Physics for Scientists and Engineers

with Modern Physics

Fifth Edition, Global Edition

Chapter 6
Gravitation and
Newton’s Synthesis

© 2024 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Units of Chapter 6
• Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation
• Vector Form of Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation
• Gravity Near the Earth’s Surface
• Satellites and “Weightlessness”
• Planets, Kepler’s Laws, and Newton’s Synthesis
• Moon Rises an Hour Later Each Day
• Types of Forces in Nature
6-1 Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation
If the force of gravity is being exerted on objects on Earth,
what is the origin of that force?

Newton’s realisation was that

the force must come from the
Earth.
He further realised that this
force must be what keeps the
Moon in its orbit.
The gravitational force on you is one-half of a third law pair: the
Earth exerts a downward force on you, and you exert an upward
force on the Earth.
When there is such a disparity in masses, the reaction force is
undetectable, but for bodies more equal in mass it can be
significant.
Therefore, the gravitational force must be proportional to both
masses.
By observing planetary orbits, Newton also concluded that the
gravitational force must decrease as the inverse of the square of
the distance between the masses. (Why?)
In its final form, the law of universal gravitation reads:
m1m2
FG = G 2
r
where
G = 6.67 × 10−11 N.m2kg−2
The magnitude of the
gravitational constant G can
be measured in the laboratory.

This is the Cavendish

experiment.
Example 6-1: Can you attract another person
gravitationally?
A 50 kg person and a 70 kg person are sitting on a bench
close to each other. Estimate the magnitude of the
gravitational force each exerts on the other.

By Newton III, the magnitude of the gravitational force of one on the other will be
the same. For simplicity, we can assume that the distance between them is 1.0 m.
Hence,
m1m2
FG = G 2
r
2
50 × 70
= (6.67 × 10−11 N.m kg )
2 −2 kg
1 m2
= 2.4 × 10−7 N .
Example 6-2: Spacecraft at 2rE.
What is the force of gravity on a 2000 kg spacecraft when it
orbits the earth at a distance of twice the radius of the earth
from the earth’s centre. (rE = 6380 km). The mass of the
earth is mE = 5.98 × 1024 kg . You can assume a circular orbit.

With the circular orbit, the spacecraft stays at a constant 2rE = 12760 km from
the earth’s centre. And it is from the earth’s centre that we measure the distance
between the earth and the spacecraft to calculate the gravity. Hence,

mE ms
FG = G
4rE2
5.98 × 1024 × 2000 kg2
= (6.67 × 10 −11
N.m kg )
2 −2
1.62818 × 1014 m2
= 4.90 × 103 N .
 Example 6-3 Force on the moon

Find the net gravitational force on the moon (mass

mM = 7.35 × 1022 kg) due to the attraction of both
the earth (mE = 5.98 × 1024 kg) and the sun
(mS = 1.99 × 1030 kg), assuming the sun and the
earth are at right angles to each other from the moon.

The earth is 3.84 × 105 km = 3.84 × 108 m from the moon so

(7.35 × 10 kg) × (5.98 × 10 kg)
22 24
FME = (6.67 × 10−11 N.m2kg−2)
(3.84 × 108 m)
2

= 1.99 × 1020 N .

The earth is 1.50 × 108 km from the sun. As the moon is very close to the
earth by comparison, this is also the distance from the sun to the moon.

(7.35 × 10 kg) × (1.99 × 10 kg)

22 30
FMS = (6.67 × 10−11 N.m kg )
2 −2

(1.50 × 1011 m)
2

= 4.34 × 1020 N .
The total force is found from the Pythagorean triangle, so

(1.99 × 10 ) + (4.34 × 10 )
20 2 20 2
F=
= 4.77 × 1020 N .

The angle is found by

θ = tan−1 (1.99/4.34) = 24.6∘ .
Using calculus, you can show*:
A particle outside a thin spherical shell: gravitational force is
the same as if all mass were at centre of shell.
A particle inside a thin spherical shell: gravitational force is
zero.
One can model a sphere as a series of thin shells; outside
any spherically symmetric mass, gravitational force acts as
though all mass is at centre of sphere.

