1.

Thermodynamic Fundamentals of Liquid Ring Compression in Wet Gas

Service

The compression of wet carbon dioxide (CO ) presents a complex array of

2

thermodynamic and mechanical challenges that distinguish it markedly from the

handling of inert dry gases like nitrogen or air. In process engineering, particularly within
the burgeoning sectors of Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage (CCUS), Direct
Ocean Capture (DOC), and industrial fermentation, the liquid ring vacuum pump (LRVP)
has established itself as the requisite unit operation. This dominance is not merely a
function of mechanical simplicity but results from the distinct thermodynamic synergy
between the liquid ring operating principle and the physicochemical properties of
saturated CO streams.
2

The liquid ring vacuum pump operates as a rotating positive displacement machine. An
impeller with forward-curved blades is mounted eccentrically within a cylindrical casing.
As the impeller rotates, centrifugal force drives the service liquid—typically water or a
process-compatible solvent—against the casing wall, forming a concentric liquid ring.1
Because the impeller is eccentric, the blades penetrate the liquid ring at varying depths
throughout a single rotation. This action creates a series of expanding and contracting
gas chambers between the blades, facilitating the intake, compression, and discharge of
the process gas.2

While this mechanism is conceptually straightforward, the thermodynamic interactions

when handling wet CO are profound. Unlike dry compression technologies such as
2

screw or claw pumps, which operate adiabatically and generate significant heat, the
LRVP process is inherently isothermal.3 The liquid ring acts simultaneously as a
sealant, a lubricant, and a heat sink. The continuous circulation of the seal fluid absorbs
the heat of compression (Q comp
), the latent heat of condensation from saturated inlet
vapors (Q ), and the heat of solution generated by the dissolution of gas into the
cond

liquid (Q ). This capability is critical for CO applications where temperature control is

sol 2

paramount to prevent polymerization, degradation of downstream solvents, or

excursions beyond safe operating limits.4

The operational envelope of an LRVP in wet CO service is defined by a triad of critical

2

process conditions: Inlet Temperature (T ), Liquid Ring (Seal) Temperature (T ), and

in seal

Gas Exhaust Temperature (T ). Each of these parameters influences the others through
ex

the governing equations of state, vapor pressure curves, and gas solubility laws
(Henry's Law). The following analysis deconstructs these variables to provide a
comprehensive engineering guide for optimizing vacuum systems in wet carbonic
environments.
2. Analysis of Inlet Process Conditions

The thermodynamic state of the gas at the pump inlet serves as the primary boundary
condition for system design. In wet CO applications, the inlet stream is rarely a pure
2

gas; it is typically a multiphase mixture containing non-condensable CO , water vapor

2

(often at saturation), and potentially entrained liquid droplets or soft solids.1

2.1 Inlet Temperature and Gas Density

The inlet temperature (T ) fundamentally dictates the mass flow capacity of the vacuum
in

system. According to the Ideal Gas Law—and corrected by real gas equations of state
like Peng-Robinson for high-pressure or near-critical CO —the density of the gas
2

decreases as temperature increases.7 For a constant-volume displacement machine

like an LRVP, a reduction in gas density results in a direct reduction in mass throughput.

However, in wet gas applications, the impact of temperature is amplified by the

presence of water vapor. As T rises, the saturation pressure of water increases
in

exponentially. For a wet CO stream entering a vacuum pump at 40 C (104 F), the
2
∘ ∘

partial pressure of water vapor is approximately 73.8 mbar. If the vacuum process
requires an operating pressure of 100 mbar, water vapor constitutes nearly 74% of the
inlet volume, leaving only 26% for the target CO . This phenomenon, often termed
2

"vapor displacement," necessitates rigorous thermal management upstream of the

pump.

