EXTRUSION PROCESS:

➢ Extrusion is the process in which metal is caused to flow through a restricted orifice so
creating an extremely elongated strip of uniform, but comparatively small cross-section.
➢ It is also similar to cold drawing except that the material is pushed; not pulled, through the hole in
the die, and the operation is often carried out at high temperature.
➢ Metals that can be extruded include aluminium and its alloys, copper and its alloys, lead and its
alloys, magnesium and magnesium alloys, steel; tin and zinc and their alloys.
➢ The complexity of parts that can be obtained by extrusion is more than that of rolling, because the
die required being simple and easy to make. Also, extrusion is a single pass process unlike rolling.
➢ Extrusion ratio: It is defined as the ratio of cross-sectional area of the billet to the cross-sectional
area of the product. Its value for hot extrusion for steel is about 40: 1 and for aluminium as high as
400: 1.

Advantages:

i. Shapes can be extruded, those if produced by other methods shall entail more cost
comparatively.
ii. The extrusion dies are less expensive.
iii. The dimensional tolerances of extrusions are very good.
iv. Due to high reduction ratio the metal has excellent transverse flow lines.

Limitations:

i. As compared to roll forming extruding speed is slow.

ii. Costs of extrusion are generally greater as compared to other techniques.
iii. Process waste is higher in extrusion than in rolling.

Classification of Extrusion Processes:

1. Hot extrusion:

(i) Forward (or direct) extrusion.

(ii) Backward (or indirect) extrusion

2. Cold extrusion:

(i) Forward extrusion:

▪ Hydrostatic extrusion.

(ii) Backward extrusion:

▪ Impact extrusion

1
 ▪ Cold extrusion forging
❖ Hot Extrusion Processes:
1. Forward or direct extrusion process:

➢ In this process a billet (piece of metal worked to a suitable shape) of the material to be extruded
is placed in a container. At one end of the container is fixed a die while from the other end the
metal is forced to flow through the die by hydraulically driven ram through a follower pad.
➢ Much work must be supplied to overcome the resistance and high frictional forces between the
billet and wall of the container and to produce the re quired rate of deformation.
➢ The problem of friction is particularly severe in case of steels because of their higher extrusion
temperatures. To reduce this friction lubricants are to be used.
2. Backward or indirect extrusion

➢ In this process the metal is confined fully by the cylinder. The ram which houses the die is the
hollow plunger or ram. It is termed back ward or indirect or inverted because of the opposite
direction of the flow of metal to that of ram movement. Thus, the billet in the container remains
stationary and hence no friction.

2
 ➢ The surface quality achieved in generally good since there is no heat cracking due to the friction
between the billet and the extrusion cylinder interface.

❖ Cold Extrusion Processes:

1. Hooker extrusion

➢ In the Hooker or extrusion down method, a cup is first formed by a suitable working
operation; extrusion then consists of elongating and thinning the walls of cup, using
a shouldered punch and die as shown.
➢ This cold working process is commercially applied mainly for the production of
small, thin walled copper and aluminium seamless tubes and cartridge cases.

3
2. Hydrostatic extrusion

➢ Hydrostatic extrusion is an extrusion method in which the required pressure is

applied through a fluid medium surrounding the billet.
➢ Although the presence of fluid inside the extrusion chamber eliminates the container
wall friction, the process finds limited industrial application because of need for
specialised equipment and tooling and low production rate (high set-up time). It is
usually carried at room temperature.
➢ The pressure transmitting fluids commonly used for hydrostatic extrusion are :
Glycerine, Ethylgol, SAE 30 mineral lubricating oil, castor oil with 10% alcohol and
isopentane.
3. Impact extrusion

➢ This process is quite similar to Hooker process, but the flow of metal is in opposite
direction.
➢ In impact extrusion the punch descends at a high speed and strikes the blank (slug),
extruding it upward.
➢ This process is applied primarily to lead, aluminium, manganese, tin, zinc, and their
alloys.

4
4. Cold extrusion forging

➢ It is similar to impact extrusion but with the main difference that the side
walls are much thicker and their height is smaller.
➢ The punch slowly descends over the slug kept on the die, thus forging some
metal between the punch and the die and the rest being extruded through the
clearance between the punch and die side walls.
➢ The side walls thus generated are short and thick with any profile in the end
unlike the impact extension. Afterwards, the component is ejected by means
of the ejector pin provided in the die.

Extrusion Defects:

Following are the three principal defects in extrusion:

1. Extrusion defect

2. Surface cracking

3. Internal cracking

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WIRE AND BAR DRAWING:

➢ Drawing is an operation in which the cross section of a bar, rod, or wire is reduced by
pulling it through a die opening.
➢ The general features of the process are similar to those of extrusion. The difference is that
the work is pulled through the die in drawing, whereas it is pushed through the die in
extrusion.
➢ The basic difference between bar drawing and wire drawing is the stock size that is
processed. Bar drawing is the term used for large diameter bar and rod stock, while wire
drawing applies to small diameter stock. Wire sizes down to 0.03 mm are possible in wire
drawing. Although the mechanics of the process are the same for the two cases.
➢ The rods used for wire-drawing are first pickled in acid to remove any scale and then
electrically butt welded. The end of the rod is tapered sufficiently to fit the first dies by
passing it through a pointing machine.
➢ The rod is then fed into the wire drawing machine, which may be fitted with six or more
dies, through which the wire is drawn by means of number of power-driven pulleys or
rotating drums.
➢ Due to the great heat generated by the friction of the wire in the dies, both the dies and
drums are continuously cooled by circulating water through them.

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TUBE DRAWING

➢ Drawing can be used to reduce the diameter or wall thickness of seamless tubes and pipes,
after the initial tubing has been produced by some other process such as extrusion.
➢ Tube drawing can be carried out either with or without a mandrel. The simplest method
uses no mandrel and is used for diameter reduction.

➢ Method (a) is most commonly used. Fixed mandrel attached to a long support bar to
establish inside diameter and wall thickness during the operation.
➢ Method (b) uses a floating mandrel which adjusts itself to the correct position because of
its stepped contour.
➢ Method (c) is usually used for small-sized tubing.
➢ Method (d) uses no mandrel or rod & has little or no control over inside diameter.

TUBE MAKING (By Rotary Piercing)

➢ Here the material used is a hot steel billet.

➢ The billet is gripped between two rolls which spin at high speed .The spinning action tends
to open a hole or cavity in the axis of the billet.

7
 ➢ A plug or mandrel bar is pierced through the centre and a round hole is easily produced.
➢ Rotary piercing is an important method, the rough pierced blank being finished by plug
rolling over a mandrel between a pair of grooved rolls.
➢ For making tubes of large diameters the blanks are initially rough pierced and then given a
second larger piercing before being finally rolled.

METAL STAMPING AND FORMING

➢ Stamping is a general term for a number of operations such as punching, blanking,

shearing, bending and forming that are performed on a press with the use of dies.
➢ Stamping dies consist of punches, usually held in the upper half of the die, and matching
dies, which are normally located in the lower half.
➢ Press working may be defined as a chipless manufacturing process by which various
components are made from sheet metal.
➢ Sheet metalworking includes cutting and forming operations performed on relatively thin
sheets of metal. Typical sheet-metal thicknesses are between 0.4 mm and 6 mm.
➢ When thickness exceeds about 6 mm, the stock is usually referred to as plate rather than
sheet. The sheet or plate stock used in sheet metalworking is produced by flat rolling.
➢ In cold press working, the initial material is: Low carbon steels, ductile alloy steels, copper
and its alloys, aluminium and its alloys, as well as, other ductile materials from tenth of a
mm to about 6 mm or 8 mm thick.
➢ Sheet or plate metal parts: automobile and truck bodies, airplanes, railway cars,
locomotives, farm and construction equipment, appliances, office furniture, and more.
➢ Sheet-metal parts are generally characterized by high strength, good dimensional accuracy,
good surface fi nish, and relatively low cost.
➢ Sheet-metal processing is usually performed at room temperature (cold working). The
exceptions are when the stock is thick, the metal is brittle, or the deformation is significant.
These are usually cases of warm working rather than hot working.
➢ This process entails the following advantages:
(i) The weight of fabricated parts is small.
(ii) Items of diversified shapes, both simple and complex, such as washers, bushings,
retainers of ball bearings, etc. can be made easily.

8
 (iii) The parts made by cold sheet metal working have narrow tolerances with a high
surface finish (In several cases, they require no subsequent machining and are
delivered to the assembly shop directly).
(iv) The productivity of labour is quite high.

➢ Die sets. The punches are set in a punch holder and the dies in a die shoe as shown in
Fig. The two together are called a die set. The die set has guide pins (not shown) that
keep the upper and lower half in alignment, which facilitates die changing when changing
from one product to another.
➢ A punch and die for making small holes in sheet metal (punch holder not shown). A solid
stripper is used to pull the part off the punch on the upstroke of the press.
➢ The three major categories of sheet-metal processes are (1) cutting, (2) bending, and (3)

drawing. Cutting is used to separate large sheets into smaller pieces, to cut out part
perimeters, and to make holes in parts. Bending and drawing are used to form sheet-metal
parts into their required shapes.

Cutting Operations
➢ Cutting of sheet metal is accomplished by a shearing action between two sharp cutting
edges, in which the upper cutting edge (the punch) sweeps down past a stationary lower
cutting edge (the die). As the punch begins to push into the work, plastic deformation
occurs in the surfaces of the sheet. As the punch moves downward, penetration occurs

9
 in which the punch compresses the sheet and cuts into the metal. This penetration zone is
generally about one-third the thickness of the sheet. As the punch continues to travel into
the work, fracture is initiated in the work at the two cutting edges.

➢ If the clearance between the punch and die is correct, the two fracture lines meet, resulting
in a clean separation of the work into two pieces.
➢ The sheared edges of the sheet have characteristic features as in Figure. At the top of the
cut surface is a region called the rollover. This corresponds to the depression made by
the punch in the work prior to cutting. It is where initial plastic deformation occurred in
the work. Just below the rollover is a relatively smooth region called the burnish. This
results from penetration of the punch into the work before fracture began. Beneath the
burnish is the fractured zone, a relatively rough surface of the cut edge where continued
downward movement of the punch caused fracture of the metal. Finally, at the bottom of
the edge is a burr, a sharp corner on the edge caused by elongation of the metal during
fi- nal separation of the two pieces.

10
SHEARING, BLANKING, AND PUNCHING

➢ The three most important operations in pressworking that cut metal by the
shearing mechanism just described are shearing, blanking, and punching.
➢ Shearing is a sheet-metal cutting operation along a straight line between two
cutting edges, as shown in Figure 19.3(a). Shearing is typically used to cut
large sheets into smaller sections for subsequent pressworking operations. It
is performed on a machine called a power shears, or squaring shears. The
upper blade of the power shears is often inclined, as shown in Figure 19.3(b),
to reduce the required cutting force.

➢ Blanking involves cutting of the sheet metal along a closed outline in a

single step to separate the piece from the surrounding stock, The part that is
cut out is the desired product in the operation and is called the blank.

11
 ➢ Punching is similar to blanking except that it produces a hole, and the
separated piece is scrap, called the slug. The remaining stock is the desired
part.
➢ Process parameters in sheet-metal cutting are clearance between punch and
die, stock thickness, type of metal and its strength, and length of the cut.
➢ Clearance: The clearance c in a shearing operation is the distance between
the punch and die. Typical clearances in conventional press working range
between 4% and 8% of the sheet-metal thickness t.
➢ If the clearance is too small, then the fracture lines tend to pass each other,
causing a double burnishing and larger cutting forces.
➢ If the clearance is too large, the metal becomes pinched between the cutting
edges and an excessive burr results.
➢ In special operations requiring very straight edges, such as shaving and fine
blanking, clearance is only about 1% of stock thickness.
➢ The correct clearance depends on sheet-metal type and thickness. The
recommended clearance can be calculated by the following formula:

where c=clearance, mm; Ac=clearance allowance; and t = stock thickness, mm

➢ These calculated clearance values can be applied to conventional

blanking and hole-punching operations to determine the proper punch
and die sizes. The die opening must always be larger than the punch size
(obviously). Whether to add the clearance value to the die size or subtract
it from the punch size depends on whether the part being cut out is a blank
or a slug.

12
 ➢ Thus, punch & die sizes for a round blank of diameter Db are determined
as
Blanking punch diameter= Db-2c
Blanking die diameter=Db
➢ Punch and die sizes for a round hole of diameter Dh are determined as:
Hole punch diameter= Dh
Hole die diameter= Dh-2c
➢ In order for the slug or blank to drop through the die, the die opening
must have an angular clearance of 0.25° to 1.5° on each side.

