COURSE TITLE-APPLIED CHEMISTRY FOR SMART SYSTEM

COURSE CODE-1BCHES102/202

MODULE 3
SUSTAINABLE CHEMISTRY FOR ENERGY DEVICES
SYLLABUS
Energy Systems: Introduction, basic overview of Nerns’t equation, construction and working of
concentration cell and numerical problems. Batteries-classification of batteries, construction, working
and applications of Li-Ion battery.
Next-Generation Energy Systems: Introduction, construction and working of sodium ion battery
and redox flow battery for EV applications. Construction and working of ultra-small asymmetric
super capacitor and its applications in IoT/wearable devices.
Sustainable Energy Devices: Introduction, fuel cells, difference between fuel cell and
battery. Construction, working principle, applications and limitations of solid -oxide fuel cell
(SOFCs) and solar photovoltaic cell (PV cell). Production of green hydrogen by
photocatalytic water splitting by TiO 2 catalyst and its advantages.
======================================================================
ENERGY SYSTEMS

Electrochemical cells A device which converts chemical energy into electrical energy or electrical
energy into chemical energy is called electrochemical cell. There are 2 types
Galvanic cell: A device which converts chemical energy into electrical energy is called galvanic cell
(Voltaic cell). Electricity is produced as a result of spontaneous chemical reaction involving
reduction-oxidation reactions.
Electrolytic cell: Device which converts electrical energy into chemical energy is called electrolytic
cell. (non-spontaneous chemical reaction is driven by an external source of current)
Both galvanic and electrolytic cells are built from two half-cells—each containing a metal
electrode in contact with a solution of its own ions.
Electrolysis: The chemical decomposition of an electrolyte upon passing electric current.
Electrolyte: The substance which conducts electricity in molten or in aqueous solution.
Single electrode: This may be a metal or non-metal which is in contact with a solution of its own
ions. It is also called as half-cell.
Ex: Zinc electrode can be constructed by introducing Zn rod in ZnSO4

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 Single electrode potential or electrode potential (E): The tendency of an electrode to lose
(oxidation potential) or gain (reduction potential) electrons when it is in contact with the solution of
its own ions.
Or
The potential developed when an electrode is in equilibrium with a solution of its own ions. It is
denoted by “E”.
Standard electrode potential (E0): The potential developed when the electrode is in equilibrium
with 1M solution (1atm in case of gases) of its ions at 298K. It is denoted by ‘E0’.
Ex: E0Zn = -0.76V & E0Cu = +0.34V
Oxidation: A species loses one or more electrons resulting in an increase in its oxidation number.
M ⟶ Mn+ + ne-
Reduction: species gains one or more electrons; there is a decrease in oxidation number.
Mn+ + ne- ⟶ M
Electromotive force (EMF) of a cell: The maximum potential difference between the electrodes of
Galvanic cell. It is denoted by EMF or Ecell.
Ecell = ERHE – ELHE or Ecell = Ecathode – Eanode

Free energy: The energy in a physical system that can be converted to do work. The free energy is
the internal energy (the sum of all possible kinds of energies) system minus the amount of energy that
cannot be used to perform work.
The Gibbs free energy is the maximum amount of non-expansion work that can be extracted from
a thermodynamically closed system.
The Gibbs free energy can be written as: ΔG =ΔH-TΔS
ΔH is the enthalpy change, T is the temperature, ΔS is the entropy change.

NERNST EQUATION:
Nernst equation gives a relationship between single electrode potential and standard electrode
potential through concentration of metal ions at a particular temperature.

Derivation: Nernst equation for single electrode potential:

Consider a reversible electrode reaction;
Mn+ + ne- ⇌ M

Equilibrium constant for the above reaction k can be written as

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 Maximum amount of work that can be done by a system is represented as decrease in free energy (-
ΔG)
-ΔG = Wmax
The work performed by an electrochemical cell depen ds on number of coulombs that flow (nF) and
the energy available per coulomb (E).