* In fact, Newton showed these in The Principia from calculus and

geometric arguments.
6-2 Vector Form of Newton’s Law of Universal
Gravitation

In vector form,

⃗ m1m2
̂
F 12 = − G 2 r12
r12
This figure gives the
directions of the
displacement and force
vectors.
If there are many particles, the total gravitational force on a
given particle is the vector sum of the forces exerted by each
of the others.

F 1⃗ = F 12
⃗ + F⃗ + F⃗ + … + F⃗
13 14 1n
n
⃗ .
∑
= F 1i
i=1
6-3 Gravity Near the Earth’s Surface
Now we can relate the gravitational constant to the local
acceleration of gravity. We know that, on the surface of the
Earth:
mmE
mg = G
rE2
Solving for g gives:
mE
g=G 2
rE
Now, knowing g and the radius of the Earth, the mass of the
Earth can be calculated:
grE2
mE =
G
9.8 ms−2 × (6.380 × 106) m2
2

=
6.67 × 10−11 N.m2kg−2
= 5.98 × 1024 kg .
Example 6-4: Gravity on
Everest.
Estimate the effective value of g
on the top of Mt. Everest, 8850
m (29,035 ft) above sea level.
That is, what is the acceleration
due to gravity of objects allowed
to fall freely at this altitude?
mE
g=G
(rE + he)
2

5.98 × 1024 kg
= (6.67 × 10 −11
N.m kg )
2 −2

(6.389 × 106) m2
2

= 9.77 ms−2 .
The acceleration due to
gravity varies over the
Earth’s surface due to
altitude, local geology, and
the shape of the Earth,
which is not quite spherical.
Example 6-5: Effect of Earth’s rotation on g.
Assuming the Earth is a perfect sphere, determine how the
Earth’s rotation affects the value of g at the equator compared
to its value at the poles.

Consider the force of gravity as something measured

on a scale, and consider a person standing on that scale
at the pole and again at the equator.

At the pole, the person is standing still. (Well…) So,

mg − w = 0
w = mg .
At the equator there is the additional contribution of the circular motion, so
v2
mg − w′ = m ;
rE
2πrE
v=
1 day
6.283 × 6.38 × 106 m
=
8.64 × 104 s
= 4.64 × 102 ms−1 .

 The change in “weight” at the equator is given by

( rE )
v2
w′ = m g −

w′ v2
g′ = =g− ;
m rE
Δg = g − g′
v2
=
rE

(4.64 × 10 ms−1)
2 2

=
6.38 × 106 m
= 0.0337 ms−2 .




6-4 Satellites and “Weightlessness”
Satellites are routinely put into orbit around the Earth. The
tangential speed must be high enough so that the satellite
does not return to Earth, but not so high that it escapes
Earth’s gravity altogether.
The satellite is kept in orbit by its speed—it is continually
falling, but the Earth curves from underneath it.
Example 6-6: Geostationary satellite.
A geostationary satellite is one that stays above the same
point on the Earth, which is possible only if it is above a point
on the equator. Such satellites are used for TV and radio
transmission, for weather forecasting, and as communication
relays. Determine (a) the height above the Earth’s surface
such a satellite must orbit, and (b) such a satellite’s speed.
(c) Compare to the speed of a satellite orbiting 200 km
above Earth’s surface.

To be stationary relative to the ground on the Earth, the period of the orbit of the
satellite is 24 hours, same as the Earth’s rotation. We assume the orbit is
circular.
 So… msat mE msat v 2
G =
r2 r
m
⇒ G E = v2
r
m
v= G E .
r

Need a second equation to determine both r and v. The speed of the satellite is
2πr mE
v= hence, v= G
T r

( T )
2
2πr mE
(6.67 × 10 N.m2kg−2) (5.98 × 1024 kg)
=G −11
r =
4.22 × 107 m
4π 2r 2 mE
= G = 3070 ms−1 ≈ 11000 km/h .
T2 r
3
mET 2 For a satellite 200 km above the Earth…
r =G
4π 2 r′ = rE + 200 km = 6580 km

mET 2 r
v′ = v
r= G
3
r′
4π 2
42000 km
= 4.22 × 107 m = 3070 ms−1
6580 km

= 42200 km .