13
 ➢ Cutting Forces Estimates of cutting force are important because this
force deter mines the size (tonnage) of the press needed. Cutting force F
in sheet metalworking can be determined by

where S=shear strength of the sheet metal, MPa t=stock thickness,mm

and L length of the cut edge, mm.
➢ In blanking, punching, slotting, and similar operations, L is the perimeter
length of the blank or hole being cut. The minor effect of clearance in
determining the value of L can be neglected.
➢ If shear strength is unknown, an alternative way of estimating the cutting
force is to use the tensile strength:

where TS ultimate tensile strength MPa

14
OTHER SHEET-METAL CUTTING OPERATIONS

Cutoff and Parting:

➢ Cutoff is a shearing operation in which blanks are separated from a sheet-metal strip
by cutting the opposite sides of the part in sequence, as shown in Figure (a). With each
cut, a new part is produced. The features of a cutoff operation that distinguish it from
a conventional shearing operation are (1) the cut edges are not necessarily straight, and
(2) the blanks can be nested on the strip in such a way that scrap is avoided.

➢ Parting involves cutting a sheet-metal strip by a punch with two cutting

edges that match the opposite sides of the blank, as shown in Figure (b).
This might be required because the part outline has an irregular shape that
precludes perfect nesting of the blanks on the strip. Parting is less efficient
than cutoff in the sense that it results in some wasted material.

Slotting, Perforating, and Notching

➢ Slotting is the term sometimes used for a punching operation that cuts out an elongated
or rectangular hole, as pictured in Figure (a).

15
 ➢ Perforating involves the simultaneous punching of a pattern of holes in sheet metal,
as in Figure (b). The hole pattern is usually for decorative purposes, or to allow passage
of light, gas, or fluid.

➢ To obtain the desired outline of a blank, portions of the sheet metal are often removed
by notching and seminotching.
➢ Notching involves cutting out a portion of metal from the side of the sheet or strip.
➢ Seminotching removes a portion of metal from the interior of the sheet. These
operations are depicted in Figure (c).
➢ Semi notching might seem to the reader to be the same as a punching or slotting
operation. The difference is that the metal removed by seminotching creates part of
the blank outline, while punching and slotting create holes in the blank.

Trimming, Shaving, and Fine Blanking

➢ Trimming is a cutting operation per formed on a formed part to remove excess

metal and establish size.

16
 ➢ Shaving is a shearing operation performed with very small clearance to obtain
accurate dimensions and cut edges that are smooth and straight, as pictured in Figure
(a). Shaving is typically performed as a secondary or finishing operation on parts that
have been previously cut.
➢ Fine blanking is a shearing operation used to blank sheet-metal parts with close
tolerances and smooth, straight edges in one step, as illustrated in Figure (b).

Bending Operations

➢ Bending in sheet-metal work is defined as the straining of the metal around a straight
axis, as in Figure. During the bending operation, the metal on the inside of the neutral
plane is compressed, while the metal on the outside of the neutral plane is stretched.
These strain conditions can be seen in Figure (b).
➢ The metal is plastically deformed so that the bend takes a permanent set upon removal
of the stresses that caused it. Bending produces little or no change in the thickness of
the sheet metal.

V-BENDING AND EDGE BENDING

➢ Bending operations are performed using punch and die tooling. The two common
bending methods and associated tooling are V-bending, performed with a V-die; and
edge bending, performed with a wiping die.
➢ In V-bending, the sheet metal is bent between a V-shaped punch and die. Included
angles ranging from very obtuse to very acute can be made with V-dies. V-bending is
generally used for low-production operations. V-dies are relatively simple and
inexpensive.

17
 ➢ Edge bending involves cantilever loading of the sheet metal. A pressure pad is used to
apply a force Fh to hold the base of the part against the die, while the punch forces the
part to yield and bend over the edge of the die.
➢ In the setup shown in Figure (b), edge bending is limited to bends of 90° or less. More
complicated wiping dies can be designed for bend angles greater than 90°. Because of
the pressure pad, wiping dies are more complicated and costly than V-dies and are
generally used for high-production work.

➢ Bend Allowance If the bend radius is small relative to stock thickness, the metal tends
to stretch during bending. It is important to be able to estimate the amount of stretching
that occurs, if any, so that the final part length will match the specified dimension. The
problem is to determine the length of the neutral axis before bending to account for
stretching of the final bent section. This length is called the bend allowance, and it can
be estimated as follows:

where Ab=bend allowance, mm; =bend angle, degrees; R=bend radius, mm; t=stock thickness,
mm; and Kba is factor to estimate stretching. The following design values are recommended for
Kba [3]: if R<2t, Kba =0.33; and if R>2t, Kba =0.50. The values of Kba predict that stretching
occurs only if bend radius is small relative to sheet thickness.

Springback When the bending pressure is removed at the end of the deformation operation,
elastic energy remains in the bent part, causing it to recover partially toward its original shape.
This elastic recovery is called springback, defined as the increase in included angle of the bent

18
part relative to the included angle of the forming tool after the tool is removed. This is illustrated
in Figure and is expressed:

where SB =springback; alpha=included angle of the sheet-metal part, degrees; and alphab=
included angle of the bending tool, degrees. The amount of spring back increases with modulus
of elasticity E and yield strength Y of the work metal.

➢ Compensation for springback can be accomplished by several methods. Two common

methods are overbending and bottoming. In overbending, the punch angle and radius
are fabricated slightly smaller than the specified angle on the final part so that the sheet
metal springs back to the desired value. Bottoming involves squeezing the part at the
end of the stroke, thus plastically deforming it in the bend region.

➢ Bending Force The force required to perform bending depends on the geometry of the
punch-and-die and the strength, thickness, and length of the sheet metal. The maximum
bending force can be estimated by means of the following equation:

where F bending force, N; TS=tensile strength of the sheet metal, MPa; w=width of part in the
direction of the bend axis, mm ; t=stock thickness, mm; and D=die opening dimension, mm,

19
 Kbf is a constant that accounts for differences encountered in an actual bending process. Its
value depends on type of bending: for V-bending, Kbf =1.33; and for edge bending, Kbf =0.33.

OTHER BENDING AND FORMING OPERATIONS

Flanging, Hemming, Seaming, and Curling

➢ Flanging is a bending operation in which the edge of a sheet-metal part is bent at a 90°
angle (usually) to form a rim or flange. It is often used to strengthen or stiffen sheet
metal. The flange can be formed over a straight bend axis, as illustrated in Figure or it
can involve some stretching or shrinking of the metal, as in (b) and (c).
➢ Hemming involves bending the edge of the sheet over on itself, in more than one
bending step. This is often done to eliminate the sharp edge on the piece, to increase
stiffness, and to improve appearance.

20
 ➢ Seaming is a related operation in which two sheet-metal edges are assembled. Hemming
and seaming are illustrated in Figure(a) and (b).
➢ Curling, also called beading, forms the edges of the part into a roll or curl, as in Figure
(c). As in hemming, it is done for purposes of safety, strength, and aesthetics. Examples
of products in which curling is used include hinges, pots and pans, and pocket-watch
cases. These examples show that curling can be performed over straight or curved bend
axes.

21
DRAWING

➢ Drawing is a sheet-metal-forming operation used to make cup-shaped, box-shaped,

or other complex-curved and concave parts.
➢ It is performed by placing a piece of sheet metal over a die cavity and then pushing
the metal into the opening with a punch.
➢ The blank must usually be held down flat against the die by a blankholder. Common
parts made by drawing include beverage cans, ammunition shells, sinks, cooking
pots, and automobile body panels.

22
 ➢ Drawing of a cup-shaped part is the basic drawing operation, with dimensions and
parameters as pictured in Figure. A blank of diameter Db is drawn into a die cavity
by means of a punch with diameter Dp. The punch and die must have corner radii,
given by Rp and Rd. If the punch and die were to have sharp corners (Rp and Rd=0),
a hole-punching operation (and not a very good one) would be accomplished rather
than a drawing operation. The sides of the punch and die are separated by a clearance
c. This clearance in drawing is about 10% greater than the stock thickness:
c =1.1 t
➢ The punch applies a downward force F to accomplish the deformation of the metal,
and a downward holding force Fh is applied by the blankholder, as shown in the
sketch.
➢ As the punch proceeds downward toward its final bottom position, the work ex-
periences a complex sequence of stresses and strains as it is gradually formed into
the shape defi ned by the punch and die cavity. The stages in the deformation process
are illustrated in Figure 19.20.
➢ As the punch first begins to push into the work, the metal is subjected to a bending
operation. The sheet is simply bent over the corner of the punch and the corner of
the die, as in Figure 19.20(2). The outside perimeter of the blank moves in toward
the center in this first stage, but only slightly.
➢ As the punch moves further down, a straightening action occurs in the metal that
was previously bent over the die radius, as in Figure 19.20(3).
➢ The metal at the bottom of the cup, as well as along the punch radius, has been
moved downward with the punch, but the metal that was bent over the die radius
must now be straightened in order to be pulled into the clearance to form the wall of
the cylinder. At the same time, more metal must be added to replace that being used
in the cylinder wall. This new metal comes from the outside edge of the blank.
➢ The metal in the outer portions of the blank is pulled or drawn toward the die
opening to resupply the previously bent and straightened metal now forming the
cylinder wall. This type of metal flow through a constricted space gives the drawing
process its name.
➢ During this stage of the process, friction and compression play important roles in
the flange of the blank. In order for the material in the flange to move toward the
die opening, friction between the sheet metal and the surfaces of the blankholder

23
 and the die must be overcome. Initially, static friction is involved until the metal
starts to slide; then, after metal flow begins, dynamic friction governs the process.

OTHER DRAWING OPERATIONS

➢ Redrawing If the shape change required by the part design is too severe (drawing ratio is
too high), complete forming of the part may require more than one drawing step. The second
drawing step, and any further drawing steps if needed, are referred to as redrawing. A
redrawing operation is illustrated in Figure

24
 ➢ When the part design indicates a drawing ratio that is too large to form the part in a single
step, the following is a general guide to the amount of reduction that can be taken in each
drawing operation [10]: For the first draw, the maximum reduction of the starting blank
should be 40% to 45%; for the second draw (first redraw), the maximum reduction should
be 30%; and for the third draw (second redraw), the maximum reduction should be 16%.
➢ A related operation is reverse drawing, in which a drawn part is positioned face down on
the die so that the second drawing operation produces a configuration such as that shown
in Figure 19.22. Although it may seem that reverse drawing would produce a more severe
deformation than redrawing, it is actually easier on the metal.

Other Sheet-Metal-Forming Operations

➢ In addition to bending and drawing, several other sheet-metal forming operations can be
accomplished on conventional presses. These are classified as (1) operations per formed
with metal tooling and (2) operations performed with flexible rubber tooling.
➢ Operations performed with metal tooling include (1) ironing, (2) coining and em bossing,
(3) lancing, and (4) twisting.
1. Ironing In deep drawing the flange is compressed by the squeezing action of the
blank perimeter seeking a smaller circumference as it is drawn toward the die open-
ing. Because of this compression, the sheet metal near the outer edge of the blank
becomes thicker as it moves inward. If the thickness of this stock is greater than the

25
 clearance between the punch and die, it will be squeezed to the size of the clearance,
a process known as ironing.

2. Coining and Embossing

➢ Coining is a bulk deformation operation frequently used in sheet-metal work to
form indentations and raised sections in the part. The indentations result in thinning
of the sheet metal, and the raised sections result in thickening of the metal.
➢ Embossing is a forming operation used to create indentations in the sheet, such as
raised (or indented) lettering or strengthening ribs, as depicted in Figure. Some
stretching and thinning of the metal are involved. This operation may seem similar
to coining. However, embossing dies possess matching cavity contours, the punch
containing the positive contour and the die containing the negative; whereas
coining dies may have quite different cavities in the two die halves, thus causing
more significant metal deformation than embossing.

26
 3. Lancing: Lancing is a combined cutting and bending or cutting and forming opera-
tion performed in one step to partially separate the metal from the sheet. Several ex-
amples are shown in Figure. Among other applications, lancing is used to make
louvers in sheet-metal air vents for heating and air conditioning systems in
buildings.

4. Twisting: Twisting subjects the sheet metal to a torsion loading rather than a bend-
ing load, thus causing a twist in the sheet over its length. This type of operation has
limited applications. It is used to make such products as fan and propeller blades. It
can be performed in a conventional punch and die which has been designed to
deform the part in the required twist shape.

RUBBER FORMING PROCESSES

➢ The two operations discussed in this article are performed on conventional presses, but the
tooling is unusual in that it uses a flexible element (made of rubber or similar material) to
effect the forming operation. The operations are (1) the Guerin process, and (2)
hydroforming.

27
Dies and Presses for Sheet-Metal Processes

Components of a Stamping Die

➢ The components of a stamping die to perform a simple blanking operation are illustrated in
Figure 19.30. The working components are the punch and die, which perform the cutting
operation. They are attached to he upper and lower portions of the die set, respectively
called the punch holder (or upper shoe) and die holder (lower shoe). The die set also
includes guide pins and bushings to ensure proper alignment between the punch and die
during the stamping operation. The die holder is attached to the base of the press, and the
punch holder is attached to the ram. Actuation of the ram accomplishes the pressworking
operation. In addition to these components, a die used for blanking or hole-punching must
include a means of preventing the sheet metal from sticking to the punch when it is retracted
upward after the operation. The newly created hole in the stock is the same size as the
punch, and it tends to cling to the punch on its withdrawal. The device in the die that strips
the sheet metal from the punch is called a stripper. It is often a simple plate attached to the
die as in Figure 19.30, with a hole slightly larger than the punch diameter. For dies that
process strips or coils of sheet metal, a device is required to stop the sheet metal as it
advances through the die between press cycles. That device is called (try to guess) a stop.
Stops range from simple solid pins located in the path of the strip to block its forward
motion, to more complex mechanisms synchronized to rise and retract with the actuation
of the press. The simpler stop is shown in Figure 19.30. There are other components in
pressworking dies, but the preceding description provides an introduction to the
terminology.