Number of coulombs = nF, Energy available per coulomb is the emf of the cell E. Thus Wmax for an
electrochemical cell is given by the equation

Wmax = nFE …………. (1)

If E is the electrode potential of the electrode in volts, the electrode reaction involving transfer of n
electrons, i.e., nF coulombs, F = Faraday’s constant.

The electrical work available from the electrode is ‘nFE’ volt coulomb or joules. Then,
Wmax = nFE
ΔG = -nFE; under standard condition ΔGo= -nFEo ---------------2

where, ΔG0 = Decrease in free energy under standard condition, E0 = Standard electrode potential
From thermodynamics, we have

where, K = Equilibrium constant, R= Ideal gas constant, T = temperature

Substituting the value of 1 & 2 in 3 we have,

dividing the eqn (4) by ‘-nF’

Converting natural log (Ln) to log and changing the sign,

(where ln =2.303log, log A/B = -log B/A)

Metal is a solid, [M] = 1

Substituting the value of R = 8.314J/K/mol, T = 298 K, F = 96500C/mol in equation (7) we get,

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 Equation 8 is the Nernst equation for single electrode potential at 298 K.

Application:
Used to calculate the cell potential of electrochemical cell, single electrode potential of metal under
nonstandard condition, measuring the pH of solutions using glass or other pH electrodes

CONCENTRATION CELLS
Definition: A concentration cell is a galvanic cell
which generates electrical energy at the expense of
chemical energy. Unlike galvanic cells, a
concentration cell consists of two electrodes of same
material and same electrolyte but with different
concentrations.
Construction:
Electrolyte concentration cell is a galvanic cell consisting of both anode and cathode made up of
same element (metal or nonmetal) in contact with the solutions of the same electrolyte of different
concentration. A typical Copper concentration cell is shown in figure. It consists of two copper
electrodes, immersed in CuSO4 solutions of two different concentrations. These two electrodes are
externally connected by metallic wire and internally by a salt bridge. The cell can be represented as,
Cu | Cu 2+ (C1) || Cu 2+ (C2) | Cu Or
Cu(s) / CuSO4 (C1) // CuSO4 (C2) / Cu(s) [where C2> C1]

Working principle: By convention left hand electrode is the anode and right-hand electrode is
cathode.
At anode: Cu → Cu 2+ (C1) + 2e
At cathode: Cu 2+ (C2) + 2e → Cu
Net cell reaction: Cu 2+ (C2) → Cu 2+ (C1)
The net cell reaction is merely the change in concentration; as a result, the current flows through the
circuit.
The potential of the cell is Ecell = ERHS -ELHS

Where E◦ is the standard reduction potential of the species in the concentration cell. On simplifying
The Nernst equation for the EMF of a concentration cell is given by the equation:

Or

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 Applications: Used to determine the valence state of metal ions
Used to determine unknown ion concentrations by comparing against known concentration solutions
using the Nernst equation.
Used in ion concentration measurement, pH sensing, explaining corrosion mechanisms, and
studying electrochemical equilibria
Note:
1. In a concentration cell, the electrode with lower electrolyte concentration acts as the anode
and the one with higher electrolyte concentration acts as the cathode.
2. If the two solutions are of the same concentrations, then, Ecell = 0
3. When C2/C1 > 1, log C2/C1 is positive & electrode potential is positive.
4. Higher the ratio of C2/C1, greater is the value of EMF of the cell. i.e., ECell α C2/C1.

Numerical problem: Example 1: A concentration cell is obtained by combining two Zn electrode

immersed in Zinc Sulphate solution of concentrations 0.05 and 0.25 M a 30 °C. Give the cell
representation, cell reaction and calculate EMF of cell.

Solution:

Cell representation: Zn/ZnSO4(0.05M)//ZnSO4(0.25M) / Zn

Cell reaction: Anode: Zn → Zn+2 (0.05M) + 2e-

Cathode: Zn+2(0.25M) + 2e- → Zn

Overall reaction: Zn+2(0.25M) → Zn+2(0.05M)

To find the EMF of the cell:

= 0.020 V

BATTERY
Battery is a device that consists of two or more galvanic cells connected in series or parallel or both
which converts chemical energy into electrical energy through redox reactions.

