Organisation Behaviour

MODULE II

CONTENTS

Attitude: Importance of attitude in an organization, Right Attitude, Components of attitude,

Relationship between behaviour and attitude, Developing Emotional intelligence at the workplace, Job
attitude, Barriers to changing attitudes. Personality and values: Definition and importance of Personality
for performance, The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and The Big Five personality model, Significant
personality traits suitable to the workplace (personality and job — fit theory), Personality Tests and
their practical applications. Perception: Meaning and concept of perception, Factors influencing
perception, Selective perception, Attribution theory, Perceptual process, Social perception (stereotyping
and halo effect). Motivation: Definition & Concept of Motive & Motivation, The Content Theories of
Motivation (Maslow's Need Hierarchy & Herzberg's Two Factor model Theory), The Process Theories
(Vroom's expectancy Theory & Porter Lawler model), Contemporary Theories — Equity Theory of
Work Motivation.

PREPARED BY

SUBHAJIT RAUL

ASST PROF

DEPT-MBA

NIT ,BBSR.

ATTITUDE
Attitude is a mental and neutral state of readiness organized through experience, exerting a
directive or dynamic influence upon individual’s response to all objects and situations with
which it is related. (G.W. Allport) Attitude as an enduring organization of motivational,
emotional, perceptual and cognitive processes with respect to some aspect of the individual’s
world (Krech and Crutchfield) Attitude is a tendency or predisposition to evaluate an object or
symbol of that object in a certain way (Katz and Scotland) An attitude is defined as, "a learned
pre-disposition to respond in a consistently favorable or unfavorable manner with respect to a
given object". (Katz and Scotland) In simple words, an "attitude" is an individual's point of
view or an individual's way of looking at something. To be more explicit, an "attitude" may be
explained as the mental state of an individual, which prepares him to react or make him behave
in a particular pre-determined way. It is actually acquired feeling. Attitude is the combination
of beliefs and feelings that people have about specific ideas, situations or other people. Attitude
is important because it is the mechanism through which most people express their feelings. In
effect attitude is used in a generic sense, as to what people perceive, feel and express their
views about a situation, object or other people. Attitude cannot be seen, but the behaviour can
be seen as an expression of attitude.

Characteristics of Attitudes

Attitudes have following characteristics:

1. An attitude is the predisposition of the individual to evaluate some objects in a favourable

or an unfavourable manner.

2. The most pervasive phenomenon is "attitude". People at work place have attitudes about lots
of topics that are related to them. These attitudes are firmly embedded in a complex
psychological structure of beliefs.

3. Attitudes are different from values. Values are the ideals, whereas attitudes are narrow, they
are our feelings, thoughts and behavioural tendencies toward a specific object or situation.

[Link] is a predisposition to respond to a certain set of facts.

5. Attitudes are evaluative statements – either favourable or unfavourable concerning the

objects, people or events. An attitude is "a mental state of readiness, organized through
experience, exerting a specific influence upon a person's response to people, objects and
situations with which it is related". Attitudes thus state one's predispositions towards given
aspects of the world. They also provide an emotional basis for one's interpersonal relations and
identification with others. Managers in work organisations need to know and understand
employees' attitudes in order to manage effectively. Attitudes do influence behaviour of people
and their performance in organisations.

A positive attitude in the workplace helps employees to accomplish tasks faster and in a better
manner. The performance of employees to a great extent depends on the good relationship they
share with their colleagues. A good relationship can be established only when employees
demonstrate a positive attitude towards their work and colleagues. Through positive energy,
work becomes a pleasure and employees find it easier to achieve their goals.

A positive attitude has significant benefits for an individual in many aspects. Let‘s look at some
of them below.

1. Career success: Employees‘ success in the workplace is measured through their

performance. Employees with a positive attitude will always think of ways to accomplishing
their task in a well defined manner instead of complaining or finding excuses for
nonperformance. This results in success either through promotion or increased compensation.

[Link]: With a positive attitude, employees tend to take more interest in what they do
and deliver. Consequently, they produce better quality work with minimum errors. This
improves their overall output as well as productivity.

[Link]: Working in an organization is all about managing a diverse workforce. Some

employees earn respect easily and people often follow and listen to them. This is possible
through the positive attitude demonstrated by leaders.

[Link] work: Good relationships among employees help them to build effective teams where
all the members are united and work for a common cause. A positive attitude helps employees
to appreciate each other‘s competencies and work as a team for achieving common objectives
instead of being overly perturbed by inadequacies of team members.

[Link] making: Having a positive attitude helps employees to take better decisions, in an
objective manner. It triggers a healthy thought process, enabling employees to choose wisely
and logically.

[Link]: Having a positive attitude helps in motivating employees to overcome obstacles

that they may face during the course of their job. It also determines the way they see the world
around them. The moment they are successful in overcoming obstacles, they are motivated to
move forward.
7. Interpersonal relations: Customers prefer to deal with someone who is positive in nature. A
positive attitude enables employees to share a better rapport with customers, earning valuable
customer loyalty.

[Link] management: Stress has a detrimental effect on the health of employees. So how can
employees cope with it? Stress can be reduced through positive thinking; and with reduced
stress, employees will enjoy better health and take fewer sick leaves. In conclusion, a positive
attitude at work is beneficial not only to the organization, but also to the employees on an
individual basis.

Components of Attitudes

The three components of attitudes are:

[Link] component

[Link] component and

[Link] component.

1. Affective component: The affective component of an attitude reflects 'feelings and emotions'
that an individual has towards a situation. Cognitive component of attitude is related to value
statement. It consists of belief, ideas, values and other information that an individual may
possess or has faith in. Quality of working hard is a value statement or faith that a manager
may have.

2. Cognitive component: The cognitive component of an attitude is derived from 'knowledge'

that an individual has about a situation. Affective component of attitude is related to person‘s
feelings about another person, which may be positive, negative or neutral. I do not like Maya
because she is not hard working, or I like Mina because she is hard working. It is an expression
of feelings about a person, object or a situation.

3. Behavioral component: The intentional component of an attitude reflects how an individual

'expects to behave' towards or in the situation. Behavioral component of attitude is related to
impact of various situations or objects that lead to individual‘s behaviour based on cognitive
and affective components. I do not like Maya because she is not hard working is an affective
component, I therefore would like to disassociate myself with her, is a behavioral component
and therefore I would avoid Maya. Development of favorable attitude and good relationship
with Mina is but natural. Individual‘s favorable behaviour is an outcome of the fact that Mina
is hardworking. Cognitive and affective components are bases for such behaviour. Former two
components cannot be seen, only the behaviour component can be seen. Former is important
because it is a base for formation of attitude.

For example, the different components of an attitude held towards a firm, which supplies
inferior products and that too irregularly could be described as follows:

• "I don't like that company"—Affective component. • "They are the worst supply firm I have
ever dealt with"—Cognitive component.

• "I will never do business with them again"'—Intentional component. People try to maintain
consistency among the three components of their attitudes. However, conflicting circumstances
often arise. The conflict that individuals may experience among their own attitudes is called
'cognitive dissonance.