28
Types of Stamping Dies Aside from differences in stamping dies related to the operations they
perform (e.g., cutting, bending, drawing), other differences deal with the number of separate
operations to be performed in each press actuation and how they are accomplished. The type of die
considered above performs a single blanking operation with each stroke of the press and is called
a simple die. Other dies that perform a single opera tion include V-dies (Section 19.2.1). More
complicated pressworking dies include compound dies, combination dies, and progressive dies. A
compound die performs two operations at a single station, such as blanking and punching, or
blanking and drawing [2]. A good example is a compound die that blanks and punches a washer.
A combination die is less common; it performs two operations at two different sta tions in the die.
Examples of applications include blanking two different parts (e.g., right-hand and left-hand parts),
or blanking and then bending the same part [2].

A progressive die performs two or more operations on a sheet-metal coil at two or more stations
with each press stroke. The part is fabricated progressively. The coil is fed from one station to the
next and different operations (e.g., punching, notching, bending, and blanking) are performed at
each station. When the part exits the fi nal station it has been completed and separated (cut) from
the remaining coil. Design of a progressive die begins with the layout of the part on the strip or coil
and the deter mination of which operations are to be performed at each station. The result of this
procedure is called the strip development. A progressive die and associated strip de velopment are
illustrated in Figure 19.31. Progressive dies can have a dozen or more stations. They are the most
complicated and most costly stamping dies, economically justifi ed only for complex parts
requiring multiple operations at high-production rates.

PRESSES

➢ A press used for sheet metalworking is a machine tool with a stationary bed and a powered
ram (or slide) that can be driven toward and away from the bed to perform various cutting
and forming operations. A typical press, with principal components labeled, is diagrammed
in Figure 19.32. The relative positions of the bed and ram are established by the frame, and
the ram is driven by mechanical or hydraulic power. When a die is mounted in the press,

29
 the punch holder is attached to the ram, and the die holder is attached to a bolster plate of
the press bed. Presses are available in a variety of capacities, power systems, and frame
types. The capacity of a press is its ability to deliver the required force and energy to
accomplish the stamping operation. This is determined by the physical size of the press and
by its power system. The power system refers to whether mechanical or hydraulic power is
used and the type of drive used to transmit the power to the ram. Production rate is another
important aspect of capacity. Type of frame refers to the physical construction of the press.
There are two frame types in common use: gap frame and straight-sided frame.
1. Gas frame presses
2. Straight-sided Frame Presses

Sheet-Metal Operations Not Performed on Presses

➢ A number of sheet-metal operations are not performed on conventional stamping presses.

This section examines several of these processes: (1) stretch forming, (2) roll bending and
forming, (3) spinning, and (4) high-energy-rate forming processes.

STRETCH FORMING
➢ Stretch forming is a sheet-metal deformation process in which the sheet metal is
intentionally stretched and simultaneously bent in order to achieve shape change. The
process is illustrated in Figure 19.39 for a relatively simple and gradual bend. The work
part is gripped by one or more jaws on each end and then stretched and bent over a positive
die containing the desired form. The metal is stressed in tension to a level above its yield
point. When the tension loading is released, the metal has been plastically deformed. The
combination of stretching and bending results in relatively little springback in the part.

30
ROLL BENDING AND ROLL FORMING

➢ The operations described in this section use rolls to form sheet metal. Roll bending is an
operation in which (usually) large sheet-metal or plate-metal parts are formed into curved
sections by means of rolls. One possible arrangement of the rolls is pictured in Figure 19.40.
As the sheet passes between the rolls, the rolls are brought toward each other to a
configuration that achieves the desired radius of curvature on the work. Components for
large storage tanks and pressure vessels are fabricated by roll bending. The operation can
also be used to bend structural shapes, railroad rails, and tubes.

➢ Roll forming (also called contour roll forming) is a continuous bending proc ess in which
opposing rolls are used to produce long sections of formed shapes from coil or strip stock.
Several pairs of rolls are usually required to progressively accomplish the bending of the
stock into the desired shape. The process is illustrated in Figure 19.41 for a U-shaped
section. Products made by roll forming include channels, gutters, metal siding sections (for
homes), pipes and tubing with seams, and various structural sections. Although roll forming
has the general appearance of a rolling operation (and the tooling certainly looks similar),
the difference is that roll forming involves bending rather than compressing the work.

31
 SPINNING
➢ Spinning is a metal-forming process in which an axially symmetric part is gradually shaped
over a mandrel or form by means of a rounded tool or roller. The tool or roller applies a
very localized pressure (almost a point contact) to deform the work by axial and radial
motions over the surface of the part. Basic geometric shapes typically produced by spinning
include cups, cones, hemispheres, and tubes. There are three types of spinning operations:
(1) conventional spinning, (2) shear spinning, and (3) tube spinning
1. Conventional Spinning Conventional spinning is the basic spinning operation. As
illustrated in Figure 19.42, a sheet-metal disk is held against the end of a rotating
mandrel of the desired inside shape of the final part, while the tool or roller deforms
the metal against the mandrel. In some cases, the starting work part is other than a f
l at disk. The process requires a series of steps, as indicated in the figure, to complete
the shaping of the part. The tool position is controlled either by a human operator,
using a fixed fulcrum to achieve the required leverage, or by an automatic method
such as numerical control. These alternatives are manual spinning and power spin-
ning. Power spinning has the capability to apply higher forces to the operation, re-
sulting in faster cycle times and greater work size capacity. It also achieves better
process control than manual spinning.

2. Shear Spinning In shear spinning, the part is formed over the mandrel by a shear
deformation process in which the outside diameter remains constant and the wall
thickness is therefore reduced, as in Figure 19.43. This shear straining (and conse
quent thinning of the metal) distinguishes this process from the bending action in

32
 conventional spinning. Several other names have been used for shear spinning, in
cluding fl ow turning, shear forming, and spin forging.

3. Tube Spinning Tube spinning is used to reduce the wall thickness and increase the
length of a tube by means of a roller applied to the work over a cylindrical mandrel,
as in Figure 19.44. Tube spinning is similar to shear spinning except that the starting
workpiece is a tube rather than a flat disk. The operation can be performed by apply
ing the roller against the work externally (using a cylindrical mandrel on the inside
of the tube) or internally (using a die to surround the tube). It is also possible to form
profiles in the walls of the cylinder, as in Figure 19.44(c), by controlling the path of
the roller as it moves tangentially along the wall.

33
 POWDER MATALLURGY

➢ Powder metallurgy is defined as the art of making objects by the heat treatment of
compressed metallic powders.
➢ ‘‘Powder metallurgy’’ includes the blending and mixing of powders, pressing or compact-
ing powder into an appropriate shape, sintering the pressed-powder compact, and perhaps
final sizing or finishing of the product to meet specified dimensional tolerances.
➢ The process is applicable to a single metal powder, to mixtures of metals and non-metals.
The operation of pressing may be carried out at ordinary or elevated temperatures
depending upon the composition and properties desired in the product.

Advantages: The advantages of powder metallurgy are:

1. Such parts which have special properties can be produced which otherwise cannot be
obtained.
2. Machining operations are eliminated.
3. Scrap losses are reduced and often results in lower unit cost for a given part in compare-
son to any other production method.
4. Metals and alloys can be mixed together in any proportion which is difficult and some
times not possible by melting.
5. Metals and non-metals can be mixed together in any proportion.
6. There is better control of composition and structure of the component by this process.
7. Articles of any desired porosity can be manufactured.
8. Super-hard cutting bits, which can never be manufactured by any other methods are made
by powder metallurgy, e.g., sintered carbides, satellites.
9. This process is suitable for mass production because the stroke of the pressing or com-
pacting consists of a press at a speed of 60 strokes/minute.
[Link] process is very economical and the loss of material is lesser as compared to other
processes.
Disadvantages:
1. Owing to the fairly high compacting pressures required to press the powder, the wear
on the dies is high.
2. Due to high rate of wear of dies, high costs for dies and presses the method is rendered
uneconomical particularly for small runs.

34
 3. Since the compacted parts must be ejected from the die without fracture, therefore, the
shapes that may be made by this method are limited.
4. Equipment’s required are very costly.
5. The physical properties obtained by this process are lower than those obtained by other
processes.
6. The intricate shapes cannot be made by compacting since metal powders cannot flow
like fluid under compact load.
7. The products are of small size because for large size bigger equipment’s and tools would
be necessary involving very heavy investment.
8. Many metal powders are explosive at room temperature.

MANUFACTURE OF PARTS BY POWDER METALLURGY

The manufacture of parts by powder metallurgy involve the following steps :

1. Production of metal powders.

2. Blending powders.

3. Pressing or compacting of metal powders.

4. Sintering.

5. Finishing operations.

1. Production of Metal Powders

1. Atomising process. In this process the molten metal is forced through an orifice
into a stream of high-velocity air, steam or inert gas. This causes extremely rapid
cooling and disintegration into a very fine powder. The use of this process is
usually limited to metals with low melting point.
2. Gaseous reduction. This process consists of grinding the metallic oxide to a
finely divided state and then reducing it by hydrogen or carbon monoxide. It is
employed for metals such as iron, tungsten and copper (whose melting points are
near or above 1100°C).
3. Electrolysis process. In this process of producing powders the conditions of
electrode position are controlled in such a way that a soft spongy deposit is

35
 formed; which is then pulverised to form the powder. The particle size can be
varied over a wide range by varying the electrolyte composition and various
electrical parameters. The powders of copper, iron and other metals are made by
this process.
4. Carbonyl process. This process is based upon the fact that a number of metals
can react with carbon monoxide to form what are known as carbonyls. For
example, the iron carbonyl is made from iron reduced from ferric oxide. Carbon
monoxide at a pressure of 48–200 bar is then passed over heated iron. The
resulting carbonyl is decomposed by heating to a temperature of 200°C to 300°C.
This process yields powders of high purity but entails a heavy cost.
5. Stamp and ball mills. These are mechanical methods which produce a relatively
coarse powder. The ball mill is employed for brittle materials while stamp mill
for more ductile materials. The cost is usually high, and the powders produced by
these methods are usually treated to remove the cold work-hardening received in
the process.
6. Granulation process. This process consists in the formation of an oxide film on
indi- vidual particles when a bath of metal is stirred in contact with air. This
process produces a relatively coarse powder with a high percentage of oxide.
7. Mechanical alloying. In this method, powders of two or more pure metals are
mixed in a ball mill. Under the impact of the hard balls, the powders repeatedly
fracture and weld together by diffusion, forming alloy powders.
8. Other methods. Other, less commonly used methods include :
(i) Precipitation from a chemical solution.
(ii) Production of fine metals by machining.
(iii) Vapour condensation.
2. Blending of Metal Powders
The process of blending (mixing) powders is carried out for the following purposes:
(i) To obtain uniformity (since the powders made by various processes may have
different sizes and shapes).
(ii) To impart special physical and mechanical properties and characteristics to the
powder metallurgy product.
(iii) Addition of lubricants (e.g., stearic acid, zinc stearate in proportion of 0.25 to
0.5% by weight) to the powders improve the flow characteristics of the powders.

36
 Such blends result in reduced friction between the metal particles, improved flow
of powder metals into the dies, and longer die life.
3. Pressing or Compaction of Metal Powders
• The principal object of pressing or compacting is to effect cold-pressure welds
between the particles so that some cohesion is conferred, this is usually measured by
the strength of the green compact and is termed the green strength.
• Compacting exercises the following effects:
(i) Reduces voids between powder particles and increases density of the compact.
(ii) Produces adhesion and cold welding of the powder and sufficient green strength.
(iii) Plastically deforms the powder to allow recrystallisation during subsequent
heating.
(iv) Plastically deforms the powder to increase the contact areas between the powder
particles, increasing green strength and facilitating subsequent sintering.
• Pressing or compacting is carried out by pouring a measured amount of the metal
powder into the die cavity and then compacting the metal powder into coherent mass
by means of one or more plungers (Fig. 4.1). Compressing from both top and bottom
(Fig. 4.2) of the compact is better than compressing from the top only (Fig. 4.1), as
pressure distribution and porosity distribution are more uniform.
• The compacting pressure required depends on the characteristics and shape of the
particles, the methods of blending, and the lubrication. The pressure required for
pressing metal powders range from 70 MN/m2 for aluminium to 800 MN/m2 for
high-density iron parts.