Example: Zn-Air battery, lead acid battery, lithium batteries, etc.

Batteries can thus generate power and can act as portable sources of electrical energy.

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 Batteries are classified as Primary, Secondary and Reserve batteries:

[Link] batteries:
In primary batteries, the chemical energy is converted into electrical energy as long as the chemical
components are active. These are not rechargeable as the chemical reactions which occur within the
primary batteries are irreversible and once discharged have no further electrical use.
Ex: Zn-MnO2 battery and Li-MnO2 battery, coin cells, mercury cell

[Link] batteries:
Secondary batteries are rechargeable as the cell reactions are reversible.
After discharge, secondary batteries can be recharged electrically to their original condition by
passing current through them in the direction opposite to that of discharge current.
The electrical energy is stored in them in the form of chemical energy and hence these are also called
storage cells.
Ex: Lead storage battery, nickel-cadmium battery, Lithium-ion battery etc.

[Link] batteries:
Reserve batteries are a battery in which a key component is separated from rest of the components
prior to activation.
The activation involves adding electrolyte or any other cell component. Electrolyte is the component
that is usually isolated to prevent the reaction with cell components and to prevent self-discharge.
The battery has long-term storage capacity as chemical reaction (self-discharge) during storage is
prevented. Reserve batteries are primarily used to deliver high power for a relatively short period of
time after activation.
Ex: Magnesium-water activated batteries, (Mg-AgCl, Mg-CuCl), Zn-Ag2O battery etc.

COMPONENTS OF BATTERY
Cells are comprised of 4 essential components.

1. Anode: is the negative that releases electrons to the

external circuit
M → Mn+ + ne-
2. Cathode: is the positive that acquires electrons from
the external circuit
Mn+ + ne- →M

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 3. Electrolyte: is the medium that provides the ion transport mechanism between the cathode and
anode of a cell. Electrolytes are often thought of as liquids with dissolved salts, acids, or alkalis
that are required for ionic conduction.
4. Separator: Separates anode and cathode made up of cellulose, polymer etc. This prevents short
circuiting.
LI-ION BATTERY:

The batteries where lithium is used as anode are known as lithium batteries. A large number of
lithium batteries with different cathode and electrolytes are used.
Definition: The batteries in which lithium ions are used instead of lithium metal and movement of
lithium ion through electrolyte takes place from one electrode to another electrode are called lithium-
ion batteries.
CONSTRUCTION:
Li-ion batteries use lithiated carbon intercalation material as anode and transition metal oxide as
active material for cathode.

Anode : Porous carbon intercalated with

lithium ions. Copper foil is used as current
collector.
Cathode: Cobalt oxide compound. Aluminum
foil is used as current collector.
Separator: Porous polymer film.
Electrolyte: A lithium salt in an organic
solvent. This electrolyte effectively transports
Li+ ion to cathode during discharge of battery.
The voltage of LIB is about 3.6-3.7
WORKING PRINCIPLE:

Discharge reactions: During discharge, Li ions are dissociated from anode and migrate through the
electrolyte to cathode.
At anode: LiC6 → C6 + Li+ + e-
At cathode: CoO2 + Li+ + e- → LiCoO2
-----------------------------------------------------------------
Overall reaction: LiC6 + CoO2 → LiCoO2 + C6
Recharge reactions: During charging an external electrical power source applies a higher voltage
than that produce by the battery, forcing the current to pass in reverse direction. Lithium ions then

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 migrate from cathode to anode, where they become embed in the porous electrode material in a
process known as intercalation.
LiCoO2 + C6 → LiC6 + CoO2
Li-ion batteries Applications:

• Cardiac pacemakers, laptops, cell phones, portable LCD, TV, Electric vehicles, Aerospace
applications, Renewable Energy storage systems.
Advantages of lithium batteries:
• Lithium is light metal with low electrode potential and good conductivity. Therefore, it is a
good material for battery and can be expected to have high potential and high energy density.
• They have outstanding storage capabilities
• They have wider operating temperature range.

