the mining has stopped.

Air pollution: dust particles settle on the vegetation, not allowing

sunlight to reach the leaves and thus reducing the rate of
photosynthesis.
Breathing in dust that remains in the lungs can cause serious lung
diseases.

Visual pollution: the landscape is damaged.

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B. Economic impacts:

a b
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Economically, mining has positive impacts for government and local people

Economic Impacts:

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Jobs are created in the extraction and transporting of minerals
Increase in the Country’s economy
Earn foreign exchange.

a m
The income earned can be used for buying goods and services and
investing in infrastructure projects. (Improvements to transport)

Social Impacts:
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Positive Negative

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Better standard of life due to
economic gain
It affects the health of the labour
workers

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healthcare and education
Investing in infrastructure
Affects the health of civilians due
to pollution
Lack of safety.
projects can help the country in
building more well-designed
communities.

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1.4. Managing the impact of rocks and minerals exploration:

A- Safe Disposal of Mining Waste

Mine waste must be stored to prevent collapse.
The mine site must prevent the chances of water pollution.
The waste must be monitored to detect any movement or further
pollution.

B- Land Restoration

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Bulldozers can be used to level and smooth out the surface. Land is made r
to look like a natural landscape so that it looks like it hasn't been disturbed
by mining. Treed, grasses can be planted.

Soil improvement:
a b
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After (sanitary) landfilling, mine waste can be covered by a layer of soil
that can be enriched with fertilizers.

Bioremediation:

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It is a process of removing pollutants from waste using living organisms.

In situ treatment: treatment of contaminated waste where it is left.

treatment plant.

a m
Ex-situ treatment: removal of contaminated waste from a site to a

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Often happens slowly (can be sped up by providing oxygen and nitrogen).

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D Microorganisms, like bacteria, can absorb pollutants and metabolize
them into less harmful substances.
Some plants can bioaccumulate toxic metals.
After these plants grow for a while, the parts of the plants aboveground
are removed so the waste in the ground becomes less toxic.

Tree planting:
After improving soil fertility, plants and trees can begrown in that area,
helping an ecosystem to be reborn.

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C- Making Lakes and Natural Reserves

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Natural Reserves:
Several tree and herb species are introduced.
a b
create habitats for many species.
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This will help maintain the biodiversity As their populations grow, they

These nature reserves become valuable green spaces for human

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recreation and help maintain biodiversity. If the rock lining the hole
(created by the extraction) is non-toxic and impervious to water, it can be
filed with water to form a reservoir or lake.

Lakes:

a m
If the rock lining the hole (created by the extraction) is non-toxic and
impervious to water, it can be filled with water to form a reservoir or
lake.
h
It is used to irrigate farmland or process and provide clean, safe drinking
water for humans.
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D- Using as landfill sites:
Landfilling : the waste is filled into a hole. from time to time , it is
levelled off and compacted

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Sanitary landfilling: as in landfilling, the waste is used to fill the hole,
but alternating layers of waste and sand are used

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1.5. Sustainable Use of Rocks and Minerals

Sustainable resource: a resource that can be continuously replenished

e.g. agriculture, forestry, etc.
Sustainable development: development that meets the needs of the
present, without compromising the ability of future generations to meet
their own needs.

Strategies for the sustainable use of rocks and minerals:

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a b
1- Increasing the efficiency of the extraction of rocks and minerals:
Mine wastes must be processed for the second time, this allows the

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valuable minerals to be recovered and reduces the risk of pollution due
to mine waste.
Chemical treatment of the waste and biological treatment (using

d
microorganisms) still extract much of the valuable minerals within it.

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Improvements in the performance of the machines used in mining and
processing.
Greater use of data analysis by computers (to predict geological
conditions).

a m
2- Increasing the efficiency of the use of rocks and minerals:

o h
Engineering solutions e.g. design of steel beams with the same strength
but using less steel.

3- The Need to Recycle Rocks and Minerals:

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Recycling uses less energy than processing the ores.
Recycling also produces less waste and, thus, reduces the risk of

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pollution.

4- Legislation:

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responsible for recycling and reusing.

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Rock: a combination of one or more minerals.

Mineral: a naturally occurring inorganic substance with a specific chemical
composition.
Igneous rock: rock made during a volcanic process.

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Magma: molten rock below the surface of the Earth.
Solution: formed when a solid is dissolved in a liquid.
Precipitates: when a substance comes out of solution.

b e
Ion: an atom in which the number of positively charged protons is not
equal to the number of negatively charged electrons.

a
Sedimentary rock: a rock formed from material derived from the

S
weathering of other rocks or the accumulation of dead plants and animals.
Metamorphic rock: a rock formed from existing rocks by a combination of
heat and pressure.

e d
Rock cycle: a representation of the changes between the three rock types
and the processes causing them.

a m
Ore: a rock with enough of an important element to make it worth mining.
Prospecting: a process of searching for minerals.

h
Remote sensing: a process in which information is gathered about the
Earth’s surface from above.

o
Geochemical: the chemical properties of rocks.
Geophysical: the physical properties of rocks.

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Surface mining: a type of mining used when the mineral is either exposed
on the surface or overlain by only small amounts of overburden

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Overburden: the rock and soil overlying an economically viable mineral

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deposit.
Open-pit mining: a type of surface mining
Strip mining: a type of surface mining
Sub-surface mining: a type of mining used when the deposit is covered by
a deep layer(s) of unwanted rock.

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Deep mining: a type of sub-surface mining.

Shaft mining: a type of sub-surface mining.
Open-cast mining: a type of surface mining.
Open-cut mining: a type of surface mining.
Supply and demand: the relationship between how much of a commodity
is available and how much is needed or wanted by consumers of the
product.
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a b
Environmental impact assessment: a process by which the probable
effects on the environment of a development are assessed and measured.

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Biomagnification: the process in which the concentration of a substance
in living things becomes higher at progressively higher levels in a food
chain or web.

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Bioremediation: a process in which living things are used to remove toxic
chemicals from a natural site.

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MIND MAP
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