37
4. Sintering
• Sintering means the heating of pressed compact to below the melting temperature
of any constituent of the compact, or atleast below the melting temperature of all
principal constituents of the compact. Such heating facilitates bonding action
between the individual powder particles and increases the strength of the compact.
Heating is carried out in a controlled, inert or reducing atmosphere, or in vacuum to
prevent oxidation.
• Prior to sintering, the compact is brittle, and its strength, known as green strength is
low. The nature and strength of the bond between the particles, and hence of sintered
product, depend on the mechanism of diffusion plastic flow, evaporation of volatile
materials in the compact, recrystallization, grain growth, and pure shrinkage.
• During the sintering process bonding of the individual powder particles takes places
in any of the following three ways:
(i) Melting of a minor constituent ;
(ii) Diffusion ;
(iii) Mechanical bonding.
• The important factors which control sintering are : (a) temperature, (b) time, and (c)
furnace atmosphere. The sintering temperatures used vary with the compressive
loads used, the type of powders, and strength required of the finished part.
• Aluminium and aluminium alloys can be sintered at temperatures from 350° to
500°C for periods upto 24 hours.
• Copper and copper alloys can be sintered at temperatures ranging from 700°C to
temperatures that may melt one of the constituent metals.
• Compacts of iron powders are usually sintered at temperatures from 1000°C to
1200°C for approximately half an hour.
• During sintering, ordinarily, the density of the compact is increased and shrinkage
results. Shrinkage fills the holes within the compact, increases the areas of contact
and reduces the size of the holes in the compact. Shrinkage can be controlled by
careful selection of the metal powder and determination of the correct pressure for
cold forming.
5. Finishing Operations
After sintering, the following additional operations may be carried out to further improve
the properties of powder metallurgy products :

38
 (i) Re-pressing. The purpose of this operation (also called coining and sizing) is to
impart dimensional accuracy to the sintered part and to improve the part’s
strength and sur face finish by additional densification.
(ii) Forging. This process involves the use of unsintered or sintered alloy-powder
preforms that are subsequently hot forged in heated, confined dies to the desired
final shapes; the preforms may also be shaped by impact forging. The process is
usually referred to as powder-metallurgy forging, and when the preform is
sintered, the process is usually referred to as sinter forging.
(iii) Infiltration. In this process a metal slug with a lower melting point than that of
the part is placed against the sintered part, and the assembly is heated to a
temperature sufficient to melt the slug. The molten metal infiltrates the pores by
capillary action, resulting in a relatively pore-free part with good density and
strength.
(iv) Powdered-metal parts may be subjected to other operations including heat
treating, machining and finishing.

39
 Processing of Plastics
➢ A plastic is defined as any non-metallic material that can be moulded to shape.
➢ The most common definition for plastics is that they are natural or synthetic resins, or
their compounds, which can be moulded, extended, cast or used as films or coatings.
➢ Most of the plastics are of organic nature composed of hydrogen, oxygen, carbon and
nitrogen.
➢ Classification of Plastics:-
1. Thermoplastic:
➢ The plastics which soften on the application of heat with or without pressure, but
require cooling to set them to shape are called thermoplastic materials.
➢ These can be heated and cooled any number of times, only they should not be heated
above their decomposition temperatures.
➢ They are highly plastic and are easy for moulding or shaping.
➢ They have low melting temperatures and not so strong as the thermosetting plastics.
➢ Important Thermoplastic materials are:
Polyethylene or polythene, Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), Polypropylene (PP), Teflon or
polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), Polystyrene, Acrylics (Polymethyl methacrylate
PMMA), ABS (Acrylonitric butadiene styrene), Silicones, Silicones, Polyamides,
Bitumen.
2. Thermosetting
➢ The plastics which require heat and pressure to mould them into shape are called
thermosetting materials.
➢ They cannot be resoftened once they have set and hardened.
➢ They are ideal for moulding into components which require rigidity, strength and some
resistance to heat.
➢ Important thermosetting materials are :
(i) Phenol formaldehyde (PF)—‘‘Bakelite’’
(ii) Amine formaldehyde (Urea and melamine formaldehyde)
(iii) Polysters (unsaturated)
(iv) Epoxy resins (epoxies).
Difference between thermoplastic and thermosetting materials:
➢ The difference between thermoplastic and thermosetting materials may be explained
in terms of molecular structure:

40
 ➢ The ‘‘thermoplastics’’ are essentially long chain macromolecules with a limited
number of cross links. When heated and compressed, the chains glide over each other
and fluid materials take the shape of any mould in which they are placed.
➢ The ‘‘thermosetting plastics’’ are characterised by strong cross-links between the
chains; once these are formed by heat and pressure, the plastics set to a rigid infusible
solid.
➢ Fig represents the two structures where R stands for monomer unit.

41
Characteristics/Properties of Plastics

The properties of plastics vary with the molecular structure, degree of

polymerisation, etc., some of the properties are described below:
1. Specific gravity: Plastics are generally light having specific gravity between 0.9
to 3.0 compared to 3.0 to 12.00 for metals. However, their strength/weight ratio
compares favourably with many light alloys.
2. Specific heat: Specific heat is the heat necessary to raise the temperature of 1 kg
substance by 1 K. The specific heat of plastics varies between 200 to 800 J/kg/K
as against 400 J/kg/K for steel.
3. Thermal conductivity: Plastics have comparatively low thermal conductivity,
hence they are good thermal insulating materials particularly expanded or cellular
polymers.
4. Thermal expansion: Thermal expansion of plastics is very high (approx. five
times thermal expansion of aluminium and other metals) which is the main
disadvantages associated with the plastics.
5. Electrical properties: Plastics are good electrical insulators. However, their
usefulness is limited by their low heat resistance and softness. Also they can
acquire electrostatic charges and may cause sparking which is potential fire
hazard.
6. Corrosion resistance: Plastics are generally resistant to most inorganic chemicals,
weathering and soil. How ever, most plastics become brittle and yellow when
exposed to sunlight for long duration. Plastics are resistant to attack by oils and
greases, hence superior to rubber.
7. Combustibility: Plastics are combustible because of presence of carbon. The
maximum service temperature is about 100°C.
8. Rigidity : Plastics have low rigidity compared to other materials, since they have
low modulus of rigidity. However, this property can be improved by addition of
fillers such as glass fibres.

Compounding Materials:

In order to obtain the desired plastics certain materials are added with polymers
(resins) to reduce the cost or to enhance mechanical properties. These materials
are described below:

42
 1. Binders:
➢ The main purpose of binders is to hold other constituents of the plastic together, as
the name implies.
➢ A binder may compose of 30–100 percent of the plastic.
➢ The binders may be synthetic or natural resins. Thus, resins are the basic binding
materials in the plastic.
➢ On the basis of the type of resin used in preparation, the plastic itself is called
thermoplastic or thermosetting plastic.
2. Fillers:
➢ Fillers are added to reduce the cost and enhance the strength and hardness of plastics.
➢ These may be fibrous type like asbestos, glass fibre, mica etc., or non-fibrous type,
e.g., china clay, carbon black, talc, zinc oxide, calcium carbonate. Quartz and mica
are used to improve hardness.
➢ Inorganic fillers like asbestos are added to improve heat and corrosion resistance,
shredded textiles are used to increase impact strength and so on.
➢ The proportion of the filler added can be as high as 50 percent of the plastic.
3. Plasticisers:
➢ Low molecular weight (approx. 300) materials blended with polymers are called
plasticisers.
➢ These are added to improve flexibility and processing of plastic articles, and to
reduce the temperature and pressure required for moulding. However, a plasticiser
may reduce the tensile strength and chemical resistance of plastics.
➢ Some of the plastics are: Polyesters, epoxies, nitrile rubbers. These are normally
chemically inert, non-volatile and non-toxic.
➢ The percentage of plasticisers can be as high as 60 percent of the plastic.
4. Blending:
➢ ‘‘Blending’’ or alloying’’ is combining of two or more distinct polymer molecules
to form a new product with different characteristics.
5. Stabilisers:
➢ The stabilisers are added to minimise the effect of heat, sunlight, ozone.
➢ White lead, barium, cadmium laurate are examples of stabilisers.
6. Colouring agents (pigments):
➢ These are added to give desired colour to plastics.

43
 ➢ Some of the colouring agents are : Zinc oxide, white lead, titanium dioxide, dyes.

Fiber Glass Reinforced Plastics

➢ The fiber glass reinforced plastic (or FRP) is formed by using two materials in
conjunction with each other to form a composite material of altogether different
properties.
➢ In FRP, the glass fibers provide stiffness and strength while resin provides a matrix
to transfer load to the fibers.

Trade Names and Typical Applications of Some Important Plastics

44
PROCESSING OF PLASTICS

Properties of plastics materials substantially differ from those of metals and hence their processing
also differs. Plastic components are generally fabricated by a single operation rather than a
sequence of operations as in the case of metals.

➢ With plastics, large and complex shapes can be formed as a single unit, thus eliminat ing
various complicated assembly operations.
➢ Plastic fabrication processes often provide the required surface finish and precision
eliminating the need for additional finishing operations.
➢ Plastics are, however, inferior to metals from the point of view of their mechanical
properties.
➢ Most of the plastics are prone to dimensional instability with substantial creep and cold
flow at all temperatures.
➢ Some plastics get affected by moisture.
➢ Operating temperature of most of the plastic materials is low, generally ranging from 65°C
to 315°C, which is considerably lower than the operating temperature of metals.
➢ Rigidity and fatigue strength of plastics are also substantially lower than most of metals.
➢ All plastic forming and shaping processes require heating plastic so that it flows. This liquid
plastic or polymer melt has two important properties namely ‘Viscosity’ and
‘Viscoelasticity’ which are important for forming and shaping of plastics.
➢ ‘‘Viscosity’’ is defined as resistance to flow and is a measure of internal friction that arises
when velocity gradient is present in fluid. Thus, the more viscous the fluid is, the higher is
the internal friction and the greater is the resistance to flow.
➢ ‘‘Viscoelasticity’’ is a combination of viscosity and elasticity and this property deter mines
the strain experienced by a material when subjected to a combination of stress and
temperature over time.
(i) Plastics, compared with metals, have a low elastic modulus and deflect easily under
the cutting forces; therefore they must be supported carefully.
(ii) In order to avoid sticking or excessive expansion or deflection, the work should be
kept cool during machining. Cooling may be by air jet, vapour mist, or water.
(iii) Cutting tools should be of high speed steel, but for some thermosets, for filled
plastics and for long runs, carbide tipped tools are preferred.

45
 (iv) The finish on some plastic articles may be improved by polishing or buffing using
only light pressure.
(v) Twist drills for drilling plastics should have wide, polished flutes, a low (< 30°)
helix angle and 60°-90° point angle, particularly for the softer plastics.
(vi) Cutting tools should be of high speed steel, but for some thermosets, for filled
plastics and for long runs, carbide-tipped-tools are preferred.
(vii) Laminated plastics can be milled with standard tools at speeds and feeds similar to
those used with bronze and soft steel. The feed rate is determined by the desired
finish.
(viii) The finish on some plastic articles can be improved by polishing or buffing using
only light pressure.

Plastic Processing Methods

The common production processes are :

1. Moulding processes:
(i) Compression moulding
(ii) Transfer moulding
(iii) Injection moulding
(iv) Rotomoulding
(v) Expandable-bead moulding
2. Extrusion
3. Thermoforming
4. Calendering
5. Casting.

1] Compression Moulding

➢ Most of the thermosetting plastics and a few thermoplastic plastics can be moulded
through this process; the pressure used is in the range of 7 to 140 MN/m2.
➢ This process is carried out as follows:
(i) The raw plastic material (i.e., charge) in the form of solid granules is placed
in the cavity of an open mould which has been preheated to a temperature
of 120 to 240°C.

46
 (ii) A punch, also heated upto the same temperature, squeezes the material into
the mould cavity. The plastic material melts at this temperature and under
the pressure of the punch it flows into all portions of the mould cavity.
(iii) The material is kept inside the mould for sometime to allow it to cure under
continued exposure of heat and then removed (with aid of ejection pin) to
obtain the final product.

➢ Sometimes the raw plastic material is preheated to reduce the curing time.
➢ Compression moulding may be of the positive type, semi-positive-type, or the flash
type. In the latter, some of the material is allowed to escape, usually along the
moving-die perimeter, over a land or cut-off area, in the form of a thin flash or pin
which is finally trimmed off. A mould of this type gives closer tolerances and is
usually cheapest to make.
➢ Parts produced are simple with uniform wall thickness (usually not more than 3
mm).
➢ Cold moulding. In this process, a powder or fibres (often of refractory materials)
are mixed with a binder and compacted in a cold die. These procedures are followed
by curing in a separate oven. This method is not suitable where close tolerance and
good surface finish is required.
Advantages of compression moulding:
1. Compression-moulded parts do not have high stresses, since the material is not
forced through gates.
2. The process is comparatively simple, which makes initial mould costs low.
3. Simple setting.

47
 Limitations:
1. Used mainly for thermosetting plastics.
2. Medium production rate.
3. Dimensional accuracy not so good.