Importance of Attitude

Being positive doesn’t come easy to everyone, and sometimes it can take a little extra effort.
Life can be tough and it is sometimes easy to see things through a negative lens. Instead of
allowing negative energy to consume your day-to-day life, challenge yourself to exude positive
energy with everything you do. It is easier to practice positivity when you allow yourself to be
open-minded. Try to see the world from different perspectives, and understand why some
people perform certain actions or adopt specific personalities. This article will discuss the
importance of having a positive attitude, and how it can improve your daily life.
Positivity = Alertness
When we are sad, we sometimes shut out the world. We wander aimlessly through life, not
really caring what is happening around us. Positive thinking gives us more energy, and this
energy makes us more aware of our surroundings. Positivity not only helps us become more
self-aware, but also makes us more alert and aware of the feelings of others around us.
Lower Rates of Depression
Depression can set in when you allow negative thoughts to flood your brain. Negative thoughts
result in negative views of the world and people. Therefore, it is so important to try to view life
in a positive light if possible. Not to say this is an easy task, it takes much thought and
selfassertion. Here are a few ways to help you achieve a positive mindset.
If you feel yourself about to enter into a negative judgment, try to think of one good thing that
is happening in your life at that moment, and focus on that instead of the judgment. This is a
simple way to curve judgemental and depressive thoughts. Furthermore, you should use
positive self-talk from the moment you wake up. This will help you start your day on a positive
note and keep your mind away from negative thoughts.
Increased Productivity
“Positive thinking stimulates your brain to make sure it's functioning at its best. It also
increases your energy levels, making you more alert and better equipped to perform your
duties.” This can help you in day-to-day life, and enable you to accomplish tasks more easily
and quickly.
Positive attitudes can also influence those around you to help with certain tasks. For example,
if you have a huge project due and your coworkers can assist, they would be more inclined to
 assist if they are attracted to your energy. However, if being in your presence brings their mood
down, they will be less inclined to help you accomplish the task.
Improves Problem Solving
Problem-solving requires a person to be able to see multiple sides to an issue, and use many
tactics to find a solution. According to a study done by The National Center for Biotechnology
Information, individuals who viewed a positive video before performing a task performed
better and were more open to solving problems than those who watched an angry or depressing
video. This is an interesting study that highlights the positive effect that positive energy can
have on completing tasks and tackling tough situations.
Improves Ability to Work Well With Others
No one likes a Negative Nancy! As stated before, humans are drawn to those with a positive
aura and clear intentions. You are more likely to get along with others if you exude positive
vibes and are inviting. If you focus on the negatives in life, people are more likely to steer clear.
As a result, try to be the most positive person in the room, and other people will follow your
lead.
A positive attitude can change the way you see the world and the way others see you. Positive
attitudes will make you more alert, less depressed, more productive, and better able to solve
problems and work well with others. Our staff at Visiting Angels White Plains serves
Westchester County seniors with a positive attitude, encouraging our clients to do the same.
Positive thinking is important to us, as we strive to improve each day for our clients. To
schedule a complimentary care assessment for your senior loved one, please contact us at
914696-4200 or visit us online here.

Right Attitude

Having the right attitude refers to having a positive and constructive mindset that enables one
to approach life with optimism, resilience, and a willingness to learn and grow. It involves
adopting a positive outlook towards challenges and setbacks, and being open to new ideas and
perspectives.

Having the right attitude can have a significant impact on various aspects of life, including
personal relationships, career success, and overall happiness. Individuals with a positive
attitude tend to be more motivated, creative, and productive, which can lead to greater success
and fulfillment.

Some key traits associated with having the right attitude include:

• Optimism: Believing in the potential for positive outcomes, even in difficult or challenging
situations.
• Resilience: The ability to bounce back from setbacks and failures, and maintain a positive
outlook in the face of adversity.
• Open-mindedness: Being open to new ideas and perspectives, and willing to learn from others.
 Growth mindset: Believing that one's abilities and intelligence can be developed through
hard work and dedication, rather than being fixed traits.
• Gratitude: Appreciating and expressing gratitude for the positive aspects of one's life, rather
than focusing on the negative.
 Overall, having the right attitude involves cultivating a positive and constructive mindset that
enables one to approach life with optimism, resilience and a willingness to learn and grow.

Relation of Attitude & Behaviour

Basis for
Attitude Behaviour
comparison

Behaviour implies an individual

Attitude refers to a person's
or group's actions, moves,
Meaning mental view ofhow he/she r
conduct or functions towards
thinks or feels osomething.
other persons.

What is it? A person's mindset. A person's mindset.

Reflects What do you think or feel? What do you do?

Defined by The way we perceive things. Social Norms

Impact of Behaviour on Attitude
• People tend to seek consistency in their attitudes and behaviour. When a person has to act in
contrast to his attitude, there will be some unrest inside him due to the discrepancy. Something
must change to eliminate or reduce cognitive dissonance.
• The term cognitive dissonance is used to describe the feeling of discomfort that results from
holding conflicting beliefs and behaviour. The feeling of discomfort motivates a person to
reduce it. There are generally three ways of reducing cognitive dissonance:
o Change the
behaviour o Ignore the
situation o Change the
attitude
Attitude’s Influence and Relation with Thought and Behaviour Case

1 – Attitude ≠ Behaviour

• For example, plenty of people may support a particular candidate, but they may not take the
pain to go out and vote for him, Thus, attitudes may not always predict the actual pattern of
one’s behaviour.

Case 2 – Behaviour ≠ Attitude

• There can also be instances where negative behaviour co-exists with a positive attitude. This
usually occurs when the positive attitude needs to be stronger. For example, consider a person
with a positive attitude, not to jump a queue.
• However, when he sees everyone around him doing the same, he may think he will lose, if not
jump queues. Thus, he may behave opposite to his original attitude – which we can call as
positive.
 Case 3 – Attitude = Behaviour

• Psychologists have found that there would be consistency between attitudes and behaviour
when:
o The attitude is strong and occupies a central place in the attitude system. o The person is aware
of their attitude. o There is very little or no external pressure on the person to behave in a
particular way. For example, there is no group pressure to follow a particular norm.
o The person’s behaviour is not being watched or evaluated by others.
o The person thinks that the behaviour would have a positive consequence and intends to engage
in that behaviour.
• Note: Persons with high integrity usually show a direct relation between attitude and behaviour.

Case 4 – Behaviour = Attitude

• People dislike Cognitive Dissonance. Cognitive dissonance is when a person experiences

psychological distress due to conflicting thoughts or beliefs. To reduce this, people may change
their attitudes to reflect their other beliefs or actual behaviours.
• This means they prefer their attitude and behaviour to be aligned in the same direction. By
giving incentives to behave contrary to the attitude, Leon Festinger and James Carl smith (study
in 1954) proved that the first attitude can be changed to suit their external behaviour.

Job Attitude

Predicting Behavior from Attitudes:

Important attitudes have a strong relationship to behaviour. The closer the match between
attitude and behavior, the stronger the relationship:

• Specific attitudes predict specific behaviour

• General attitudes predict general behaviour

The more frequently expressed an attitude, the better predictor it is. High social pressures
reduce the relationship and may cause dissonance. Attitudes based on personal experience are
stronger predictors.

Major Job attitudes:

Job Satisfaction

A positive feeling about the job resulting from an evaluation of its characteristics.

Job Involvement

Degree of psychological identification with the job where perceived performance is important
to self-worth.
Psychological Empowerment

Belief in the degree of influence over the job competence, job meaningfulness and autonomy.