NEXT-GENERATION ENERGY SYSTEMS

Next-generation energy systems focus on sustainability, digitalization, and decentralization to

achieve net-zero goals, integrating advanced renewable sources like wind and solar, sophisticated
energy storage solutions, smart grid technologies, enhanced geothermal systems, and innovative
approaches like localized DC power distribution.
These systems are characterized by a shift from centralized fossil fuel-based grids to flexible,
resilient, and digitally-enabled networks that enable widespread participation from consumers and
support the transition to a low-carbon economy.
Next-generation energy supply technology makes local production for local consumption of
renewable energy and resilient energy supply possible by using safe and highly reliable direct-current
(DC) power supply systems.

SODIUM ION BATTERY

The sodium-ion battery (NIB or SIB) is a type of rechargeable battery that uses sodium ions (Na+)
as its charge carriers
Construction
Its working principle and cell construction are almost identical with those of lithium-ion
battery (LIB) types, but replace lithium with sodium.

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 Construction:
Anode: Hard carbon (cannot be converted to graphite) has the ability to absorb Sodium.
Cathode: layered Sodium transition metal oxide -NaMO2 (where M = Fe, Ni, Mn, Co etc)
Separator: Porous polymer film.
Electrolyte: uses non-aqueous electrolytes-Organic carbonate solvent-based electrolytes like
Propylene carbonate (PC): Ethylene carbonate (EC) containing sodium salts such as NaPF6, NaN
(SO2CF3)2, and NaClO4 are used together with small amounts of additives to stabilize the anode and
cathode during cycling.
Working principle:
The NaCoO2 cathode is initially brought into the Na-ion cell in the discharged state, and the cell is
activated by charging first to form the Na intercalated anode and Na deintercalated cathode in the
fully charged cell.
Discharge reactions:
During the battery discharge, the sodium ion with positive charge moves towards cathode through
electrolyte and intercalates with metal oxide and generate electric current.
At anode: NaC6 → C6 + Na+ + e-

At cathode: CoO2 + Na+ + e- → NaCoO2

-----------------------------------------------------------------
Overall reaction: NaC6 + CoO2 → NaCoO2 + C6
------------------------------------------------------------------
Recharge reactions: During charging an external electrical power source applies a higher voltage
than that produced by the battery, forcing the current to pass in reverse direction. Na ions then
migrate from cathode to anode, where they become embed in the porous electrode material in a
process known as intercalation.
NaCoO2 + C6 → NaC6 + CoO2

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Applications:
• NIB used in power tools and uninterruptible power supply (UPS) applications in the
telecommunications sector.
• NIBs used in numerous stationary energy storage applications (NIB have low cost.)
• Large scale grid storage applications and used in large -scale storage of renewable energy.
• NIBs are an excellent fit with the SLI application in vehicles.
Advantages of SIBs
• Natural abundance of sodium
• Low cost
• less environmental impact
• Better cycle life, and better cycling stability
• Nonflammable

Disadvantages of sodium ion battery.

• Large ionic size Na+ which requires more power to keep energy flowing.
• It takes seven days to charge in case you forget to charge it.
• Lower operating voltage.

VANADIUM REDOX FLOW BATTERY

The vanadium redox flow battery (VRFB) is a rechargeable flow battery that uses vanadium ions
in different oxidation states as charge carriers, stored in two separate electrolyte tanks, and
circulated through an electrochemical cell for energy conversion and storage.
This battery uses charged vanadium species as active materials at electrode.
Construction:
Anode and cathode are made up of carbon-based electrodes.
Anodic active material: V2+ / V3+ redox couple dissolved in sulphuric acid.
Cathodic active material: VO2+/ VO22+ redox couple dissolved in sulphuric acid.
Electrolyte: Sulphuric acid.
Separator: Polymer like Nafion (perfluoro sulphonic acid) which permits the flow of H+ ions.