2] Transfer Moulding

➢ Transfer moulding (also known as gate moulding or extrusion moulding) is

modified form of compression moulding.
➢ In this method the moulding powder (charge) is heated to the plastic stage and
then forced into mould proper when the curing is completed. Pressures in the

range of 30–100 MN/m2, depending upon the polymer properties, are

generally used.
➢ In this process, a thermosetting charge is loaded into a chamber immediately
ahead of the mold cavity, where it is heated; pressure is then applied to force
the softened polymer to fl ow into the heated mold where curing occurs.
➢ Advantages:
1. This process provides relatively close tolerances and fairly uniform density.
2. The operation is easier and enables trouble free production of intricate parts
with thin sections as the mould is not directly subjected to the compression
force.
3. High production rate.
4. Medium tooling cost.
➢ Limitations:
1. The transfer moulds are more complex and more costly to build.
2. Loss of material as scrap.

48
 3] Injection Moulding

➢ This process is very commonly used for thermoplastic plastics.

➢ The pellets of thermoplastics are first compressed in the pressure chamber and
then pushed into a heating chamber.
➢ The softened material in the flowing state is then forced with pressure (about
960 MN/m2) through a nozzle into a cold mould having cavity of the desired
shape. Plastic articles of intricate shapes can be formed in these cavity moulds.
The articles can be removed by opening the moulds.
➢ The following methods are used to inject the molten plastic into the mould
(i) Reciprocating screw injection moulding.
(ii) Plunger injection moulding.
(iii) Two-stage injection moulding.
➢ Injection moulding is a faster process and suits best for large-quantity
production. The greatest quantity of plastic parts are made by injection
moulding.
➢ Advantages:
1. Complex shapes of various sizes can be obtained.
2. Good dimensional accuracy.
➢ Limitations:
1. High tooling tool.
2. High volume production is required.

49
 ➢ Equipment for injection molding evolved from metal die casting. An injection
molding machine consists of two principal components: (1) the plastic
injection unit and (2) the mold clamping unit.
➢ The injection unit is much like an extruder. It consists of a barrel that is fed
from one end by a hopper containing a supply of plastic pellets.
➢ Inside the barrel is a screw whose operation surpasses that of an extruder screw
in the following respect: in addition to turning for mixing and heating the
polymer, it also acts as a ram that rapidly moves forward to inject molten
plastic into the mold.
➢ A nonreturn valve mounted near the tip of the screw prevents the melt from
flowing backward along the screw threads. Later in the molding cycle the ram
retracts to its former position.
➢ The clamping unit is concerned with the operation of the mold. Its functions
are to (1) hold the two halves of the mold in proper alignment with each other;
(2) keep the mold closed during injection by applying a clamping force suffi-
cient to resist the injection force; and (3) open and close the mold at the
appropriate times in the molding cycle.
➢ The clamping unit consists of two platens, a fixed platen and a movable platen,
and a mechanism for translating the latter. The mechanism is basically a power
press that is operated by hydraulic piston or mechanical toggle devices of
various types. Clamping forces of several thousand tons are available on large
machines.

50
 ➢ The cycle for injection molding of a thermoplastic polymer proceeds in the fol
lowing sequence. The action begins with the mold open and the machine ready
to start a new molding:
➢ (1) The mold is closed and clamped.
➢ (2) A shot of polymer melt, which has been brought to the right temperature
and viscosity by heating and the mechanical working of the screw, is injected
under high pressure into the mold cavity. The plastic cools and begins to
solidify when it encounters the cold surface of the mold. Ram pressure is
maintained to pack additional melt into the cavity to compensate for
contraction during cooling.
➢ (3) The screw is rotated and retracted with the nonreturn valve open to permit
fresh polymer to flow into the forward portion of the barrel. Meanwhile, the
polymer in the mold has completely solidified.
➢ (4) The mold is opened, and the part is ejected and removed.

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 4] BLOW MOLDING

➢ Blow molding is a molding process in which air pressure is used to inflate soft plastic
inside a mold cavity. It is an important industrial process for making one-piece hollow
plastic parts with thin walls, such as bottles and similar containers.
➢ In blow moulding (Fig. 5.5), a hot tube of plastic material is placed between two halves
of the mould. The mould is closed and air or non-reactive gas like argon is blown
under of pressure of 20–40 MPa which expands the hot tube outwards to fill the mould
cavity. The mould is then opened and the product, hollow in shape, is removed from
the mould.
➢ It is used for fast and cheap production.
➢ This can be done manually or by automatic and semi-automatic machines.
➢ Advantages:

1. High production rate.

2. Hollow shapes of various sizes with thin walls can be produced. 3. Low cost
for making hollow shapes.
➢ Limitation:
Limited to production of hollow shapes.

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 5] ROTATIONAL MOLDING

➢ Rotational molding uses gravity inside a rotating mold to achieve a hollow form. Also
called rotomolding, it is an alternative to blow molding for making large, hollow
shapes. It is used principally for thermoplastic polymers, but applications for
thermosets and elastomers are becoming more common.
➢ Rotomolding tends to favor more complex external geometries, larger parts, and lower
production quantities than blow molding.
➢ The process consists of the following steps:
(1) A predetermined amount of polymer powder is loaded into the cavity of a split
mold.
(2) The mold is then heated and simultaneously rotated on two perpendicular axes, so
that the powder impinges on all internal surfaces of the mold, gradually forming a
fused layer of uniform thickness.
(3) While still rotating, the mold is cooled so that the plastic skin solidifies.
(4) The mold is opened, and the part is unloaded. Rotational speeds used in the process
are relatively slow. It is gravity, not centrifugal force, that causes uniform coating of
the mold surfaces.

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 ➢ Molds in rotational molding are simple and inexpensive compared to injection
molding or blow molding, but the production cycle is much longer, lasting perhaps 10
min or more.
➢ To balance these advantages and disadvantages in production, rotational molding is
often performed on a multicavity indexing machine, such as the three-station machine
shown in Figure. The machine is designed so that three molds are indexed in sequence
through three workstations. Thus, all three molds are working simultaneously.
➢ The first workstation is an unload–load station in which the finished part is unloaded
from the mold, and the powder for the next part is loaded into the cavity.
➢ The second station consists of a heating chamber where hot-air convection heats the
mold while it is simultaneously rotated. Temperatures inside the chamber are around
375°, depending on the polymer and the item being molded.
➢ The third station cools the mold, using forced cold air or water spray, to cool and
solidify the plastic molding inside.
➢ The most popular molding material is polyethylene, especially HDPE. Other plastics
include polypropylene, ABS, and high-impact polystyrene.

EXTRUSION
➢ Extrusion is one of the fundamental shaping processes, for metals and ceramics as well
as polymers.
➢ Extrusion is a compression process in which material is forced to flow through a die
orifice to provide long continuous product whose cross-sectional shape is determined
by the shape of the orifice.
➢ As a polymer shaping process, it is widely used for thermoplastics and elastomers (but
rarely for thermosets) to mass produce items such as tubing, pipes, hose, structural
shapes (such as window and door moldings), sheet and film, continuous fi laments,
and coated electrical wire and cable.
➢ In polymer extrusion, feedstock in pellet or powder form is fed into an extrusion barrel
where it is heated and melted and forced to fl ow through a die opening by means of a
rotating screw.

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 ➢ A hopper containing the feedstock is located at the end of the barrel opposite the die.
The pellets are fed by gravity onto the rotating screw whose turning moves the material
along the barrel.
➢ Electric heaters are used to initially melt the solid pellets; subsequent mixing and
mechanical working of the material generate additional heat, which maintains the melt.
In some cases, enough heat is supplied through the mixing and shearing action that
external heating is not required. Indeed, in some cases the barrel must be externally
cooled to prevent overheating of the polymer.
➢ The material is conveyed through the barrel toward the die opening by the action of
the extruder screw, which rotates at about 60 rev/min. The screw serves several
functions and is divided into sections that correspond to these functions.
➢ The sections and functions are the (1) feed section, in which the stock is moved from
the hopper port and preheated;
➢ (2) compression section, where the polymer is transformed into liquid consistency, air
entrapped amongst the pellets is extracted from the melt, and the material is
compressed; and
➢ (3) metering section, in which the melt is homogenized and sufficient pressure is
developed to pump it through the die opening.
➢ Advantages:
1. Relatively inexpensive tooling.
2. High production rate.
➢ Limitations:
1. Suitable for forming of long uniform sections.
2. High production volume is required.
3. Dimensions accuracy not very good.

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 Thermoforming

➢ ‘‘Thermoforming’’ refers to heating a sheet of plastic material until it becomes soft

and pliable and then forming it either by vacuum, by air pressure, or between matching

mould halves.

➢ A sheet of thermoplastic material is placed over a die and heated until it becomes soft.

➢ A vacuum is then created inside the die cavity which draws down the heated plastic

sheet into the shape of the die.

➢ The material is then cooled, the vacuum is released and the final product is taken out.

➢ Advantages:

1. Relatively inexpensive tooling.

2. Shallow and cheap cavities can be produced.

3. High production rate.

4. Quite economical.

➢ Limitation:

Dimensional accuracy not so good.

➢ Applications:

The process is used in making of liners, panels, housings, advertising signs, coffee-

cream containers, meat trays, egg cartons, etc.

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 ➢ Methods by which forming is accomplished can be classified into three basic

categories:(1) vacuum thermoforming, (2) pressure thermoforming, and (3)

mechanical thermoforming.

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Casting

➢ This process is similar to the metal casting process, and involves only heating and no
pressure is used.
➢ Usually liquid resins, such as phenolics, polyesters, silicones, acrylics and expoxies,
and also some cellulose derivatives, which can be considerably softened for pouring,
are used for casting.
The casting process is carried out as follows:
➢ The plastics are heated to a suitable temperature and poured into the moulds (Moulds
are made of lead, rubber, glass, plaster, wood or metal.
➢ A catalyst is added to unpolymerised plastics to help polymerisation.
➢ After due curing and hardening, the moulds are opened and castings knocked out. A
few examples of such cast products include : sheets, films, jewellery, dies, jigs;
punches.
➢ In order to obtain different colour shades two or more plastics can be poured together
in the same mould.
➢ The process is cheap, but slow; it is therefore quite suitable for small production.
➢ Plastics of commercial significance that can be cast are nylon 6, epoxies, and acrylics.
The basic cast nylon formulation is used for heavy-duty applications requiring high
strength, resilience, and wear resistance and where lubrication is difficult if not impos-
sible
➢ Advantages:
1. Accurately contoured product, such as the gears, that can be made several
centimeters thick and weighing upto about 200 kg, yet free of voids. Cast nylon weighs
about 1/7th weight of steel and has excellent sound and vibration damping qualities.

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 2. Owing to the slower cooling cycle in the casting process than in moulding, surfaces
are harder (more crystalline) and are more wear resistant.
3. Mould costs for casting are quite low compared to those for injection moulding.
4. Very economical.
➢ Limitation: Low production rate.

Calendering

➢ ‘‘Calendering’’ is the production of sheet of materials by rolling the plastics between

multiple rollers. This process can be used only for thermoplastics and not for
thermosetting plastics.
➢ In this process a heated doughy paste of plastic compound is passed through a series
of hot rollers, where it is squeezed into the form of thin sheet of uniform thickness.
➢ This process is widely used for making plastic films and sheets.

Product Design Considerations

➢ Strength and stiffness. Plastics are not as strong or stiff as metals. They should
not be used in applications in which high stresses will be encountered. Creep
resistance is also a limitation. Strength properties vary significantly among plas
tics, and strength-to-weight ratios for some plastics are competitive with metals
in certain applications.

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 ➢ Impact resistance. The capacity of plastics to absorb impact is generally good;
plastics compare favorably with most metals.
➢ Service temperatures of plastics are limited relative to engineering metals and
ceramics.
➢ Thermal expansion is greater for plastics than for metals, so dimensional
changes resulting from temperature variations are much more significant than
for metals.
➢ Many types of plastics are subject to degradation from sunlight and certain
other forms of radiation. Also, some plastics degrade in oxygen and ozone
atmospheres. Finally, plastics are soluble in many common solvents. On the posi-
tive side, plastics are resistant to conventional corrosion mechanisms that afflict
many metals. The weaknesses of specific plastics must be taken into account by
the designer.
➢ Wall thickness. Uniform wall thickness is desirable in an extruded cross section.
Variations in wall thickness result in nonuniform plastic fl ow and uneven cooling that
tend to warp the extrudate.
➢ Hollow sections. Hollow sections complicate die design and plastic flow. It is
desirable to use extruded cross sections that are not hollow yet satisfy functional
requirements.
➢ Corners. Sharp corners, inside and outside, should be avoided in the cross section,
because they result in uneven fl ow during processing and stress concentrations in the
final product.
➢ Economic production quantities. Each molded part requires a unique mold, and the
mold for any of these processes can be costly, particularly for injection molding.
Minimum production quantities for injection molding are usually around 10,000
pieces; for compression molding, minimum quantities are around 1000 parts, because
of the simpler mold designs involved. Transfer molding lies between the other two.
➢ Part complexity. Although more complex part geometries mean more costly molds,
it may nevertheless be economical to design a complex molding if the alternative
involves many individual components assembled together. An advantage of plastic
molding is that it allows multiple functional features to be combined into one part.