Organizational Commitment

Identifying with a particular organization and its goals, while wishing to maintain membership
in the organization. Three dimensions:

• Affective – emotional attachment to organization

• Continuance Commitment – economic value of staying
• Normative – moral or ethical obligations

Has some relation to performance, especially for new employees. Less important now than in
the past – now perhaps more of an occupational commitment, loyalty to profession rather than
a given employer.

Perceived Organizational Support (POS)

Degree to which employees believe the organization values their contribution and cares about
their well-being. Higher when rewards are fair, employees are involved in decision making,
and supervisors are seen as supportive. High POS is related to higher OCBs and performance.

Employee Engagement

The degree of involvement with, satisfaction with, and enthusiasm for the job. Engaged
employees are passionate about their work and company.

Developing emotional intelligence (EI) in the workplace is essential for creating a productive,
respectful, and collaborative environment. Emotional intelligence affects how individuals
handle interpersonal relationships, make decisions, and manage stress — all key to workplace
success.

Here’s a structured guide on how to develop emotional intelligence at work:

🌟 What is Emotional Intelligence?

Emotional Intelligence is commonly broken down into five core components:

Self-awareness – Understanding your own emotions and how they affect your behavior Self-

regulation – Managing your emotions in healthy ways, especially in stressful situations.

Motivation – Being driven to achieve for the sake of achievement, not just external rewards.

Empathy – Understanding and sharing the feelings of others.

Social skills – Managing relationships, resolving conflicts, and communicating effectively.

✅ Practical Strategies to Develop EI in the Workplace

1. Increase Self-Awareness

Practice reflection: Take time after meetings or interactions to reflect on your feelings and
reactions.

Ask for feedback: Regularly ask coworkers or supervisors how they perceive your
communication and emotional responses.

2. Improve Self-Regulation

Pause before reacting: When you feel triggered, take a breath before responding.

Develop stress management techniques: Practice mindfulness, deep breathing, or short breaks.

Set personal boundaries: Know your limits and communicate them clearly.

3. Enhance Motivation

Set personal goals: Align your daily tasks with broader career or personal goals.

Celebrate small wins: Recognize achievements to stay engaged and motivated.

Maintain a positive attitude: Reframe setbacks as learning opportunities.

4. Build Empathy

Practice active listening: Listen without interrupting. Ask clarifying questions to show you care.

Put yourself in others’ shoes: Consider how decisions or feedback affect others.

Recognize non-verbal cues: Pay attention to body language, tone, and emotional context.

5. Strengthen Social Skills

Improve communication: Be clear, respectful, and constructive in your messages.

Develop conflict resolution abilities: Focus on solutions, not blame.

Foster teamwork: Encourage inclusiveness and collaboration.

🚀 Benefits of Emotional Intelligence at Work

Better teamwork and collaboration

Improved leadership and decision-making

Enhanced employee engagement and satisfaction

Lower stress and conflict Greater

adaptability to change

Barriers to Changing Attitudes are:

1. Prior Commitment
When people are already committed to a specific course of action, it becomes challenging for
them to change their behavior or accept new ways of working. This occurs because they feel
bound by their initial commitment. For example, if a boss has promised to keep an employee
on the job for a year but later discovers that the employee lacks the necessary skills, the boss
may have difficulty changing his attitude or performing different tasks because of the prior
commitment.

2. Insufficient Information
Lack of adequate information can be a significant barrier to changing attitudes. When people
do not fully understand why they must change, they are less likely to adjust their attitudes or
behaviours. For example, if employees are not given clear reasons or data supporting a new
company policy, they may resist the change because they do not see its importance or benefits.

3. Publicly expressed attitude

When a person expresses an opinion or attitude publicly, they find it difficult to change their
stance later because it can be embarrassing. For example, if a boss tell employees in a meeting
that one of our employee is not performing well, but later he learns that the employee is actually
skilled and talented, the boss may struggle to change his opinion publicly. This is because he
initially criticized the employee in front of everyone, and admitting he was wrong can be
uncomfortable.

4. Low credibility
If a person has a negative opinion of someone, they may ignore any important information that
person gives them. For example, if Ram dislikes Sham and Sham tries to tell Ram something
important, Ram will probably ignore it and not change his opinion. Similarly, if a celebrity
known for smoking promotes an anti-smoking campaign, people may not take the message
seriously. The celebrity’s actions are contrary to the message they are promoting, making it
unbelievable.

5. Degree of fear
High level of fear: If a boss threatens employees by saying, “If you don’t work properly, I
will not pay you this month,” then the employees may not take it seriously because they know
there is an agreement guaranteeing their salary. The threat lacks credibility and thus fails to
motivate change.
Low level of fear: Conversely, if a boss is too lenient, employees may not respect him and will
not change their attitude or improve their performance. Without the fear of real consequences,
there is little incentive for them to adjust their behavior meaning If people face no real
consequences or adverse effects for their actions, they are unlikely to have any motivation to
change their behavior.

6. Lack of resources
When plans are overly ambitious, they may be hindered by a lack of resources within the
company or organization. In such cases, it becomes difficult to change employees’ attitudes
towards the new plan because the necessary resources to support and implement the changes
are not available. For example, if a company wants to start a new project but does not have
enough funds or manpower, employees may feel skeptical or resistant to the change.

7. Resistance to Change
When executives in an organization make changes in a plan, employees are expected to adapt.
However, some employees may refuse to change their attitudes towards the new plan. This
resistance may be due to a variety of reasons, such as comfort with the current way of working,
fear of the unknown, or lack of faith in the new direction. For example, if a company introduces
new technology, employees accustomed to the old system may resist learning and using the
new technology.

Personality

Definition:
Personality refers to your characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving.

Features

Innate or developed early in life

Relatively stable over time

Can be measured by traits (e.g., the Big Five: openness, conscientiousness, extraversion,
agreeableness, neuroticism)

Examples of Personality Traits:

Introverted vs. extroverted

Calm vs. anxious

Optimistic vs. pessimistic

Creative vs. Conventional

Purpose:
Personality helps predict how you typically act or react in situations.

🔹 Values

Definition:
Values are your core beliefs about what is right, important, or desirable in life

Shaped by upbringing, culture, and experiences

Can change over time

Guide decisions and priorities

Examples of Values:

Honesty

Family

Freedom

Success

Compassion

Justice

Purpose:
Values influence why you act a certain way — they guide your decisions, goals, and moral
compass.

🔁 In Summary:
Aspect Personality Values

What it is Behavioral tendencies Core beliefs and priorities

Formed by Genetics + early environment Culture, family, life experiences

Stability Relatively stable Can evolve

Aspect Personality Values

Guides How you act or react Why you act the way you do

Examples Shy, assertive, organized Loyalty, freedom, kindness

Personality plays a crucial role in determining performance, especially in work, education, and
interpersonal contexts. Here's an overview of why personality is important for performance:

🔑 1. Influences Motivation and Work Ethics

Traits like conscientiousness (being responsible, organized, and hardworking) are strong
predictors of high performance in most roles.

Highly conscientious people are more likely to set goals, stick to deadlines, and follow through
with tasks.

🧠 2. Affects Learning and Problem-Solving Personality influences how people approach challenge

For example, people high in openness to experience are often better at creative thinking and
problem-solving.

Neuroticism, on the other hand, can lead to anxiety that hampers performance under pressure

👥 3. Shapes Interpersonal Skills

Traits like extraversion and agreeableness contribute to better teamwork, communication, and
leadership.