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 Working
The VRFB's construction uses two vanadium electrolyte tanks connected to a central electrochemical
cell with carbon-based electrodes and a proton-exchange membrane. Its working involves the
reversible oxidation and reduction of vanadium ions in different states.
Two separate electrolyte tanks hold vanadium ions in different oxidation states: the positive
electrolyte tank contains V4+ or (VO2+) and V5+ or (VO2+) ions; the negative electrolyte tank contains
V2+ and V3+ ions.
During Charging:

The higher potential at the positive electrode drives this oxidation because it corresponds to a
favorable energy state for removing electrons and V4+ ions are oxidized to V5+

Positive Electrode: V4+ ions are oxidized to V5+: V4+ + 2H+ → V5+ + H2O + e-

At the negative electrode: V3+ reduces to V2+: V3+ + e- → V2+

Electron flows from cathode to anode externally and H+ moved from cathode to anode through the
electrolyte.

During Discharging:

The reactions reverse producing electrical energy. V2+ is oxidized back to V3+ at the negative
electrode, releasing electrons. V5+ is reduced back to V4+ at the positive electrode, acquiring electrons.

Advantages of vanadium flow batteries

• High discharge capacity
• They are cost effective batteries, have long life span up to 25 years

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 • Because their electrolyte is water-based, vanadium flow batteries are non-flammable and also
non-explosive, giving vanadium flow batteries the highest level of safety when compared to
other battery technologies.
Applications
• As an energy storage device to store electric current for longer duration.
• To store excess current produced from solar energy during summer.

ULTRA-SMALL ASYMMETRIC SUPERCAPACITOR

A supercapacitor is an energy storage device that bridges the gap between batteries (high
energy) and conventional capacitors (high power).
Construction involves a porous active material on current collectors, separated by a porous
membrane and an electrolyte. These are crucial for IoT and wearables, offering fast charging, long
cycle life, flexibility, and small form factors to provide peak power for devices like solar-powered
healthcare monitors.

Construction:

Asymmetric Supercapacitor (ASC) means the two electrodes have different materials or properties,
unlike symmetric supercapacitors that use the same material for both electrodes. ASC consists of:
Positive Electrode (Cathode): Material with high pseudo capacitance, such as transition metal
oxides (e.g., MnO₂, RuO₂) or conducting polymers.
Negative Electrode (Anode): Usually a carbon-based material with high surface area and good
conductivity, like activated carbon, graphene, or carbon nanotubes.
Electrolyte: Ionic liquid or aqueous electrolyte, depending on the device.
Separator: A thin porous membrane preventing electrical contact between electrodes but allowing
ion flow.
Substrate/Current collector: Often a flexible or microfabricated substrate for ultra-small devices.
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 In ultra-small devices, the electrodes and electrolyte layers are miniaturized using microfabrication
techniques (like lithography or printing). Flexible or stretchable materials may be used to conform to
wearable form factors.
Working Principle:
The supercapacitor stores energy primarily through:
Electrochemical Double Layer Capacitance (EDLC): Charges accumulate at the
electrode/electrolyte interface, especially on carbon-based anodes.
Pseudocapacitance: Faradaic redox reactions on the cathode material surface (e.g., metal oxides),
which add to capacitance.
When voltage is applied:
Ions from the electrolyte move towards the oppositely charged electrode, forming an electrical
double layer or participating in redox reactions.
Because the electrodes are different (asymmetric), the voltage window can be expanded compared to
symmetric capacitors, increasing energy density.
The ultra-small size allows integration directly onto chips or flexible substrates, with fast
charge/discharge cycles and high-power density.

Application in IOT &Wearable Devices

1. Wearable Electronics
• Smartwatches, fitness trackers, smart textiles.
• Flexible, lightweight and bendable power storage
2. IoT Sensor Nodes:
• Powering ultra-low-power wireless sensors for healthcare, agriculture, and smart
homes.
• Provides quick bursts of power for data transmission.
3. Medical Devices:
• Implantable and skin-attachable biosensors.
• Can be safely miniaturized and integrated with body-friendly substrates.
4. Energy Harvesting Systems
• Works with micro energy harvesters (solar cells)
• Stores harvested energy and releases it efficiently.
5. Smart Clothing& E-textiles:
• Integrated into fabrics to power LED’s, sensors or communication devices.