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 ➢ Wall thickness. Thick cross sections are generally undesirable; they are waste full of
material, more likely to cause warping caused by shrinkage, and take longer to harden.
Reinforcing ribs can be used in molded plastic parts to achieve increased stiffness
without excessive wall thickness. The ribs should be made thinner than the walls they
reinforce, to minimize sink marks on the outside wall.
➢ Corner radii and fillets. Sharp corners, both external and internal, are undesirable in
molded parts; they interrupt smooth flow of the melt, tend to create surface defects,
and cause stress concentrations in the finished part.
➢ Holes. Holes are quite feasible in plastic moldings, but they complicate mold design
and part removal. They also cause interruptions in melt flow.
➢ Draft. A molded part should be designed with a draft on its sides to facilitate removal
from the mold. This is especially important on the inside wall of a cup shaped part
because the molded plastic contracts against the positive mold shape. The
recommended draft for thermosets is around 1/2 to 1; for thermoplastics it usually
ranges between 1/8 and 1/2. Suppliers of plastic molding compounds provide
recommended draft values for their products.
➢ Tolerances. Tolerances specify the allowable manufacturing variations for a part.
Although shrinkage is predictable under closely controlled conditions, generous
tolerances are desirable for injection moldings because of variations in process
parameters that affect shrinkage and diversity of part geometries encountered. Table
13.2 lists typical tolerances for molded part dimensions of selected plastics.

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Welding:

➢ It is method of joining metals by applications of heat, without the use of solder or

any other metal or alloy having a lower melting point than the metals being joined.
➢ Welding is defined as ‘‘a localised coalescence of metals, wherein coalescence is
obtained by heating to suitable temperature, with or without the applications of
pressure and with or without the use of filler metal’’.
➢ The filler metal has a melting point approximately the same as the base metal.
➢ The large bulk of materials that are welded are metals and their alloys, although the
term welding is also applied to the joining of other materials such as thermoplastics.
➢ Welding joins different metals/alloys with the help of a number of processes in which
heat is supplied either electrically or by means of a gas torch.
➢ In order to join two or more pieces of metals together by one of the welding
processes, the most essential requirement is heat. Pressure may also be employed,
but this is not, in many processes essential.
➢ Advantages:
1. A large number of metals/alloys both similar and dissimilar can be joined by
welding.
2. Welding can join workpieces through spots, as continuous pressure tight seams,
end-to end and in a number of other configurations.
3. A good weld is as strong as the base metal.
4. Welding permits considerable freedom in design.
5. General welding equipment is not very costly.
6. Portable welding equipments are available.
7. Welding results in a good saving of material and reduced labour content of
production.
8. Low manufacturing costs.
9. Welding is also used as a method for repairing broken, worn or defective metal
parts. Due to this, the cost of reinvestment can be avoided.
➢ Disadvantages:
1. Welding results in residual stresses and distortion of the workpieces.
2. Welding heat produces metallurgical changes. The structure of the welded joint
is not same as that of parent metal.

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 3. Jigs and fixtures are generally required to hold and position the parts to be
welded.
4. A welded joint, for many reasons, needs stress-relief heat treatment.
5. Welding results in residual stresses and distortion of the workpieces.
6. Welding gives out harmful radiations (light), fumes and spatter.
7. For producing a good welding job, a skilled worker is a must.
CLASSIFICATION OF WELDING PROCESSES
A. The welding processes may be classified as follows:
I. Pressure Welding:
1. Forge welding.
2. Resistance electric welding.
i. Butt welding
ii. Flash welding
iii. Spot welding
iv. Seam welding
v. Projection welding
vi. Percussion welding
The characteristics of a pressure weld is that the metal joined is never brought to
a molten stage, it is heated to a welding temperature and the actual union is brought
about by application of pressure.
II. Fusion Welding:
1. Gas welding.
2. Electric arc welding.
i. Metallic arc welding
ii. Carbon arc welding
iii. Atomic hydrogen welding
iv. Shielded arc welding.

3. Thermit welding.

The characteristic of a fusion weld is that the material being joined is a actually melted

and the union is produced on subsequent solidification.

III. Modern/Miscellaneous Welding Techniques:

(i) Tungsten inert-gas (TIG) welding or GTAW (Gas tungsten arc welding)

63
 (ii) Metal inert-gas (MIG) welding
(iii) Submerged arc welding
(iv) Electro-slag and electro-gas welding
(v) Electron-beam welding
(vi) Ultrasonic welding
(vii) Plasma arc welding
(viii) Laser beam welding
(ix) Friction welding
(x) Explosive welding
(xi) Diffusion welding
(xii) Induction welding
(xiii) Cold welding
(xiv) Stud-arc welding
(xv) Hydrodynamic welding.

Allied Processes:

1. Soldering

2. Brazing

B. The welding processes may also be classified as follows:

1. Solid-state welding processes:

i. Forge welding
ii. Friction welding
iii. Explosive welding
iv. Ultrasonic
v. Diffusion.

2. Liquid-state (or fusion) welding processes:

i. Gas welding
ii. Electric arc welding
iii. TIG welding
iv. Resistance welding
v. Thermit welding, etc.

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 3. Solid/liquid-state bonding processes:

(i) Soldering

(ii) Brazing.

FORGE WELDING

➢ In this method of welding the surfaces to be joined are heated in an open hearth
until they reach the welding temperature of metal, which is below its melting point.
➢ The blacksmith will judge this temperature by the colour of the metal, which may
be between red-hot and white-hot. The parts are then placed on an anvil and
hammered together.
➢ In this welding process there is a risk of oxide and other inclusion when the metal
is heated in an open fire and accurate judgement of the temperature is called for if
the structure of metal is not to be changed.
➢ Advantages:
1. Inexpensive equipment.
2. Semi-skilled operation.
➢ Limitations:
1. Poor joint strength
2. Labour intensive process (low production rate).
3. Weld quality dependent on operator’s skill.
4. Can be used only when hammering is possible.

RESISTANCE ELECTRIC WELDING

➢ Resistance welding (RW) is a group of fusion-welding processes that uses a com

bination of heat and pressure to accomplish coalescence, the heat being generated
by electrical resistance to current flow at the junction to be welded.
➢ By comparison to arc welding, resistance welding uses no shielding gases, flux, or
filler metal; and the electrodes that conduct electrical power to the process are
nonconsumable.
➢ It is the method of uniting two pieces of metal by the passage of a heavy electric
current while the surfaces are pressed together.

65
 ➢ The fusing temperature is obtained by placing the surfaces to be joined in contact
with one another, and passing a current of two to eight volts, at a high amperage
through them.
➢ The heat is developed around the point to which they touch, forcing them together
(by pressure mechanically applied), and at the same time switching off the current,
completes the weld.
➢ A special feature of resistance welding is the rapid heating of the surface being
welded (in hundredths of a second) due to application of currents of high amperage.

➢ Successful operation of a resistance welding process depends upon correct

application and proper control of the following factors :
(i) Welding current.
(ii) Welding pressure.
(iii) Time of application (cycle time) :
— Weld time
— Squeeze or forge time
— Hold time
— Off-time
(iv) Contact area of electrodes

Electrodes. The electrodes in resistance welding should have higher electrical

conductivity as well as higher hardness.

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 ➢ Steel though strong, do not have conductivity required for electrodes. Hence,
copper in alloyed form is generally used for making electrodes (Pure copper is
poor in mechanical properties).
➢ Copper cadmium (0.5 to 1.0%) alloys have the highest electrical conductivity with
moder ate strengths and are used for welding non-ferrous materials such as
aluminium and magnesium alloys.
➢ Copper chromium (0.5 to 0.8%) alloys have slightly lower electrical
conductivities than the above but better mechanical strength. These are used for
resistance welding of low strength steels such as wild steel and low alloy steels.
➢ Advantages:
1. The heat is localised, action is rapid and no filler metal is needed.
2. The operation requires little skill and can be easily mechanised and automated.
3. A high degree of reliability and reproducibility can be achieved.
4. Very well suited for mass production (owing to high production rate).
5. Very economical process.
6. It is possible to weld dissimilar metals as well as metal plates of different
thicknesses.
7. Heating of workpiece is confined to a very small part which results in less
distortion.
➢ Disadvantages/Limitations:
1. High cost of equipment.
2. Certain resistance welding processes are limited only to lap joints.
The various resistance welding processes are:
• Resistance spot welding.
• Resistance seam welding.
• Resistance projection welding.
• Resistance butt welding :
(i) Upset welding
(ii) Flash butt welding

Resistance Spot Welding

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 ➢ Spot welding, as the name implies, is carried out by overlapping the edges of two
sheets of metal and fusing them together between copper electrode tips at suitably
spaced intervals by means of a heavy electrical current.
➢ The resistance offered to current as it passes through the metal raises the
temperature of the metal between the electrodes to welding heat. The current is
cut-off and mechanical pressure is then applied by the electrodes to forge the
welds. Finally the electrodes open.
➢ If one considers that a typical car body has approximately 10,000 individual spot
welds.

➢ Currents usually range from 3000 A to 40,000 A, depending on the materials

being welded and their thickness.
➢ Steel, brass, copper and light alloys can be joined by this method, which forms a
cheap and satisfactory substitute for riveting.
➢ Advantages:
1. High production rate.
2. Very economical process.
3. High skill not required.
4. Most suitable for welding sheet metals.
5. Dissimilar metals can be welded.
6. No edge preparation is needed.
7. Operation may be made automatic or semi-automatic.
8. Dependability.

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 9. Small heat affected area.
10. More general elimination of warping or distortion of parts.
➢ Limitations:
1. Suitable for thin sheets only.
2. High equipment cost.

➢ Spot welding machines:

The following three types of spot welding machines are in common use:
1. Standard machines.
— Rocker arm type
— Press type spot or projection welders

2. Special multiple-electrode machines.

3. Portable welders.

Resistance Seam Welding

➢ Seam welding is analogous to spot welding with the difference the electrodes are
in the form of rollers ; and the work moves in direction perpendicular to roller
axis.

69
 ➢ The current is interrupted 300 to 1500 times a minute to give a series of
overlapping spot welds. The welding is usually done under water to keep the
heating of the welding rollers and the work to a minimum, and thus to give lower
roller maintenance and less distortion of the work.
➢ Welding currents range from 2000 A to 5000 A while the force applied to the
rollers may be as high as 5 kN to 6 kN.
➢ With intermittent application of current to the rollers a series of spot welds at
various intervals can be made along the length of the seam, a procedure called roll
spot welding.

Resistance Projection Welding

➢ The pieces to be welded are arranged between two flat electrodes which exert
pressure as the current flows.
➢ The projections, and the areas with which they make contact, are raised to welding
heat and are joined by the pressure exerted by the electrodes.
➢ The projections are flattened during the welding.

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 Resistance Butt Welding

There are two types of butt welding: Upset and Flash.

Upset welding

➢ In this type of welding which is employed to join bars and plates together end-
to-end, one bar is held in a fixed clamp in the butt welding machine; and the
other bar in a movable clamp, the clamp being electrically insulated, the one
from the other, and being connected to a source of current.
➢ When the two ends to be joined are brought into contact and current is switched
on, the resistance at the joint causes the ends to heat up to welding temperature.
➢ Current is then switched off and the movable clamp forced up, so that pressure
applied upsets or forges the parts together.
➢ The voltage applied across the clamps is a low one, from 2 to 6 volts, and the
current is usually alternating. If the bars being joined are different in cross-
section the amounts they project from their clamps may have to be adjusted.

Flash welding
➢ In this process, the parts to welded are clamped to the electrode fixtures, as in
butt welding but the voltage is applied before the parts are butted together. As
the parts touch each other, an arc is established which continues as long as the
parts advance at the correct speed. This arc bursts away a portion of the material
from each piece.

71
 ➢ When the welding temperature is reached, the speed of travel is increased, the
power switched off and weld is upset.
➢ The upsetting action forces out the impurities caused by flashing. The forced-
out metal is called flash. The inner weld is then sound and free of oxides and
cast metal.
➢ Many different materials and combination can be flash butt welded ; steels and
the ferrous alloys other than cast iron are probably the most easily welded. Those
materials which cannot be flash butt welded are lead, tin, zinc, antimony,
bismuth and their alloys, and the copper alloys in which these metals are present
in large percentage.
➢ Upset welding (UW) is similar to flash welding except that in UW the faying
surfaces are pressed together during heating and upsetting. In flash welding, the
heating and pressing steps are separated during the cycle
Percussion welding:
➢ It is a very fast method of welding.
➢ It consists of holding the parts at a small distance with their end faces opposite
to each other, bringing them closer at a fast speed after switching on the current,
thus creating an arc between their end faces just before they come in contact and
completing the weld under impact. Some of the metal may squeeze out of the
joint, but it is very small.
➢ The use of this process is limited to very thin wires, with their diameters ranging
between 0.05 mm and 0.38 mm. It can also be used for joining wire of dissimilar
metals, such as copper to nichrome and copper to stainless steel.
➢ The duration of the weld cycle is extremely short, typically only 1 to 10 ms.