= 7770 ms−1 .

Objects in orbit are said to experience weightlessness. They
do have a gravitational force acting on them, though!
The satellite and all its contents are in free fall, so there is no
normal force. This is what leads to the experience of
weightlessness.
More properly, this effect is called apparent weightlessness,
because the gravitational force still exists. It can be experienced on
Earth as well, but only briefly:
6-5 Planets, Kepler’s Laws, and Newton’s
Synthesis
Kepler’s laws describe planetary motion.
1. The orbit of each planet about the Sun is an ellipse, with
the Sun at one focus.
2. An imaginary line drawn from each planet to the Sun
sweeps out equal areas in equal periods of time.
3. The square of a
planet’s orbital period
is proportional to the †Pluto, since its discovery in
cube of its mean 1930, was considered a ninth
distance from the Sun. planet. But its small mass and
the recent discovery of other
objects beyond Neptune with
similar masses has led to
calling these smaller objects,
including Pluto, “dwarf
planets.” We keep it in the
Table to indicate its great
distance, and its consistency
with Kepler’s third law.

*Neil deGrasse Tyson likes to remind everyone he is responsible for

throwing Pluto out of the solar system….
Kepler’s laws can be derived from Newton’s laws. In
particular, Kepler’s third law follows directly from the law of
universal gravitation—equating the gravitational force with
the centripetal force shows that, for any two planets
(assuming circular orbits, and that the only gravitational
influence is the Sun):

( T2 ) ( s2 )
2 3
T1 s1
=
Example 6-7 Where is Mars:

Mars’ period, its “year”, was noted to be about 687 Earth days. That is
(687 days /365 days) years = 1.88 years. (Earth years.)
Determine the mean distance of Mars from the Sun using the Earth as a
reference.

Taking Earth as a reference, the Earth period is one year, while the period of Mars
is 1.88 years. And the mean distance of the Earth from the Sun is 1.496 × 108 km.
So, using Kepler’s Third Law,

( TE ) ( sE )
2 3
TM sM
=

( TE )
2
3 3
TM
⇒ sM = sE

( TE )
2/3
TM
sM = sE

= (1.496 × 108 km) (1.88)2/3

= 2.279 × 108 km .
Example 6-8 The Sun’s mass

Determine the mass of the Sun given that the distance from the Earth to the Sun is
rES = 1.5 × 1011 m.

Assuming a circular orbit for a planet (not Mars, which is highly elliptical), we can
relate the force of gravity of the Sun on the planet with the centripetal acceleration.
We choose the Earth.
As the period is 1 year, and we have the
m1mS v12
G 2 = m1 path as 2πr,
r1 r
m 2πr
G S = v12 v=
r1 T
v12r1 4π 2rE3
⇒ mS = . ms = 2
G T EG
4π 2 (1.5 × 1011 m)
3

=
(3.16 × 107 s) (6.67 × 10−11 N.m kg )
2 2 −2

= 2.0 × 1030 kg .
Irregularities in planetary motion led to the discovery of
Neptune, and irregularities in stellar motion have led to the
discovery of many planets outside our solar system.

There is one exception…..

6-6 Moon Rises an Hour Later Each Day

From the Earth’s reference frame, our Moon revolves in 24 h,

50 min, and so the Moon rises nearly an hour later each day;
and it is at its highest point in the sky about an hour later each
day. From one Full moon to the next is 29.53 days.
In the Sun’s frame of reference, the Moon revolves around the
earth in 27.32 days because when the Moon has made on
complete revolution around the Earth, the Earth itself has
moved in its orbit relative to the Sun.
6-7 Types of Forces in Nature

Modern physics now recognizes four fundamental forces:

1. Gravity
2. Electromagnetism
3. Strong nuclear force (binds protons and neutrons
together to form the nucleus)
4. Weak nuclear force (responsible for β± decay)
So, what about friction, the normal force, tension, and so on?
Except for gravity, the forces we experience every day are
due to electromagnetic forces acting at the atomic level.