Dept. of Chemistry, AJIET, Mangalore 13

 SUSTAINABLE ENERGY DEVICES
Sustainable energy devices use renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, hydro, biomass,
geothermal, and fuel cells to generate electricity or heat while minimizing environmental impact.
These devices support the transition to a low-carbon economy by mitigating carbon emissions and
promoting energy security and affordability.

FUEL CELLS:
Definition: Fuel cells are defined as galvanic cells in which chemical energy of a fuel indirectly
converted into electrical energy by means of redox reactions involving fuels and oxidants. Fuel cells
give direct current as long as fuel and oxidant are supplied.
A general fuel cell is represented as: Fuel│electrode│electrolyte│electrode│oxidant
Working principle:
At anode: fuel undergoes oxidation as Fuel → Oxidized product + ne-
At cathode: the oxidant gets reduced as Oxidant + ne- → Reduced product
The electrical output is a result of flow of electrons from anode to cathode through the external
circuit.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN FUEL CELL AND BATTERY

Fuel cell Battery
In Fuel cells reactants are fed from outside Batteries are not being supplied with
1 and the products are removed constantly. Reactants constantly. Reactants are the
Integral part of the battery.
They do not store chemical energy. Fuel cells They store chemical energy. Batteries
2 are energy conversion devices.
are energy storage devices.
They offer high energy conversions i.e., are
3 Efficiency of a battery is low.
more efficient.
They operate as long as the reactants are They operate until reactants stored in
4 supplied to the electrodes from outside and do it is completely used up and secondary
not need recharging batteries need recharging
No toxic species are formed in a fuel cell and
5 Less eco-friendly
are more eco-friendly
Requires fuel storage, supply systems, and Simpler, self-contained system
6
sometimes more complex management.

SOLID OXIDE FUEL CELL (SOFC):

SOFC is an electrochemical cell that converts chemical energy of a fuel into electrical energy by
electrochemical combination of a fuel with an oxidant.
Hydrogen is used as the fuel and Oxygen as the oxidant. During its operation SOFC produces large
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 amount of heat, which can be used for space heating, water heating etc.
The cell operates at temperature above 800 - 1000◦C.
Construction: Porous electrodes are used for gaseous diffusion.
Anode: Ni on ZrO2, Where Zirconia is doped with Yttria which is a ceramic helps in conducting
Oxygen ions and Ni is a metal, acts as electro catalyst for anode reactions.

Cathode: Porous strontium doped LaMnO3 (Lanthanum manganite).

Electrolyte: Solid ZrO2- Y2O3(Yettria stabilized Zirconia). Conducts oxide ions (O2-) at high
temperatures.

Working:
Oxygen gas (O2) enters the cathode side and is reduced by electrons (from the external circuit) to
form oxygen ions:
At Cathode: O2+4e− → 2O 2−
These oxygen ions diffuse through the solid oxide electrolyte to the anode side.
At the anode, oxygen ions react electrochemically with the fuel and give off the electrons to the
external circuit:
At Anode: 2H2 + 2O 2−→ 2H2O + 4e−
The released electrons flow from the anode through an external circuit (producing electric current)
back to the cathode.
This process continuously converts chemical energy from fuel into electrical energy.
Overall Cell Reaction: 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O
Applications: Solid Oxide fuel cells are used in locomotives. The heat produced by the cell is used
for space heating, water heating etc.
Used in power plants and for industrial applications.

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 Advantages of fuel cells:
• High efficiency of energy conversion process (75%) also the produced heat can be harnessed.
• They are eco-friendly as the products of the overall reactions are not toxic and hence pose no
pollution problems does not require costlier catalyst
• Recharging of fuel cells is not needed
• Can use various fuels including hydrogen, natural gas, biogas, and carbon monoxide.
Limitations of fuel cells:
The electrode used is Pt, Ag or alloys of noble metals, which are costly.
The power generated is moderate.