FUSION WELDING

➢ In fusion (or liquid state) welding the material around the joint is melted in both the
parts to be joined. If necessary a molten filler metal is added from a filler rod (or
otherwise).
➢ The characteristics of a fusion weld is that the metal being joined is actually melted
and the union is produced on subsequent solidification.
➢ Factors affecting fusion welding process:
(i) Nature of weld pool.

72
 (ii) Chemical reaction in the fusion zone.
(iii) Characteristics of heat source.
(iv) Contraction, residual stresses and metallurgical changes.
(v) Heat flow from the joint.
The fusion welding group includes :
1. Gas welding;
2. Electric arc welding;
3. Thermit welding.

Gas welding:

➢ It is a method of fusion welding in which a flame produced by a combustion of gases is

employed to heat and melt the parent metal and filler rod of a joint. It can weld most
common materials.
➢ Advantages:
1. The oxy-acetylene torch is versatile. It can be used for brazing, bronze welding,
soldering, heating, heat treatment, metal cutting, metal cleaning, etc.
2. It is portable and can be moved almost everywhere for repair of fabrication work.
3. The oxy-acetylene flame is easily controlled and not as piercing as metallic arc
welding, hence, extensively used for sheet metal fabrication work.
4. The cost and maintenance of the gas welding equipment is low when compared to
that of some other welding processes.
5. The rate of heating and cooling is relatively low. In some cases, this is an advantage.
6. Good weld quality.
➢ Disadvantages:
1. As compared to arc welding, it takes considerably longer time for metal to heat up.
2. Oxygen and acetylene gases are expensive.
3. The handling and storing of gas necessitate lot of safety precautions.
4. Heavy sections cannot be joined economically.
5. Flame temperature is less than the temperature of the arc.
6. Skilled operator required.
7. Difficult to prevent contamination.
8. Large heat affected zone.
➢ Applications of Gas Welding:

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 1. To join most ferrous and non-ferrous metals, e.g., carbon steels, alloy steels, cast
iron, aluminium, copper, nickel, magnesium and its alloys, etc.
2. To join thin materials.
3. To join materials in whose case excessively high temperatures would cause certain
elements in the metal to escape into the atmosphere.
4. To join materials in whose case excessively high temperatures or rapid heating and
cooling of the job would produce unwanted or harmful changes in the metal.
5. Automative and Aircraft industries.
6. Sheet metal fabricating plants, etc.

Oxy-acetylene Welding
➢ The oxy-acetylene welding process can be used for welding almost all metals and alloys
used in engineering practice.
➢ The advantage of using acetylene, instead of other fuels, with oxygen is that it produces
a comparatively higher temperature and also an inert gas envelop, consisting of CO2
and water vapours, which presents the molten metal from oxidation.

➢ The principle of oxy-acetylene welding is the ignition of oxygen and acetylene gases,
mixed in a blow pipe fitted with a nozzle of suitable diameter ; this flame is applied to
the edges of the joint and to a wire filler of the appropriate metal, which is thereby
melted and run into the joint.
➢ When the acetylene is burned in an atmosphere of oxygen an intensely hot flame with
a temperature of about 3300°C is produced. As the melting point of steel is
approximately 1300°C, the metal is fused very rapidly at the point at which the flame is
applied.

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 ➢ The use of an oxy-acetylene flame is the most widely employed method of welding iron,
steel, aluminium, cast-iron and copper, the equipment required being considerably
cheaper and simpler than that needed for electric welding.

Equipment:

1. Gas cylinders

A. Oxygen cylinder:
• For safety purposes oxygen cylinders are filled at a pressure 12500 to 14000
kN/m2 and cylinder capacity is 6.23 m3.
• The cylinder is provided with a right hand thread valve and is painted black.
B. Acetylene cylinder:
• The cylinder is usually filled to pressure of 1600 to 2100 kN/m2.
• The cylinder is provided with left hand threads for accommodating pressure
regulator and is painted maroon.
2. Pressure regulators.
• The cylinders are provided with pressure regulators to control the working pressure
of oxygen and acetylene to the welding torch. The pressure of oxygen and acetylene
depends on the thickness of the metal to be welded/cut.
3. Pressure gauges.
• Two pressure gauges are fitted on each pressure regulator. While one pressure
gauge shows the pressure inside the cylinder, the other one shows the working
pressure of the fuel gas and oxygen.

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 4. Welding torch/blow pipe.
It is a device; for moving oxygen and acetylene in the required volume and
igniting it at the mouth of its tip. Generally, following two types of torches are
available:
1. Low pressure blow pipe (Injector type).
2. High pressure blow pipe

5. Hose and hose fittings:

• Hoses are the rubber and fabric pipes used to connect gas cylinder to blow pipe and
are painted black or green for oxygen and red or maroon for acetylene. It should be
strong, durable, non-porous and light.

Welding rods (Filler materials) for gas welding

• The welding wire or rod used as filler material in gas welding should have a
chemical composition similar to that of the base metal. The welding rod diameter,
d= t/2 + 1 mm (app.), where t is the thickness of the base metal, mm.

ELECTRIC ARC WELDING

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 Arc welding is the system in which the metal is melted by the heat of an electric arc.

It can be done with the following methods:

(i) Metallic arc welding.

(ii) Carbon arc welding.
(iii) Atomic hydrogen welding.
(iv) Shielded arc welding.
• Advantages:
1. Portable and relatively inexpensive equipment.
2. Very versatile process.
• Limitations:
1. Large heat affected zone.
2. Weld quality depends upon operator’s skill in normal operations.
3. Not suitable for thin sections.
Metallic Arc Welding
➢ In metallic arc welding an arc is established between work and the filler metal
electrode.
➢ The intense heat of the arc forms a molten pool in the metal being welded, and at
the same time melts the tip of the electrode. As the arc is maintained, molten filler
metal from the electrode tip is transferred across the arc, where it fuses with the
molten base metal. Arc may be formed with direct or alternating current.

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 Carbon Arc Welding

➢ Here the work is connected to negative and the carbon rod or electrode connected
to the positive of the electric circuit.
➢ Arc is formed in the gap, filling metal is supplied by fusing a rod or wire into the
arc by allowing the current to jump over it and it produces a porous and brittle weld
because of inclusion of carbon particles in the molten metal.

Atomic Hydrogen Welding

➢ In this system heat is obtained from an alternating current arc drawn between two
tungsten electrodes in an atmosphere of hydrogen.
➢ As the hydrogen gas passes through the arc, the hydrogen molecules are broken up
into atoms and they recombine on contact with the cooler base metal generating
intense heat sufficient to melt the surfaces to be welded, together with the filler rod,
if used.
➢ The envelop of hydrogen gas also shields the molten metal from oxygen and
nitrogen and thus prevents weld metal from deterioration.

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 Shielded Arc Welding

➢ In this system molten weld metal is protected from the action of atmosphere
by an envelope of chemically reducing or inert gas.

➢ As molten steel has an affinity for oxygen and nitrogen, it will, if exposed to
the atmosphere, enter into combination with these gases forming oxides and
nitrides. Due to this injurious chemical combination metal becomes weak,
brittle and corrosion resistant. Thus, several methods of shielding have been
developed.
➢ The simplest is the use of a flux coating on the electrode which in addition to
producing a slag which floats on the top of the molten metal and protects it
from atmosphere, has organic constituents which turn away and produce an
envelope of inert gas around the arc and the weld.

THERMIT WELDING:
➢ It is the method of uniting iron or steel parts by surrounding the joint with steel
at a sufficient high temperature to fuse the adjacent surfaces of the parts
together.
➢ It is the method of uniting iron or steel parts by surrounding the joint with steel
at a sufficient high temperature to fuse the adjacent surfaces of the parts
together.

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 ➢ The wax pattern is then surrounded by sheet iron box and the space be tween
box and pattern is filled and rammed with sand.
➢ After cutting, pouring and heating gates and risers a flame is directed into the
heating oven due to which the wax pattern melts and drains out, the heating is
continued to raise the temperature of the parts to be welded.

➢ The thermit mixture (finely divided aluminium iron oxide) is packed in the
crucible of conical shape formed from a sheet-iron casting lined with heat
resisting cement and is ignited with magnesium or torch yielding a highly
superheated (nearly 3000°C) molten-iron and a slag of aluminium oxide.
➢ The molten iron is then run into the mould which fuses with the parts to be
welded and forms a thermit collar at the joint. The welds thus obtained are
metallurgically very sound and strong.

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 ➢ Advantages:
1. Can be used anywhere.
2. Low set-up cost.
3. Not a highly skilled operation.
4. Most suitable for welding of thick sections.
➢ Limitations:
1. Only thick sections can be welded.
2. High set-up and cycle time.

TUNGSTEN INERT-GAS (TIG) WELDING

➢ This welding process is also called Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW).
➢ In this process the heat necessary to melt the metal is provided by a very intense
electric arc which is struck between a virtually non-consumable tungsten
electrode and metal workpiece.
➢ The electrode does not melt and become a part of the weld. On joints where
filler metal is required, a welding rod is fed into the weld zone and melted with
base metal in the same manner as that used with oxyacetylene welding.
➢ The weld zone is shielded from the atmosphere by an inert-gas (a gas which
does not combine chemically with the metal being welded) which is ducted
directly to the weld zone where it surrounds the tungsten.
➢ The major inert gases that are used are argon and helium.
➢ GTAW is applicable to nearly all metals in a wide range of stock thicknesses.
It can also be used for joining various combinations of dissimilar metals.
➢ Its most common applications are for aluminum and stainless steel.
➢ Cast irons, wrought irons, and of course tungsten are difficult to weld by
GTAW.

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 TIG process offers the following advantages:
1. TIG welds are stronger, more ductile and more corrosion resistant than welds
made with ordinary shield arc welding.
2. Since no granular flux is required, it is possible to use a wide variety of joint
designs than in conventional shield arc welding or stick electrode welding.
3. There is little weld metal splatter or weld sparks that damage the surface of the
base metal as in traditional shield arc welding.

METAL INERT-GAS (MIG) WELDING

➢ This welding process is also called Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW).
➢ The inert-gas consumable electrode process, or the MIG process is a refinement
of the TIG process, however, in this process, the tungsten electrode has been
replaced with a consumable electrode.
➢ The electrode is driven through the same type of collet that holds a tungsten
electrode by a set of drive wheels. The consumable electrode in MIG process
acts as a source for the arc column as well as the supply for the filler material.

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 ➢ Advantages :
1. It provides higher deposition rate.
2. It is faster than shielded metal-arc welding due to continuous feeding of filler
metal.
3. Welds produced arc of better quality.
4. There is no slag formation.
5. Deeper penetration is possible.
6. The weld metal carries low hydrogen content.
7. More suitable for welding of thin sheets.
➢ Limitations :
1. Less adaptable for welding in difficult to reach portions.
2. Equipment used is costlier and less portable.
3. Less suitable for outdoor work because strong wind may blow away the gas
shield.

PLASMA ARC WELDING

➢ Plasma is often considered the fourth state of matter. The other three are gas,
liquid and solid. Plasma results when a gas is heated to high temperature and
changes into positive ions, neutral atoms and negative electrons.

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 ➢ When a matter passes from one state to another latent heat is required to change
into steam, and similarly, the plasma torch supplies energy to a gas to change it
into plasma. When the plasma changes back to a gas, the heat is released.
➢ The main function of the plasma gas is shielding the body of the torch from the
extreme heat of the cathode. Argon & argon mixtures are most commonly used.
➢ Plasma arc welding (PAW) is a special form of gas tungsten arc welding in
which a constricted plasma arc is directed at the weld area.
➢ Temperatures in plasma arc welding reach 17,000°C (30,000°F) or greater, hot
enough to melt any known metal.

Laser-Beam Welding
➢ Laser-beam welding (LBW) is a fusion-welding process in which coalescence
is achieved by the energy of a highly concentrated, coherent light beam focused
on the joint to be welded.
➢ The term laser is an acronym for light amplification by stimulated emission of
radiation. This same technology is used for laser-beam machining.
➢ The laser welding process is the focusing of a monochromatic light into
extremely concen trated beams. It employs a carefully focused beam of light that
concentrates tremendous amount of energy on a small area to produce fusion.
➢ When capacitor bank is triggered en ergy is injected into the wire that surrounds
the flash tube. This wire establishes an imbalance in the material inside the flash
tube.
➢ Thick xenon often is used in the mate rial for the flash tube, producing high
power levels for very short period of time. The flash tubes or lamps are designed

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 for operation at a rate of thousands of flashes per second. By operating in this
manner, the lamps become an efficient device for converting electrical energy
into light energy, the process of pumping the laser.
➢ The laser is then activated. The beam is emitted through the coated end of the
lasing material. It goes through a focusing device where it is pin-pointed on the
workpiece. Fusion takes place and the weld is accomplished.