In jobs requiring collaboration, these traits can significantly boost team performance and
morale.

⚖️ 4. Impacts Stress Management

People with resilient personalities (low in neuroticism, high in emotional stability) tend to cope
better with stress, maintaining performance even in tough situations.

🎯 5. Guides Career Fit and Satisfaction

When personality aligns with the nature of the work (e.g., introverts in analytical roles,
extroverts in sales), people tend to perform better and feel more fulfilled.

📊 Real-World Example:

In industrial-organizational psychology, the "Big Five" personality traits (Openness,

Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism) are often used to predict job
performance. Among them, conscientiousness is consistently the strongest predictor across all
job types.
Personality is not the only factor affecting performance, but it plays a significant foundational
role. Understanding and aligning personality with the task or role can lead to:

Better outcomes

Higher motivation

Stronger collaboration

Lower stress

Greater job satisfaction

The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is a personality assessment tool based on

Carl Jung’s theory of psychological types.

It categorizes individuals into 16 personality types based on four dimensions:

introversion vs. extraversion, sensing vs. intuition, thinking vs. feeling, and judging vs.
perceiving.

The MBTI helps people understand their preferences in how they perceive the world
and make decisions.

The Four Preference Pairs

The MBTI framework identifies four key dimensions of personality, each represented
as a pair of opposite preferences:

Energy Focus: Extraversion (E) vs. Introversion (I)

Where individuals direct their energy and attention (external world vs. internal
thoughts)

Information Processing: Sensing (S) vs. Intuition (N)

How individuals gather and process information (concrete, observable facts vs. patterns
and possibilities)

Decision Making: Thinking (T) vs. Feeling (F)

How individuals make judgments and decisions (logical analysis vs. values and
peoplecentered considerations)

Lifestyle Approach: Judging (J) vs. Perceiving (P)

How individuals approach structure and closure (preferring organization and resolution
vs. flexibility and openness)
The Big 5 Personality Traits

It is important to note that each of the five primary personality traits represents a range
between two extremes. For example, extraversion represents a continuum between
extreme extraversion and extreme introversion. In the real world, most people lie
somewhere in between.

While there is a significant body of literature supporting these primary personality

traits, researchers don't always agree on the exact labels for each dimension. That said,
these five traits are usually described as follows.

Openness

Openness (also referred to as openness to experience) emphasizes imagination and

insight the most out of all five personality traits.1 People who are high in openness tend
to have a broad range of interests. They are curious about the world and other people
and are eager to learn new things and enjoy new experiences.

People who are high in this personality trait also tend to be more adventurous and
creative. Conversely, people low in this personality trait are often much more traditional
and may struggle with abstract thinking.

High

Very creative

Open to trying new things

Focused on tackling new challenges

Happy to think about abstract concepts

Low

Dislikes change

Does not enjoy new things

Resists new ideas

Not very imaginative

Dislikes abstract or theoretical concepts

Conscientiousness
Conscientiousness is defined by high levels of thoughtfulness, good impulse control,
and goal-directed behaviors.1 Highly conscientious people tend to be organized and
mindful of details. They plan ahead, consider how their behavior affects others, and are
conscious of deadlines.

If a person scores low on this personality trait, it might mean they are less structured
and organized. They may procrastinate when it comes to getting things done, sometimes
missing deadlines completely.

High

Spends time preparing

Finishes important tasks right away

Pays attention to detail

Enjoys having a set schedule

Low

Dislikes structure and schedules

Makes messes and doesn't take care of things

Fails to return things or put them back where they belong

Procrastinates important tasks

Fails to complete necessary or assigned tasks

Extraversion

Extraversion (or extroversion) is a personality trait characterized by excitability,

sociability, talkativeness, assertiveness, and high amounts of emotional
expressiveness.1 People high in extraversion are outgoing and tend to gain energy in
social situations. Being around others helps them feel energized and excited.

People who are low in this personality trait (or introverted) tend to be more reserved.
They have less energy in social settings, and social events can feel draining. Introverts
often require a period of solitude and quiet to "recharge."

High

Enjoys being the center of attention

Likes to start conversations

Enjoys meeting new people

Has a wide social circle of friends and acquaintances

Finds it easy to make new friends

Feels energized when around other people

Say things before thinking about them

Low

Prefers solitude

Feels exhausted when having to socialize a lot

Finds it difficult to start conversations

Dislikes making small talk

Carefully thinks things through before speaking

Dislikes being the center of attention

Agreeableness

This personality trait includes attributes such as trust, altruism, kindness, affection, and
other prosocial behaviors.1 People who are high in agreeableness tend to be more
cooperative while those low in this personality trait tend to be more competitive and
sometimes even manipulative.

High

Has a great deal of interest in other people

Cares about others

Feels empathy and concern for other people

Enjoys helping and contributing to the happiness of other people

Assists others who are in need of help

Low

Takes little interest in others

Doesn't care about how other people feel

Has little interest in other people's problems

Insults and belittles others

 Manipulates others to get what they want

Neuroticism

Neuroticism is a personality trait characterized by sadness, moodiness, and emotional

instability.1 This trait is generally defined as a negative personality trait that can have
detrimental effects on a person's life and well-being. Individuals who are high in
neuroticism tend to experience mood swings, anxiety, irritability, and sadness.

People who are low in this personality trait tend to be more stable and emotionally
resilient.

High

Experiences a lot of stress

Worries about many different things

Gets upset easily

Experiences dramatic shifts in mood

Feels anxious

Struggles to bounce back after stressful events

Low

Emotionally stable

Deals well with stress

Rarely feels sad or depressed

Doesn't worry much

Is very relaxed

Personality-Job Fit Theory is a concept in organizational behavior and psychology that suggests
that an individual's personality traits should match the demands and culture of a specific job or
work environment for optimal performance and satisfaction.

The better the fit between a person’s personality and the job requirements, the higher their job
satisfaction and performance, and the lower their likelihood of turnover.

This theory builds on the work of John Holland, a psychologist who developed the Holland’s
Theory of Career Choice (RIASEC Model), and other organizational behavior theorists like
Stephen P. Robbins.

Key Components:
 1. Personality Traits o These include characteristics like extroversion,
conscientiousness, openness to experience, etc. (often based on the Big Five
personality traits).
2. Job Characteristics o These refer to the demands of the job and the work
environment — for example, does it require a lot of interaction, attention to detail,
creativity, etc.?
3. Fit (Congruence) o A "fit" means a match between personality and job. For
example, an extrovert may thrive in sales, while an introvert might prefer research or
data analysis.

Benefits of Personality-Job Fit:

• Higher job satisfaction

• Increased job performance
• Lower stress levels
• Lower turnover rates
• Better team dynamics

Poor Fit Consequences:

• Burnout
• Low motivation  Absenteeism
• Poor performance

Applications of Personality Tests

1. Clinical Psychology

• Use: Diagnose and treat mental health disorders.

• Example: MMPI is widely used to assess personality structure and psychopathology.

2. Organizational/Industrial Psychology

• Use: Hiring, team building, leadership development.

• Example: MBTI and Big Five are commonly used in recruitment and career
development.

3. Educational Settings

• Use: Academic guidance, learning style identification.

• Example: Personality tests help counselors guide students in choosing suitable careers.

4. Personal Development

• Use: Self-awareness, improving relationships, goal setting.