Standard industrial designs generally accommodate inlet temperatures up to 100 ∘

C (
∘
212 F ).8 Operating beyond this limit imposes excessive thermal load on the seal liquid,
risking vaporization of the ring itself. In high-temperature applications, such as post-
combustion capture where flue gases may exceed these limits, pre-cooling via direct
contact condensers or spray towers is essential to densify the gas and condense water
vapor prior to the vacuum stage.9

2.2 The "Condensing Effect" and Capacity Bonus

While high inlet temperatures generally reduce capacity, the unique thermodynamics of
the liquid ring pump offer a countervailing advantage known as the "condensing effect."
When a hot, saturated CO mixture enters the pump, it immediately contacts the seal
2

liquid, which is maintained at a lower temperature (typically 1 C to 20 C). The liquid ring
∘ ∘

functions as a highly efficient direct-contact condenser.10

The rapid heat transfer from the gas to the liquid ring causes the water vapor
component of the inlet stream to condense instantaneously. This phase change from
vapor to liquid reduces the specific volume of the water component by a factor of over
1,000. Consequently, the volume occupied by the water vapor vanishes from the gas
load, leaving the impeller buckets free to accept more non-condensable CO . 2

Engineering analysis indicates that the magnitude of this capacity bonus depends
heavily on the temperature differential (ΔT ) between the inlet gas and the seal liquid.
For example, if a saturated mixture at 100 F (37.8 C) is inducted into a pump with 80 F (
∘ ∘ ∘

2.7 C) seal water, the condensation of vapor can yield a capacity increase of roughly
∘

15% compared to the pump's dry air rating.12 This phenomenon allows process
engineers to select smaller, more energy-efficient pumps for wet CO service than would
2

be required for an equivalent mass of dry gas. The quantification of this effect requires
precise knowledge of the inlet humidity and the vapor pressure characteristics of the
gas-liquid pair.

3. Liquid Ring Temperature and Seal Fluid Dynamics

The temperature of the seal liquid (T ) is the single most critical independent variable
seal

in the operation of an LRVP. It governs the ultimate vacuum capability, the risk of
cavitation, and the magnitude of solubility losses.

3.1 Vapor Pressure Limitations and Cavitation

The theoretical limit of vacuum for any liquid ring pump is the vapor pressure of the seal
fluid at the operating temperature. As the suction pressure approaches the vapor
pressure of the seal liquid, the liquid begins to boil (flash) into the suction chambers.
This phase change creates vapor bubbles that occupy the volume intended for the
process gas. When these bubbles move to the higher-pressure discharge zone, they
collapse violently, causing cavitation. This phenomenon not only destroys pumping
capacity but causes severe mechanical erosion of the impeller and port plates.11

For water-sealed pumps, the standard performance curves are typically based on a seal
water temperature of 1 C (0 F).13 At this temperature, the vapor pressure of water is
∘ ∘

approximately 17 mbar, allowing for reliable operation down to 33 mbar (absolute).

However, in industrial environments where cooling water may be supplied at 2 C or 30
∘ ∘
C

, the vapor pressure rises significantly (31.7 mbar and 42.4 mbar, respectively).

Capacity correction factors must be applied to account for elevated seal temperatures.
Data indicates that operating with 30 C seal water instead of 1 C can result in a capacity
∘ ∘

loss of over 15% at deep vacuum levels.4 The following table synthesizes the
relationship between seal temperature, vapor pressure, and capacity correction for a
typical vacuum application.

Table 1: Influence of Seal Water Temperature on Pump Capacity Factor

(Reference base: 1 ∘
C seal water, suction pressure < 100 mbar)

Seal Water Vapor Pressure (Pv​ Capacity Risk of Cavitation (at 50

Temp (∘C) ) [mbar] Correction Factor mbar suction)
10 12.3 1.05 (Bonus) Negligible

15 (Standard) 17.0 1.00 (Base) Low

20 23.4 0.95 Low
25 31.7 0.88 Moderate
30 42.4 0.78 High
40 73.8 0.55 Critical (Failure likely)

Data synthesized from thermodynamic saturation tables and manufacturer correction

guidelines.15

3.2 Heat of Solution and Thermal Load

In wet CO service, the thermal management of the seal liquid is complicated by the
2

exothermic heat of solution. Unlike inert gases like nitrogen or helium, CO dissolves 2

readily in water. The dissolution process releases heat, known as the enthalpy of
solution (Δ ). sol

Thermodynamic data indicates that the enthalpy of solution for CO in water at 28.1 (
2

2 C) is approximately −1.3 m.17 This means that for every mole of CO that dissolves
∘
2

into the seal ring, 1.3 of energy is released into the water. This is distinct from the
physical heat of compression (Q ), which is derived from the shaft work.
comp

The total heat load (Q ) absorbed by the seal liquid is the sum of three components:
total

Qtotal = Qcomp Qcond Qsol

Where Q represents the latent heat of condensation from the incoming water vapor.
cond