SOLAR CELLS

These are photovoltaic devices made from silicon semiconductor material that convert sunlight
directly into electricity through the photovoltaic effect.
Silicon solar cells are made of high-purity silicon, either monocrystalline (single crystal, high
efficiency) or polycrystalline (multiple crystals, lower cost and efficiency).
Advantages of Silicon Solar Cells
• Silicon cells generally offer good energy conversion efficiency & energy source is vast and
essentially infinite
• Need no recharging like batteries and produce electrical energy as long as sunlight is available.
Resistant to environmental degradation (UV, moisture).
• The materials used in PV cells do not corrode and serve for long duration.
• Silicon is the second most abundant element on Earth.
• Due to mass production and economies of scale it is cost effective.

Limitations of Silicon Solar Cells

• Silicon wafers are fragile and can crack or break if mishandled.

• Manufacturing silicon cells with high purity requires significant energy and high temperatures.

• Rigid panels limit installation on curved or flexible surfaces.

• Less efficient in cloudy or shaded conditions compared to some other solar technologies.

Applications of Silicon Solar Cells

• Used in rooftop solar panels to generate electricity for homes.
• Power generation for businesses, factories, and large buildings.

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 • Providing electricity in remote areas without grid access.
• Watches, calculators, garden lights, and other small electronics.
• Space Applications: Powering satellites and space stations with high-efficiency silicon solar cells.

Construction:

A silicon photovoltaic cell is composed of a thin wafer of polycrystalline silicon wafer.

Cell contains a very thin layer of phosphorous doped silicon (n-type) which is kept above boron
doped silicon (p-type). So, p-n junction is formed between these two layers.
The anti-reflective layer containing silicon nitride or titanium dioxide is applied by plasma
enhanced chemical vapor deposition technique, which increases the amount of light transmitted to
the semiconductor.
Metallic grids are placed above p-doped silicon forms electrical contact of the diode and allows the
light to fall on the semiconductor between the grid lines.
The other electrical contact is made using metallic layer back side of the solar cell.

Principle: The principle involved is the ejection of electrons from metal surface by striking with
photons of solar radiation.
Working of a Solar cell:
The solar cell is a semiconductor diode. When sunlight falls on the silicon solar cell, photons in the
light are absorbed by the silicon semiconductor.
This energy excites electrons, creating electron-hole pairs. The electric field at the p-n junction of
the cell separates these charges, pushing electrons to the n-type side and holes to the p-type side.
When these two ends are electrically connected, there is a flow of current between the two ends
through the external circuit.

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 This movement generates an electric current, which flows through external circuits as usable
electricity.
The process continues as long as sunlight is available, converting solar energy into electrical energy
efficiently.

GREEN FUELS: A fuel derived from biomass is called as green fuel. They are considered as
renewable, eco-friendly, relatively less flammable compared to fossil fuel, has better
lubricating properties and reduce greenhouse gases up to 65 percent. It can be manufactured
from wide range of materials. Most common forms of green fuels are solar power, wind power,
hydropower, biofuel such as power alcohol, biodiesel, biomass etc.

HYDROGEN FUEL

• Hydrogen fuel is a promising solution for clean, efficient, and sustainable energy that supports
decarbonisation and energy independence goals.
• It is a universal, light, and highly reactive fuel.
• Hydrogen has the highest energy content per unit of mass of any chemical fuel and can be
substituted hydrocarbon in a broad range of applications.
• It can be easily produced from water found in abundance.
• The flame speed of hydrogen burning in air is greater than for natural gas and the energy required
initiating the combustion is very less.