• Example: Enneagram and MBTI are often used in coaching and self-help programs.

5. Research
 • Use: Studying the link between personality and behavior, mental health, job
performance, etc.
• Example: Big Five is a staple in psychological and social research.

What is perception?

Perception is a process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions
to give meaning to their environment. Perception could be explained in various ways. − It is
the process of receiving information about and making sense of the world around people. − It
is also the process of deciding which information to notice, how to categorize the noticed
information, and how to interpret it within the framework of one’s existing knowledge. − In
simple terms, perception is how one looks at the world (e.g.) An American couple visits India
for the first time. Both of them notice the open filthy gutters, beggars/lepers, narrow roads with
pot holes, rickety autorickshaws, cheating cab-drivers as well as the beautiful Taj Mahal , the
enchanting Mohal gardens, the magnificent Fateh-Pur-Sikhri, the quiet Santhi Niketan etc.,
That is, both of them see the unpleasant as well as the pleasant things. The wife is more affected
by the unpleasant things and she perceives that India is not a pleasant country, whereas the
husband, who is more influenced by the pleasant things, perceives that India is a beautiful
country. This shows that perception differs.

Similarly, while many in a firm may view it as a great place to work, favorable working
conditions, interesting job assignments, good pay, excellent benefits and understanding and
responsible management, there will be people who may feel frustrated because of the target,
time schedule etc. That is, the same organization is perceived as good by some and as bad by
some others.

According to Joseph Reitz, “Perception includes all those processes by which an individual
receives information about his environment—seeing, hearing, feeling, tasting and smelling.”

According to B. V. H. Gilmer, “Perception is the process of becoming aware of situations, of

adding meaningful associations to sensations.”

Uday Pareek said perception can be defined as “the process of receiving, selecting, organizing,
interpreting, checking, and reacting to sensory stimuli or data.”
According to S. P. Robbins, perception can be defined as “the process by which individuals
organize and interpret their sensory impressions to give meaning to their environments.”

Importance of Perception

Perception not only creates our experience of the world around us; it allows us to act within our
environment.

1. Perception is very important in understanding human behavior because every person

perceives the world and approaches life problems differently. Whatever we see or feel
is not necessarily the same as it really is. When we buy something, it is not because it
is the best, but because we take it to be the best.
2. If people behave on the basis of their perception, we can predict their behavior in the
changed circumstances by understanding their present perception of the environment.
One person may be viewing the facts in one way which may be different from the facts
as seen by another viewer.
3. With the help of perception, the needs of various people can be determined, because
people’s perception is influenced by their needs.
4. Perception is very important for the manager who wants to avoid making errors when
dealing with people and events in the work setting. This problem is made more
complicated by the fact that different people perceive the same situation differently. In
order to deal with the subordinates effectively, the managers must understand their
perceptions properly.
5. Perception can be important because it offers more than objective output; it ingests an
observation and manufactures an altered reality enriched with previous experiences.

6. Perception builds character (not necessarily good or bad character) that defines different
roles individuals fall into the clown, the hypocrite, the self-righteous, the victim, etc..
7. It is vitally important if we want to get along with others to try to see things from their
perspective or walk in their shoes for a while. If we walk in their shoes we will gain a
new perspective about things and in that understand the other and also can love and
help the other more appropriately.

Thus, for understanding human behavior, it is very important to understand their perception,
that is, how they perceive the different situations.
 People’s behavior is based on their perceptions of reality, not reality itself. The world as it is
perceived is the world that is important for understanding human behavior.

Factors influencing Perception in Organizational behaviour

A number of factors operate to shape and sometimes distort perception. These factors are: i.

In the perceiver

ii. In the object or target being perceived or

iii. In the context of the situation in which the perception is made.

Characteristics of Perception in Organisational Behaviour

Characteristics of the Perceiver

Several characteristics of the perceiver can affect perception. When an individual looks at a
target and attempts to interpret what he or she, that interpretation is heavily influenced by
personal characteristics of individual perceiver. The major characteristics of the perceiver
influencing perception are:

A. Attitudes: The perceiver's attitudes affect perception. For example, suppose Mr. X is
interviewing candidates for a very important position in his organization –a position that
requires negotiating contracts with suppliers, most of whom are male. Mr X may feel that
women are not capable of holding their own in tough negotiations. This attitude will
doubtless affect his perceptions of the female candidates he interviews.
B. Moods: Moods can have a strong influence on the way we perceive someone. We think
differently when we are happy than we do when we are depressed. In addition, we remember
information that is consistent with our mood state better than information that is inconsistent
with our mood state. When in a positive mood, we form more positive impression of others.
When in a negative mood, we tend to evaluate others unfavourably.
C. Motives: Unsatisfied needs or motives stimulate individuals and may exert a strong
influence on their perceptions. For example, in an organizational context, a boss who is
insecure perceives a subordinate's efforts to do an outstanding job as a threat to his or her
own position. Personal insecurity can be transferred into the perception that others are out
to "get my job", regardless of the intention of the subordinates.
D. Self-Concept: Another factor that can affect social perception is the perceivers' self-concept.
An individual with a positive self-concept tends to notice positive attributes in another
 person. In contrast, a negative self-concept can lead a perceiver to pick out negative traits
in another person. Greater understanding of self allows us to have more accurate perceptions
of others.
E. Interest: The focus of our attention appears to be influenced by our interests. Because our
individual interests differ considerably, what one person notices in a situation can differ
from what others perceive. For example, the supervisor who has just been reprimanded by
his boss for coming late is more likely to notice his colleagues coming late tomorrow than
he did last week. If you are preoccupied with a personal problem, you may find it hard to
be attentive in class.
F. Cognitive Structure: Cognitive structure, an individual's pattern of thinking, also affects
perception. Some people have a tendency to perceive physical traits, such as height, weight,
and appearance, more readily. Others tend to focus more on central traits, or personality
dispositions. Cognitive complexity allows a person to perceive multiple characteristics of
another person rather than attending to just a few traits.
G. Expectations: Finally, expectations can distort your perceptions in that you will see what
you expect to see. The research findings of the study conducted by Sheldon S Zalkind and
Timothy W Costello on some specific characteristics of the perceiver reveal.
• Knowing oneself makes it easier to see others accurately.
• One's own characteristics affect the characteristics one is likely to see inothers.
• People who accept themselves are more likely to be able to see favourable aspects of other
people.
• Accuracy in perceiving others is not a single skill.
These four characteristics greatly influence how a person perceives others in the environmental
situation.
Characteristics of the Target
Characteristics in the target that is being observed can affect what is perceived. Physical
appearance plays a big role in our perception of others. Extremely attractive or unattractive
individuals are more likely to be noticed in a group than ordinary liking individuals. Motion,
sound, size and other attributes of a target shape the way we see it.

Physical appearance plays a big role in our perception of others. The perceiver will notice the
target's physical features like height, weight, estimated age, race and gender.

Perceivers tend to notice physical appearance characteristics that contrast with the norm, that
are intense, or that are new or unusual. Physical attractiveness often colour our entire
impression of another person. Interviewers rate attractive candidates more favour-ably and
attractive candidates are awarded higher starting salaries.

Verbal communication from targets also affects our perception of them. We listen to the topics
they speak about, their voice tone, and their accent and make judgements based on this input.