In wet CO applications, Q
2
and Q can act in concert to rapidly elevate the seal
cond sol

water temperature. If the seal water flow rate is not sufficient to carry this heat away,
T will rise, leading to the capacity losses described in Table 1. Consequently, design
seal

engineers typically specify seal water flow rates for CO service that are 20-50% higher
2

than those for equivalent air service to maintain the ΔT across the pump within
acceptable limits.18

3.3 Solubility and Capacity Derating

A further complication arises from the recirculating nature of the liquid ring. CO obeys
2

Henry's Law, meaning its solubility is proportional to pressure. In the discharge sector of
the pump (atmospheric pressure or higher), the seal water absorbs a significant volume
of CO . In a recirculated system, this saturated water is returned to the suction sector
2

(vacuum). As the pressure drops, the solubility decreases, causing the dissolved CO to 2

effervesce (flash) out of the liquid.

These expanding gas bubbles occupy volume within the impeller bucket that should be
available for the process gas. This phenomenon creates a "phantom load" that reduces
the pump's effective suction capacity. For CO service using water as a sealant, a
2

capacity derating of approximately 10-15% is standard engineering practice to account

for these solubility losses.11 This penalty is even higher if the seal fluid is an amine
solution or organic solvent with a higher affinity for CO .
2

4. Gas Exhaust Conditions

The exhaust temperature (T ) of an LRVP is largely coupled to the seal liquid discharge
ex

temperature. Due to the high surface area contact and turbulent mixing within the ring,
the gas and liquid approach thermal equilibrium before discharge.

4.1 Isothermal Compression Characteristics

The compression of CO in an LRVP is considered isothermal, meaning the temperature

2

rise of the gas is minimal compared to adiabatic compression. In a perfectly isothermal

process, T = T . In practice, due to the inefficiencies of the pump and the heat of
ex in

solution, the exhaust gas temperature is typically C to 14 C (10 F to 2 F) higher than

∘ ∘ ∘ ∘

the seal liquid inlet temperature.19

For example, if the seal water enters at 20 ∘

C , the gas exhaust mixture (gas + liquid) will
typically discharge at 2 C to 34 C. This low discharge temperature is a critical safety
∘ ∘

feature when handling flammable gases or thermally sensitive bio-vapors, preventing

auto-ignition and thermal degradation.

4.2 Monitoring and Diagnostics

Monitoring T is a primary diagnostic tool for operator maintenance. An exhaust

ex

temperature exceeding C (131 F) is generally considered an alarm condition for

∘ ∘

standard water-sealed pumps.19 Such a rise indicates one of several failure modes:

1. Seal Flow Restriction: Blocked spray nozzles or orifices reducing the cooling
medium flow.
 2. Heat Exchanger Fouling: In recirculated systems, scaling on the heat exchanger
reduces heat removal, causing the loop temperature to creep up.
3. Process Upset: An unexpected spike in inlet mass flow or inlet temperature
overwhelming the pump's thermal capacity.

5. Application Deep Dive: Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage (CCUS)

The deployment of LRVPs in CCUS is primarily focused on the vacuum stripping of CO 2

from chemical solvents. This process leverages the relationship between pressure and
gas solubility to regenerate solvents with lower energy input.

5.1 Vacuum Stripping of Amines

In post-combustion capture, flue gas is scrubbed with amine solvents (e.g.,

Monoethanolamine - MEA) which selectively absorb CO . The rich amine must then be
2

heated in a stripper column to release the CO and regenerate the solvent.

2

Conventionally, this is done at elevated pressures (150-200 kPa) and temperatures (

∘
120 C ), which requires significant steam energy and degrades the amine over time.20

Vacuum Integration:

By operating the stripper at vacuum pressures (typically 30 a to 70 a absolute), the

boiling point of the solvent and the desorption temperature of the CO are significantly
2

reduced.22 This allows the reboiler to operate using lower-grade waste heat (e.g.,
70 − 0 C
∘
) rather than high-value steam.

Role of the LRVP:

The LRVP is positioned at the top of the stripper column to maintain the vacuum and
extract the wet CO stream. The conditions at the pump inlet are typically:
2

Pressure: 0.3 − 0. bar absolute (30 − 0 a).