PHOTOCATALYTIC WATER SPLITTING

It is an artificial photosynthesis process. The photocatalytic process splits water (H2O) into hydrogen
(H2) and oxygen (O2) in the presence of a catalyst and natural light.
Principle: Photo electro catalytic water splitting is based on the conversion of the light energy into
electricity within a cell containing two electrodes (or three), immersed in an aqueous electrolyte.
Out of two electrodes at least one electrode or both electrode is made up of a semiconductor and able
to absorb the light. This electricity is then used for water electrolysis.
In photocatalytic water splitting reaction uses photo catalyst which play a crucial role. Titania (TiO2)
has been a widely used.
There are three important steps involved in semiconductor photocatalysis:

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 Working / Reaction mechanism
1. Photon absorption: Semiconductor photocatalyst material absorbs photon having energy greater
than its band gap. Absorbed photon is utilized to excite an electron from the valence band (VB)
of semiconductor to the conduction band (CB) and generates electron-hole pair.
Potocatalyst (TiO2/ZnO) + 2hᶹ ----------→ 2𝑒- + 2h+
Where, h is the Planck’s constant, ᶹ is the frequency, 𝑒- is the electron, h+ is the hole.

2. Oxidation of the water at the photo anode by photogenerated holes at the photoanode surface to
generate molecules of oxygen.
Oxidation: 2h + + H2O ------------→ ½ O2 + 2H+
3. Transport of 𝐻+ ions from the photo anode to the cathode through the electrolyte and transport of
electrons from photo anode to the cathode through the external circuit reduce protons found at
the surface of electrode, completing the electrical circuit.
Reduction: 2H+ + 2𝑒- -----------→ H2
The produced hydrogen can be used as the fuel in hydrogen fuel cell.
Overall Reaction: H2O + hᶹ (1.23 eV) -------→ H2 + ½ O2

This means that the photocatalyst (TiO2 or ZnO) must have a bandgap > 1.23 eV, or else the
electrons will not have enough energy to start the reaction. In practice, this limit should be 1.6 eV to
1.8 eV due to some overpotentials.

Dept. of Chemistry, AJIET, Mangalore 19

 Applications
• Hydrogen Production: TiO2 photocatalysts are widely used for generating hydrogen
• Solar Fuel Generation: The process is a form of artificial photosynthesis, converting solar
energy into chemical fuels, offering a sustainable alternative to fossil fuels
• Environmental Remediation: Modified TiO2 photocatalysts are used for water treatment by
removing contaminants such as dyes and antibiotics through oxidation.

Advantages of TiO2 Photocatalyst

• Abundant & Low-cost: Titanium is widely available, cheap and non-toxic.

• High Chemical Stability: Resistant to corrosion under UV and aqueous conditions.

• Environmentally Friendly: No C02 or harmful byproducts.

• Reusable: Can be recycled over many cycles

Dept. of Chemistry, AJIET, Mangalore 20

 QUESTION BANK

1. What are batteries? Explain the classification of batteries with example.

2. What are concentration cells? Explain the construction of concentration cell by taking copper
as example.

3. Represent a cell formed by immersing two silver electrodes in silver nitrate solutions of
concentration 0.01 and 0.1 M. Write the reactions and find the emf of the cell.

4. Two copper rods are separately placed in copper sulphate solution of different concentrations.
The concentration of copper sulphate solution in one electrode system is 100 times more than
the other. Represent the cell and find the emf of the cell at 300K.

5. Describe the construction, working and applications of Lithium –ion batteries and mention
any four applications.

6. Describe the construction, working and applications of Sodium –ion batteries and mention
any four applications.

7. Explain the Construction and working of ultra-small asymmetric super capacitor and its
applications in IoT/wearable devices.

8. Define fuel cell. Write the differences between fuel cell and battery.

9. Explain the Construction, working principle, applications and limitations of solid-oxide fuel
cell (SOFCs).

10. Explain the Construction, working principle of solar photovoltaic cell (PV cell). Mention its
advantages and disadvantages.

11. Define green fuel. Explain the Production of green hydrogen by photocatalytic water splitting
using TiO2 catalyst and write its advantages.

Dept. of Chemistry, AJIET, Mangalore 21