Non-verbal communication conveys a great deal of information about the target. The perceiver
deciphers eye contact, facial expressions, body movements, and posture all inan attempt to
form an impression of the target.

The perceiver, who observes the target's behaviour, infers the intentions of the target.

For example, if our manager comes to our office door way, we think "oh no! he is going to give
me more work to do". Or we may perceive that his intention is to congratulate us on a recent
success. In any case, the perceiver's interpretation of the target's intentions affects the way the
perceiver views the target.

Targets are not looked at in isolation, the relationship of a target to its background influences
perception because of our tendency to group close things and similar things together.

Objects that are close to each other will tend to be perceived together rather than separately. As
a result of physical or time proximity, we often put together objects orevents that are unrelated.
For examples, employees in a particular department are seen as a group. If two employees of a
department suddenly resign, we tend to assume their departures were related when in fact, they
might be totally unrelated.

People, objects or events that are similar to each other also tend to be grouped together. The
greater the similarity, the greater the probability we will tend to perceive them as a group.

Characteristics of the Situation

The situation in which the interaction between the perceiver and the target takes place has an
influence on the perceiver's impression of the target. For example, a professor may not notice
his 20-year-old female student in a bikini at the swimming pool. Yet the professor will notice
the same girl if she comes to his organizational behaviour class in abikini. In the same way,
meeting a manager in his or her office affects your impression in a certain way that may contrast
with the impression you would form had you met the manager in a restaurant.

The strength of the situational cues also affects social perception. Some situations provide
strong cues as to appropriate behaviour. In these situations, we assume that the individual's
 behaviour can be accounted for by the situation, and that it may not reflect the individual's
disposition. This is the discounting principle in social perception. For example, you mayen
counter an automobile sales person who has a warm and personable manner, asks you about
your work and hobbies, and seems genuinely interested in your taste in cars. Can you assume
that this behaviour reflects the sales person's personality? You probably cannot, because of the
influence of the situation. This person is trying to sell you a car, and in this particular situation
he probably treats all customers in this manner.

Factor Influencing Perception

Frequently Used Shortcuts in judging others: Perceiving and interpreting what others do is
burdensome. As a result, individuals develop techniques for making the task more manageable.
These techniques are not fool proof. Several factors lead us to form inaccurate impressions of
others. These barriers to perception are inaccurate impressions of others. These barriers to
perception are
1. Selective Perception: We receive a vast amount of information. Therefore, it is impossible
for us to assimilate everything we see - on eye certain stimuli can betaken. That is why their
boss may reprimand some employees for doing something that when done by another
 employee goes unnoticed. Since, we can't observe everything going on about us, we engage
in selective perception.
Selective perception is also out tendency to choose information that supports our view
points; Individuals often ignore information that makes them feel uncomfortable or
threatens their view points.

Selective perception allows us to "speed-read" others, but not without the risk of drawing an
inaccurate picture. Because we see what we want to see, we can draw unwarranted
conclusions from an ambiguous, perception tends to be influenced more by an individual's
attitudes, interests, and background than by the stimulus itself.

2. Stereotype: A stereotype is a generalization about a group of people. When we judge

someone on the basis of our perception of the group to which he or she belongs, we are
using the shortcut called stereo typing. Stereo types reduce information about other people
to a workable level, and they are efficient for compiling and using information. It is a means
of simplifying a complex world and it permits us to maintain consistency. It is less difficult
to deal with an unmanageable number of stimuli if we use stereo types. Stereo types can be
accurate, and when they are accurate, they can be useful perceptual guidelines. However,
most of the times stereotypes are inaccurate.
Attractiveness is a powerful stereo type. We assume that attractive individuals are also
warm, kind, sensitive, poised, sociable, outgoing, independent, and strong. Are attractive
people sociable, outgoing, independent, and strong? Are attractive peoplereally like this?
Certainly all of them are not.

In organizations, we frequently hear comments that represent stereo types based on gender,
age, nationality etc. From a perceptual stand point, if people expect tosee this stereo type,
that is what they will perceive, whether it's accurate or not.

3. Halo Effect: The halo error in perception is very similar to stereo typing. Where as in stereo
typing the person is perceived according to a single category, under the halo effect the
person is perceived on the basis of one trait.
When we draw a general impression about an individual based on a single characteristic,
such as intelligence, sociability or appearance, a halo effect is operating. The propensity for
the halo effect to operate is not random. Research suggests it is likely to be most extreme
when the traits to be perceived are ambiguous in behavioural terms, when the traits have
moral over tones, and when the perceiver is judging traits with which he or she has limited
 experience. Example of halo effect is the extremely attractive women secretary who is
perceived by her male boss as being an intelligent, good performer, when, in fact, she is a
poor typist.

4. First-impression error: Individuals place a good deal of importance on first impressions.

First impressions are lasting impressions. We tend to remember what we perceive first about
a person, and some times we are quite reluctant to change our initial impressions. First -
impression error means the tendency to form lasting opinions about an individual based on
initial perceptions. Primacy effects can be particularly dangerous in interviews, given that
we form first impressions quickly and that these impressions may be the basis for long-term
employment relationships.
5. Contrast Effect: Stimuli that contrast with the surrounding environment are more likely to
be selected for attention than the stimuli that blends in. A contrasting effect can be caused
by colour, size or any other factor that is unusual (any factor that distinguishes one stimulus
from others at present). For example, a man walking down the street with a pair of crutches
is more attention getting than a common man. A contrast effect is the evaluation of a person's
characteristics that are affected by comparisons with other people recently encountered that
rank higher or lower on the same characteristics. The "contrast" principle essentially states
that external stimuli that stands out against the background or which are not what are
expecting well receive their attention. The contrast effect also explains why a male students
tands out in a crowd of female students. There is nothing unusual about the male students
but, when surrounded by females, he stands out.
An illustration of how contrast effects operate in an interview situation in which one sees a
pool of job applicants. Distortions in any given candidate's evaluation can occur as a result
of his or her place in the interview schedule. The candidate is likely to receive a more
favourable evaluation if preceded by mediocre applicants, and a less favourable evaluation
if preceded by strong applicants.

6. Projection: It is easy to judge others if we assume they are similar to us. This tendency to
attribute one's own characteristics to other people is called projection.
Projection can distort perceptions made about others. People who engage inprojection tend
to perceive others. According to what they they are like rather than according to what the
person being observed is really like. When managers engage in projection, they compromise
their ability to respond to individual differences.

They tend to see people as more homogeneous than they really are.
 7. Implicit Personality Theories: We tend to have our own mini-theories about how people
look and behave. These theories help us organize our perceptions and take shortcuts instead
of integrating new information all the time. Implicit-personality theory is opinions formed
about other people that are based on our own mini theories about how people behave. For
example we believe that girls dressed in fashionable clothes will like modern music and
girls dressed in traditional dress like saree will like Indian classical music. These implicit
personality theories are barriers because they limit out ability to take in new information
when it is available.
8. Self-Fulfilling Prophecies: Self-fulfilling prophecies are the situation in which our
expectations about people affect our interaction with them in such a way that our
expectations are fulfilled. Self -fulfilling prophecy is also known as the Pygmalion effect,
named after a sculptor in Greek mythology who carved a statue of a girl that came to life
when he prayed for this wish and it was granted.
The Pygmalion effect has been observed in work organizations as well. A manager's
expectations of an individual affect both the manager's behaviour toward the individual and the
individual's response. For example, suppose a manager has an initial impression of an employee
as having the potential to move up within the organization. Chances are that the manager will
spend a great deal of time coaching and counselling the employee, providing challenging
assignments and grooming the individual for success.