Temperature: 40 ∘ ∘
C − 0 C (after overhead condensation).
Composition: Saturated CO with traces of amine carryover.
2

The LRVP compresses this stream from vacuum to atmospheric pressure (or slightly
above, ~2 bar, if acting as a compressor) for transport or further compression. The
isothermal nature of the LRVP is crucial here; it prevents localized hot spots that could
cause any entrained amine to degrade into heat-stable salts, which are corrosive and
reduce capture efficiency.22
5.2 Direct Ocean Capture (DOC)

Direct Ocean Capture represents a novel frontier where LRVPs serve as the "lungs" of
the system. In this process, seawater is acidified to convert dissolved bicarbonate (CO −3

) into free CO gas, which is then extracted under vacuum.5

2

Process Conditions:

1. Acidification: Seawater is mixed with acid, shifting the carbonate equilibrium.

2. Vacuum Stripping: The water passes through a degassing tower maintained at
deep vacuum (often 100 mbar).
3. Extraction: The LRVP extracts a mixture of CO and water vapor.
2

Specific Challenges:

The pump must handle a highly corrosive mixture of CO , saline mist (carryover), and
2

potentially acidic aerosols. Standard stainless steel is insufficient. These applications

demand Super Duplex Stainless Steel or specialized coatings to resist chloride pitting
and stress corrosion cracking. Furthermore, the volume of water vapor is massive
relative to the CO volume due to the low pressure. The "condensing effect" of the liquid
2

ring is indispensable here, as it acts as a primary separator, condensing the water vapor
into the seal ring (which is often seawater itself) while compressing the CO .5 2

6. Application Deep Dive: Vacuum Fermentation and Bio-ethanol

In the production of bio-ethanol, yeast converts sugars into ethanol and CO . However,
2

ethanol is toxic to yeast at high concentrations (typically >10% v/v), which limits batch
productivity. Vacuum fermentation alleviates this by continuously removing toxic
products.

6.1 Process Mechanics

The fermenter is maintained at a pressure corresponding to the boiling point of the

ethanol-water azeotrope at the fermentation temperature (typically 30 − 3 C). This
∘

pressure is roughly .7 a ( 0 rr).23

Vapor Equilibrium: Under these conditions, ethanol and water boil off, carrying CO 2

with them. The CO acts as a stripping gas, lowering the partial pressure required to
2

vaporize the ethanol.

LRVP Function: The vacuum pump extracts this tertiary mixture (CO , Ethanol
2

Vapor, Water Vapor). The pump facilitates Flash Fermentation, removing the
inhibitory ethanol product as it forms.24
6.2 Ethanol Recovery and Seal Fluid Synergy

A unique operational strategy in this sector is the use of ethanol (or the fermentation
product itself) as the seal liquid. Since the objective is to recover ethanol, using water as
a seal liquid would dilute the product. By using cooled ethanol as the seal:

1. The seal ring condenses the ethanol vapor from the inlet stream (Capacity Bonus).
2. The pump acts as a scrubber/condenser, integrating separation and compression.
3. Thermodynamic Check: The vapor pressure of ethanol is higher than water (7. a at
20 C vs 2.3 a for water). This limits the ultimate vacuum the pump can achieve.
∘

Designers must ensure the target fermentation pressure is above the vapor
pressure of the ethanol seal ring to prevent cavitation.11

7. Materials of Construction and Corrosion Engineering

The combination of CO and water forms carbonic acid ( CO ), creating an aggressive

2 2 3

environment for pump metallurgy.

7.1 Carbonic Acid Corrosion

While carbonic acid is weak compared to mineral acids, the hydrodynamic conditions
within an LRVP exacerbate its effects. The high-velocity liquid ring creates substantial
wall shear stress, and the turbulence strips away the passive iron carbonate (eCO ) 3

films that might otherwise protect carbon steel. This leads to Erosion-Corrosion,
characterized by flow-pattern grooves and rapid material loss on the impeller tips and
port plates.25

7.2 Material Selection Guide

Cast Iron: Generally acceptable only for intermittent duty or dry gas service. In wet
CO2 , life expectancy is poor unless pH control (buffering) is strictly maintained.
Stainless Steel 304: The baseline for standard CO service. It provides good
2

resistance to general carbonic acid attack.

Stainless Steel 316L: Recommended for industrial applications where the seal
water source is variable (e.g., cooling tower water with chlorides) or where trace
impurities (SO , O ) from flue gas might form stronger acids. The molybdenum
x x

content provides pitting resistance.

Duplex / Super Duplex: Mandatory for Direct Ocean Capture (DOC) or applications
using seawater seals. These alloys resist the synergistic attack of chlorides (pitting)
and CO (acid corrosion).5
2

Elastomers: Standard Viton (FKM) or EPDM seals are suitable for wet CO . 2

However, in high-pressure compressor applications ( 0 bar), rapid gas

 decompression (RGD) resistant elastomers are required to prevent O-ring shattering
upon shutdown.4

8. Sizing and Capacity Correction Methodology

To accurately size an LRVP for wet CO , engineers must move beyond the "nominal
2

capacity" listed in catalogs and apply a series of rigorous correction factors.

8.1 The Correction Formula

The effective capacity (Q ) is derived from the nominal dry air capacity (Q
e nom
) using the
following relationship:

Qe = Qnom seal_temp as_densit solubilit

Qcondensin_bonus

1. Seal Temperature Factor ( seal_temp

): Derived from manufacturer curves (Table 1). If
seal water is 2 C instead of 1
∘ ∘
C , seal_temp
0.88.

2. Solubility Factor ( ): A penalty for recirculated systems. For CO , typical

solubilit 2

values are 0.8 − 0.0. This accounts for gas flashing from the seal ring at suction.11
3. Condensing Bonus: This is an additive term, not a multiplier. It represents the
volumetric flow of steam that condenses into liquid.
Calculation: Determine the mass of water vapor in the inlet stream. Calculate the
mass of water vapor remaining at the seal temperature saturation point. The
difference is the condensed mass, which is converted to inlet volume and added
to the capacity.
In hot, wet CO streams ( 0 C), the condensing bonus often exceeds the
2
∘

solubility penalty, resulting in a net capacity gain.12

8.2 Power Consumption Corrections

Power consumption in liquid ring pumps is proportional to the density and viscosity of
the seal liquid.

Viscosity: Cold water is more viscous than warm water. Operating with seal water
at C increases brake horsepower (BHP) compared to 1 C.
∘ ∘

Gas Density: While CO is heavier than air (Molecular Weight 44 vs 29), the
2

primary power draw in an LRVP is hydraulic (moving the liquid ring), not pneumatic
(compressing the gas). Therefore, the power penalty for CO vs Air is minimal 2

unless the discharge pressure is high.27

9. Mechanical System Design and Maintenance

9.1 Scale Formation and Control

In many regions, industrial water contains calcium and magnesium hardness. CO 2

increases the solubility of calcium by converting carbonate (CaCO ) to bicarbonate (

3

CaCO ). However, as the pressure changes and the water temperature rises across
32

the pump, the equilibrium shifts back, causing calcium carbonate to precipitate as
scale.15

Impact: Scale buildup on the impeller reduces the bucket volume (loss of capacity)
and can lock the rotor (mechanical seizure).
Prevention: The use of softened or demineralized water for the seal loop is critical.
If hard water must be used, continuous dosing of dispersants or regular acid
cleaning cycles is required.28

9.2 Separator and Recirculation Loop

The discharge from the pump is a turbulent mixture of CO and water.

2

Separator Design: The separator vessel must be sized to allow low-velocity

disengagement of gas bubbles. For CO , the vent is typically connected to a capture
2

manifold, not the atmosphere.

Cooler Sizing: In total recirculation systems, the heat exchanger must be sized for
the Total Heat Load (Q ), which includes the substantial heat of condensation
total

and solution. Undersizing this cooler is a common design error that leads to
creeping seal temperatures and gradual loss of vacuum.29

10. Conclusion

The application of Liquid Ring Vacuum Pumps in wet CO processes represents a

2

convergence of favorable thermodynamics and robust mechanics. The pump's ability to

act as an isothermal compressor and a direct-contact condenser makes it uniquely
suited for the rigorous demands of Carbon Capture, Direct Ocean Capture, and
Fermentation.

However, the margin for error in these applications is narrower than in standard air
service. The potential for capacity loss due to seal water heating, the risk of cavitation
from high vapor pressure, and the accelerated corrosion rates from carbonic acid
require a disciplined engineering approach. By strictly adhering to the guidelines
regarding seal temperature control ( 20 C), material selection (SS316/Duplex), and
∘

capacity correction (accounting for solubility and condensation), process engineers can
leverage LRVP technology to achieve reliable, efficient, and sustainable CO
2

management.