Perception
Definition: Perception is a process by which people regard, analyze, retrieve and react to any
kind of information from the environment. For example, some people feel happy about earning
money while others feel happy about spending money.

Process of Perception

• Reception: In this process, a person receives the information through stimuli.

• Selection: This is governed by two types of factors:

o External factors: These are size, intensity, proximity, motion and novelty.

o Internal factors: These are attitude, motives, experiences, interests and expectations.

 Organization: It is the process by which we sort stimuli into a meaningful pattern. It involves the
following:
o Grouping: Assembling of stimuli on the grounds of similarity.

o Proximity: This is the closeness of stimuli to one another that affects perception. o

Closure: It is the ability to organize stimuli so that together they form a whole pattern.

 Interpretation: It is the formation of an idea about the information that is sensed, selected and
organized. It involves the following phenomena: primacy effect, selective perception,
stereotyping, halo effect, projection and expectancy effect. They are the types of perceptual
errors.

o Primacy/ Recency Effect: The first impression is given the most important which is known as
the primacy effect. Recency effect, on the other hand, is that human beings remember latest
events more than the less recent ones.

o Stereotyping: It is the effect caused by forming a certain belief about a category of stimuli and
generalizing that notion to encounters with each member of that category. In reality, there is a
difference between the perceived notion of each category and the actual traits of the members.
It may affect the interview process in an organization.

o Halo effect: It is the process of generalizing from a comprehensive analysis to a single attribute
or trait. A negative halo effect is known as the reverse halo effect. It affects the performance
appraisal of employees in a company.

o Projection: It is a psychological defence mechanism which makes a person compare his

negative traits with other people and conclude that they are better off than others. Perceptual
checking minimizes the negative effects of projection.

o Selective Perception: This means a person sees, feels or hears what he wants to and skips other
information which are inconsistent to his view.

o Expectancy effect: It is the tendency of an individual to interpret any person or object based on
how he expects the person or object to be in the first place. It is also called as Pygmalion effect.
Perception is an intellectual, psychological process which is subjective as individuals perceive
similar incident differently.

Application of Perception Theories in Organizations

Organization is a place where different types of individuals work together for achieving
common as well as individuals goals. In the process of working together they need to
understand each other. Such understanding of others depends on one’s perception. Perception
plays a vital role in organizations particularly in the field of recruitment, selection, appraisal,
promotion and so on.

People’s perceptions and attributions influence how they behave in their organization.
Perception describes the way people filter, organize and interpret sensory information.
Attribution explains how people act, determining how people react to the actions of others as
well. Accurate perception allows employees to interpret what they see and hear in the
workplace effectively to make decisions, complete tasks and act in ethical manner. Faculty
perceptions lead to problems in the organization, such as stereotyping, that lead people to
erroneously make assumptions.

Perception is a concept of psychology. The subject of organizational behavior applies the

concept to explain various events and behavior that occur in formal organizations. What are
those applications?

Often the main aspects of perception in an organization is how an individual views others, as
this can be a major point in how that person will behave within the business. It is also an aspect
of how an individual is motivated within an organization. If they preserve people in a certain
way then they may believe they are disliked, not listened to or ignored by this person and
therefore their motivation to do anything will be far smaller. This is why in organizations, there
needs to be sure that employees will in the organization fit before being hired and then when
they are hired their first perceptions of others need to be good.

To achieve first impression good companies will often introduce new employees and current
employees in ways which show off key skills and highlight the importance of these people to
the team. So positive perceptions are built instead of negatives. The perceptual process is how
organizations cope with the aforementioned.

Attribution Theory

Attribution theory has been proposed to develop explanations of the ways in which we judge
people differently, depending on what meaning we attribute to a given behavior. Basically, the
theory suggests that when we observe an individual’s behavior, we attempt to determine
whether it was internally or externally caused. That determination, however, depends largely
on three factors.
1. Distinctiveness

Distinctiveness refers to whether an individual displays different behaviors in different

situations. Is the employee who arrived late today also the source of complaints by co-workers?
What we want to know is, if this behavior is unusual or not. If it is unusual, the observer is
likely to give the behavior an external attribution. If this action is not unusual, it will probably
be judged as internal.

2. Consensus

If everyone, who is faced with a similar situation, responds in the same way, we can say the
behavior shows consensus. Our late employee’s behavior would meet this criterion if all
employees who took the same route to work were also late. From an attribution perspective if
consensus is high, we would be expected to give an external attribution to the employee’s late
coming, where as if other employees who took the same route made it into work on time, our
conclusion as to causation would be internal.

3. Consistency

Finally, an observer looks for consistency in a person’s actions. Does the person respond the
same way over time? Coming ten minutes late for work is not perceived in the same way for
the employee for whom it is a unusual case (he hasn’t been late for several months), as for the
employee for whom it is part of routine pattern (he is regularly late two or three times a week).
The more consistent the behavior, the more the observer is inclined to attribute it to internal
causes.

Attribution theory tell us that if an employee performs at about the same level on other related
tasks as he does on his current task (low distinctiveness), if other employees frequently perform
differently better or worse-than employee does on that current task (low consensus) and if
employees’ performance on this current task is consistent over time (high consistency), their
manager or anyone else who is judging their work is likely to hold them primarily responsible
for their task performance.
In short, it can be stated that the studies on attribution theory have generated the following
conclusions:

1. When we are explaining our own behavior, we tend to over-estimate the importance
of the situation and under estimate our own personality characteristics.
2. When we observe someone else behavior, we tend to over-estimate the influence of
personality traits and under-estimate situational influences.
3. In evaluating the performance of employees, poor performance is generally
attributed to internal personal factors, especially when the consequences are serious.
4. Employees tend to attribute their success to internal factors and their failures to
external causes.

5. In casual situations, as we observe the successes and failure of others, we tend to

attribute their successes to personality traits such as effort and ability and their failures
to external factors such as the difficulty of the task.

MOTIVATION

Definition and Concept of Motives and Motivation

1. Motives:

Definition:

Motives are the internal desires, needs, or drives that prompt individuals to act in a certain way
to achieve specific goals.

Concept:

• Motives are the underlying causes of behavior.

• They arise from a state of need or imbalance (e.g., hunger, curiosity, ambition).
• They energize, direct, and sustain behavior toward achieving a goal.
• Motives can be biological (e.g., hunger, thirst) or psychological (e.g., need for
achievement, affiliation).

Examples:

• A student studies hard due to the motive of success.  A person eats due to the motive
of hunger.

2. Motivation:
Definition:
Motivation is the process that initiates, guides, and sustains goal-directed behavior. It is the
force or influence that drives individuals to take action to fulfill their motives.

Concept:

• Motivation explains why people behave the way they do.

• It involves three key components:
o Activation: The decision to begin a behavior. o
Persistence: Continued effort toward a goal.
o Intensity: The concentration and vigor toward achieving the
goal.
• Motivation can be intrinsic (from within) or extrinsic (from
external rewards).

Examples:

• Intrinsic: Reading a book because you enjoy learning. 

Extrinsic: Studying to get a high grade or a reward.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs is a psychological theory proposed by Abraham Maslow in 1943.

It describes human motivation based on a hierarchy of needs, typically depicted as a pyramid
with five levels. The idea is that people are motivated to fulfill basic needs before moving on
to more advanced ones.

1. Physiological Needs (Basic Needs)

These are the most fundamental human needs for survival:

• Food
• Water
• Air
• Sleep
• Shelter
• Clothing
• Reproduction

2. Safety Needs (Basic Needs)

Once physiological needs are met, the focus shifts to safety and security:

• Personal security
• Employment
• Resources
• Health
• Property

3. Love and Belonging (Psychological Needs)


Humans need to feel a sense of connection:

Friendship

• Intimacy
• Family
• Social groups
• Community

4. Esteem Needs (Psychological Needs)

This level includes the need for respect and recognition, both from oneself and others:

• Self-esteem
• Confidence
• Achievement
• Status
• Recognition
• Freedom

5. Self-Actualization (Self-Fulfillment Needs)

At the top of the hierarchy is the need to realize one’s full potential:

• Personal growth
• Creativity
• Pursuing goals
• Solving problems
• Fulfilling purpose

Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory (also known as the Motivation-Hygiene Theory) is a

psychological theory proposed by Frederick Herzberg in the 1950s. It explains what motivates
people in the workplace and how job satisfaction and dissatisfaction are caused by different
sets of factors.

1. Motivators (Intrinsic Factors)

These are factors that increase job satisfaction and are related to the nature of the work itself.

They include:

Motivator Factors Description

Achievement Sense of accomplishment from doing a good job
Recognition Acknowledgement and appreciation of work
Work Itself Finding the work interesting or meaningful
Responsibility Having control over one’s work or tasks
Advancement Opportunities for promotion or career growth
Growth Opportunities to learn and develop skills

2. Hygiene Factors (Extrinsic Factors)

These are not motivators. However, their absence causes dissatisfaction. They are related to the
work environment rather than the work itself.

They include:

Hygiene Factors Description

Company Policies Rules and administrative policies
Supervision Quality of supervision and support
Salary Pay and other financial compensation
Interpersonal Relations Relationships with peers, supervisors, subordinates
Working Conditions Physical environment, tools, workspace
Job Security Stability and long-term security in a job

Process theories are psychological and organizational theories that explain how motivation
occurs—what drives people's behavior and the processes they go through to make decisions
about their actions, particularly in a work or goal-oriented context.

Definition of Process Theories

Process theories of motivation focus on the cognitive processes that influence an individual’s
behavior, such as:

• How individuals choose certain behaviors over others

• How they evaluate their choices
• How they respond to rewards, goals, and expectations

Major Process Theories of Motivation

1. Equity Theory (J. Stacy Adams)

• Core idea: People are motivated by fairness.

• Individuals compare their input/output ratio (effort vs. reward) to that of
others.
• If they perceive inequity, they feel distressed and may change their
behavior (e.g., work less, ask for a raise, leave the job).

2. Expectancy Theory (Victor Vroom)

• Core idea: Motivation = Expectancy × Instrumentality × Valence o

Expectancy: Belief that effort will lead to performance. o
Instrumentality: Belief that performance will lead to rewards.


 o Valence: Value placed on the
reward.  If any factor is zero,
motivation is zero.

3. Goal-Setting Theory (Edwin Locke & Gary Latham)

• Core idea: Clear, specific, and challenging goals enhance motivation.

Goals should be:
 o Specific o Measurable o
Achievable o Relevant o
Time-bound (SMART)
• Feedback and commitment to goals are also important.

4. Reinforcement Theory (B.F. Skinner)  Core idea: Behavior is shaped by

consequences.

• Uses positive/negative reinforcement, punishment, and extinction to

influence behavior.
• Focuses more on behavior than internal thought processes.

The Porter-Lawler Model of Motivation is a comprehensive theory of motivation developed by

Lyman W. Porter and Edward E. Lawler in 1968. It builds on Vroom’s Expectancy Theory and attempts
to explain the relationship between job attitudes and job performance, offering a more complex
view of how motivation works in the workplace.

The Porter-Lawler Model suggests that job performance is not simply a function of motivation, but
also of ability and perception of the task. It introduces a cause-and-effect chain of how effort leads
to performance and rewards, and how those rewards influence future behavior.

1. Effort (Motivation)

• The amount of effort an individual puts into a task is influenced by:

o Value of the reward (how much they want it)
o Perceived effort-reward probability (expectancy: will the effort
actually lead to the reward?)

2. Abilities and Traits

• The actual performance is determined not only by effort but also by:
o The individual’s abilities (skills, knowledge) o Their role
perception (how well they understand what's required)

3. Performance

• This is the result of effort + ability + accurate role perception.

4. Rewards

• Performance leads to two types of rewards:

o Intrinsic rewards (e.g., personal growth, satisfaction, achievement)
o Extrinsic rewards (e.g., salary, promotions, recognition)

5. Perceived Equity of Rewards

The individual evaluates whether the rewards are fair based on their input.


 • If they feel under-rewarded, motivation may decrease.
• If they feel fairly rewarded, satisfaction and future motivation increase.

6. Job Satisfaction  Satisfaction is based on perceived equity of the rewards

received.

• It is not directly related to performance, but to the perception of fair

compensation for the effort.

Contemporary theories of motivation build upon classical theories like Maslow's Hierarchy of
Needs or Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory but incorporate more recent research on how and why
people are motivated in various settings, especially in the workplace. Here are five key
contemporary theories of motivation:

1. Self-Determination Theory (SDT)

Developed by: Deci and Ryan

Core idea: People are most motivated when they feel they are in control of their own actions.

• Intrinsic motivation (doing something because it's inherently interesting

or enjoyable) is more powerful than extrinsic motivation (doing
something for external rewards).
• Motivation increases when three basic psychological needs are met:
o Autonomy – control over one's actions. o
Competence – belief in one's abilities.
o Relatedness – feeling connected to others.

2. Goal-Setting Theory

Developed by: Edwin Locke and Gary Latham

Core idea: Specific and challenging goals lead to higher performance than easy or vague goals.

• Goals motivate individuals by:

o Directing attention. o Energizing effort. o
Increasing persistence.
o Encouraging development of strategies.
• SMART goals (Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, Time-
bound) are especially effective.

3. Expectancy Theory

Developed by: Victor Vroom

Core idea: Motivation depends on the expected outcomes of actions.
 Motivation = Expectancy × Instrumentality × Valence

o Expectancy – belief that effort will lead to performance. o

Instrumentality – belief that performance will lead to a
reward. o Valence – value placed on the reward.

If any of these components are low, motivation will be low.

4. Equity Theory

Developed by: J. Stacy Adams

Core idea: People are motivated by fairness.

• Individuals compare their input/output ratio (effort vs. reward) to that of

others.
• If they perceive inequity, they may:
o Reduce effort. o Ask for a raise.
o Quit the job.
• Focuses on perceived fairness in the workplace.

5. Job Characteristics Model

Developed by: Hackman and Oldham

Core idea: Motivation is influenced by the nature of the job itself.

Five core job characteristics lead to higher motivation:

1. Skill variety
2. Task identity
3. Task significance
4. Autonomy
5. Feedback

These affect psychological states like:

• Experiencing meaningfulness.
• Feeling responsibility.
• Knowing the results of one’s work.

This leads to:

• Higher motivation
• Better performance
• Greater job satisfaction