FRICTION WELDING
➢ In this welding process, often termed as ‘‘inertia welding’’, the two surfaces to
be welded are rotated relative to each other under light normal pressure. When
the interface tempera ture increases due to frictional rubbing and when it reaches
the required welding temperature, sufficient normal pressure is applied and
maintained until the two pieces get welded.
➢ A wide variety of metals and metal combinations can be welded by this process.
Filler metals, fluxes, or shielding gases are not required, and welds can be made
with a minimum of joint preparation. T
➢ The method is most suitable for circular parts, that is, butt welding of round bars
or tubes.
➢ Advantages :
1. High quality welds.
2. The process is clean.

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 3. Low initial capital cost.
4. Low-cost power requirements
➢ Limitations :
1. The method is limited to smaller components.
2. The parts to be welded must be essentially round and must be able to withstand
the high torque developed during welding.
➢ Applications :
H.S.S. twist drills ;
Gas turbine shafts ;
Aero-engine drive shafts and valves ;
Refrigerator tubes of dissimilar metals ;
Steering columns ;
Welding of sintered products, etc
EXPLOSIVE WELDING

➢ In this process welding is achieved through very high contact of pressure

developed by detonating a thin layer of explosive placed over one of the pieces
to be joined. The detonation imparts high kinetic energy to the piece which on
striking the other piece causes plastic deformation and squeezes the

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 contaminated surface layers out of interface resulting in a high quality welded
joint.
DIFFUSION WELDING
➢ Diffusion Welding (DFW), also called a diffusion bonding (a solid-state joining
process), is the process of joining two parts purely by the diffusion. The
diffusion can be achieved by keeping the two pieces in intimate contact under
pressure.
➢ The pressures used are in the range of 35 to 70 MPa, because of the large contact
areas used. The diffusion being a rate process, can be accelerated by the use of
heat, though is not essential. By the application of heat, the bonding time can be
reduced from hours to minutes.
➢ A filler metal is generally used and kept in between the two plates to be joined.
Diffusion welding can be used for joining metals to metals as well as metals to
non-metals. The weld is very neat requiring no further processing on the joint.
➢ Diffusion welding is more expensive and, therefore, can only be justified for
closer tolerance work or for expensive materials.
➢ This process is used for fabricating complex parts in small quantities for the
aerospace, nuclear, and electronics industries. It has also been automated to
make it suitable and economical for moderate volume production.

INDUCTION WELDING
➢ In induction welding coalescence is produced by the heat obtained from the
resistance of the weldment to the flow of an induced electrical current. Pressure
is frequently used to complete the weld.
➢ The inductor coil is not in contact with the weldment ; the current is induced into
the conductive material. Resistance of the material to this current flow results in
the rapid generation of heat.
➢ In operation a high current is induced into both edges of the work close to where
the weld is to be made. Heating to welding temperature is extremely rapid and
the joint in completed by pressure rolls or contacts.
➢ Induction welding can be used for most metals and has been successfully
employed for some dissimilar metals.

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 COLD WELDING

➢ Cold welding is defined as ‘‘A solid-state welding process wherein

coalescence is produced by the external application of the mechanical force
alone’’. The process is quite similar to electric resistance welding with the
exception that no heat is used to remove the oxide and gas layers but rather
severe plastic deformation is relied upon to get metal-to-metal contact.
➢ In this process, pressure is applied to the surfaces of the parts, through either
dies or rolls.

STUD-ARC WELDING

➢ In this welding process, an arc is generated between the stud or similar part
and the base metal.
➢ The operation sequence begins with the stud being placed in the stud gun.
➢ The gun is then positioned over the spot where the stud is to be placed.
➢ When the trigger, or switch, is depressed, current flows through the stud,
which at the same time is lifted back slightly from the work, creating an arc.
➢ After a short arcing period, the stud is plunged into the molten pool created
on the base plate and the gun is withdrawn.

UNDER-WATER WELDING

➢ Occasionally, welding has to be carried out under water and this is known as
‘‘submerged welding’’. Obviously gas welding is not possible as the heat
necessary for fusion cannot be generated under water by gas welding.
➢ However, submerged welding is possible by electric arc. Heat generated by
an electric arc in water is much lower than in open air welding hence special
electrodes are used which have low fusion points and are not affected under
water.
➢ Under electric welding, the welding may be by ‘arc’ method or it may by
‘resistance’ method.

OXY-ACETYLENE TORCH CUTTING

➢ Cutting steel with a torch is an important production process. A simple hand

torch for flame cutting differs from a welding torch. It has several small holes

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 for preheating flames surrounding a central hole through which pure oxygen
passes. The preheating flames are exactly like the welding flames and are
intended to preheat the steel before cutting.
➢ Metal upto 760 mm can be cut by this process.

ULTRASONIC WELDING

ELECTRON-BEAM WELDING

ELECTRO-SLAG AND ELECTRO-GAS WELDING

➢ These methods are employed to fuse two sections of thick metal, forming a seam
in a single pass. Elimination of the need for making multiple passes and special
joint preparations make these methods commonly used welding processes when
heavy ferrous metals are to be joined. These proc esses have reduced costly time
in fabrication of large vessels and tanks. There is theoretically no limit to the
thickness of the weld bead.

SUBMERGED ARC WELDING

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 Types of Welded Joints
The following are the five basic types of commonly used joints:
1. Lap joint
2. Butt joint
3. Corner joint
4. Edge joint
5. T-joint.
1. Lap joint.
➢ The lap joint is obtained by overlapping the plates and then welding the edges
of the plates.
➢ The lap joints may be single traverse, double traverse and parallel lap joints.
➢ These joints are employed on plates having thickness less than 3 mm.

2. Butt joint:
➢ The butt joint is obtained by placing the plates edge to edge.
➢ In this type of joints, if the plate thickness is less than 5 mm, bevelling is not
required. When the thickness of the plates ranges between 5 mm to 12.5 mm,
the edge is required to be bevelled to V or U-groove, while the plates having
thickness above 12.5 mm should have a V or U-groove on both sides.
3. Corner joint.
➢ A corner joint is obtained by joining the edges of two plates whose surfaces
are at an angle of 90° to each other.
➢ In some cases corner joint can be welded, without any filler metal, by melting
off the edges of the parent metal.
➢ This joint is used for both light and heavy gauge sheet metal.
4. Edge joint.
➢ This joint is obtained by joining two parallel plates.
➢ It is economical for plates having thickness less than 6 mm.

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 5. T-joint.
➢ It is obtained by joining two plates whose surfaces are approximately at
right angles to each other.
➢ These joints are suitable up to 3 mm thickness.

SOLID/LIQUID-STATE BONDING—SOLDERING AND BRAZING

➢ In solid/ liquid-state bonding, the joint is made by distributing the molten filler
metal between the closely fitted surfaces of the parts, without melting the base
metal.
➢ The two processes which fall under this category are: Soldering and Brazing. By
AWs, definition the melting point of the filler metal for brazing will be above
427°C; below this temperatures are the solders.
➢ ‘Brazing’ makes stronger joints as compared to ‘soldering’.
➢ Advantages:
1. Parts with greatly unequal wall thickness can be joined.
2. Dissimilar materials can be joined.
3. In these processes, the molten filler, material is drawn to the various points
of joint by surface tension (capillary attraction), so the access to all the parts

91
 of the joint is not required. Hence, complicated assemblies and assemblies
consisting of many parts can be simultaneously joined.
4. In these processes no post joining heat treatment is normally necessary and
joints are virtually free of internal stresses.
➢ Limitations:
1. Cost of joint could be high.
2. The joint inspection could be difficult.
3. Relatively lower strength, particularly in case of the lower melting-point
alloys.
➢ Applications:
Joining of wires.
Manufacture of automobile radiators, plate and tube heat exchangers,
impellers, etc.
SOLDERING
➢ Soldering is an operation of joining two or more parts together by molten metal.
➢ It is a quick method of making joints in light articles made from steel, copper
and brass and for wire joints such as occur in electrical work.
➢ Soldering should not be used where much strength is required, or in case where
the joint will be subjected to vibration or heat, as solder is comparatively weak
and has a low melting point. When joints must stand these treatments they should
be riveted, welded or brazed.
➢ Types of Solder Roughly there are two types of solder:
1. Soft solder, which is usually a lead-tin mixture.
2. Hard solders, which may be roughly grouped into the following
(i) Brass solders (copper-zinc alloy).
(ii) Silver solders (copper-silver alloy).
(iii) Copper solders.
(iv) Nickel-silver solders.
➢ Soldering Procedure
The process of soldering is carried out as follows :
1. The surfaces of the pieces to be joined must be thoroughly cleaned and
made free from rust, grease, oil and dirt by scraping with dull knife or
emery paper.

92
 2. Then coat the surfaces with flux.
3. Take a blob of solder on the bit of the hot soldering iron and allow it run
down hill filling the recess of the joints for light work. For heavy work the
hot iron should be held against the soldering stick and molten solder be
allowed to fill the longer length of the joint.
4. Wipe off excess of solder with a piece of felt or cotton waste.
5. Wash the joint thoroughly with warm water to remove the traces of acid
flux.
➢ Advantages of Soldering The advantages of soldering are:
1. Low cost.
2. Simplicity and cheapness of the equipment.
3. The properties of base metal are not affected due to low operating
temperature.
4. Good and effective sealing in fabrication as compared to other process like
riveting, spot welding and bolts.
➢ Applications of Soldering
1. Connections in wireless set (radio), T.V. sets, etc.
2. Wiring joints in electrical connections, battery and other terminals.
3. Drain water gutters and pipes.
4. Radiator brass tubes for motor car.
5. Copper tubing carrying liquid fuel, gas or air used on engines.
BRAZING
➢ Brazing is a joining process in which a filler metal is melted and distributed by
capillary action between the faying surfaces of the metal parts being joined.
➢ No melting of the base metals occurs in brazing; only the filler melts. In brazing
the filler metal has a melting temperature (liquidus) that is above 450°C but
below the melting point (solidus) of the base metal(s) to be joined.
➢ Brazing is a soldering operation using brass as the joining medium. The brazing
operation is simply a form of hard soldering using a copper-zinc alloy, that is,
brass, as the uniting medium.
➢ Three brazing alloys are:
1. Copper = 70%, Zinc = 30%; Melting point = 960°C
2. Copper = 60%, Zinc = 40%; Melting point = 910°C

93
 3. Copper = 50%, Zinc = 50%; Melting point = 870°C
➢ When brazing or hard soldering using a brass mixture, the heating may be by
means of:
(i) Coal-gas and a mouth blow pipe for very small work.
(ii) Coal-gas and compressed air using the normal blow pipe.
(iii) Oxy-acetylene torch.
(iv) Oxy-hydrogen torch.
(v) Coal-gas and oxygen with a suitable torch.
(vi) Electrical resistance as on a spot welder.
➢ Brazing Procedure
1. The surfaces to be joined are thoroughly cleaned.
2. Then a paste made of flux and spelter is kept in the joint, the joint being
held in position by suitable clamps or tongs.
3. The flame is directed over the joint held on a fire brick piece. The flux and
spelter will soon melt and fill the recess between the joint. The liquid is spread
uniformly over the joint either with a pointed wire piece or by moving the jet
of flame circular over the joint.
4. When the joint is hot common salt is put to soften the glossy hard flux that
sets over the joint.
5. The work is removed from the clamp after it is cooled.
➢ Advantages:
1. Cast and wrought metals can be joined.
2. Metallurgical properties of the base materials are not seriously disturbed.
3. Assemblies can be brazed in a stress free condition.
4. Dissimilar metals can be joined.
5. Non-metals can be joined to metals, when the non-metal is coated.
6. Materials of different thickness can be joined easily.
7. Complex assemblies can be brazed in several steps by using filler metals
with progressively lower melting temperatures.
8. Little or no finishing is required by the brazed joints.
➢ Limitations:
1. High degree of skill required.
2. Limited size of parts.

94
 3. Machining of the joint edges forgetting the desired fit is costly.
➢ Applications of Brazing
1. Parts of bicycle such as frames and rims.
2. Pipe joints subjected to vibrations.
3. Exhaust pipes in motor engines.
4. Band saws.

DEFECTS IN WELDS
1. Porosity and blow holes.
➢ These defects are produced when during solidification and cooling, the gases
like hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen are evolved as a result of sudden drop in
solubility. The gases are absorbed by the molten weld metal from various
sources including the atmosphere, fluxes and electrode coatings.
2. Inclusions.
➢ Inclusions are the slag or non-metallic particles and are derived from the
environments around the weld metal.
3. Cracks.
➢ In steel welds, the cracks are the most serious defects. Cracks may be formed
due to various causes including unequal physical properties of the parent and
weld metals, high stress conditions and faulty welding.
4. Fish eyes.
➢ Fish eyes usually appear on the fractured surfaces of the welded sections in the
form of white areas, circular in shape and varying in size between 1 to 10 mm
diameter.

TESTING OF WELDED JOINTS

➢ It is very essential to have careful examination of the component at each stage

of manufacture. Thus, by inspection or quality control, the welding defects are
located and preventive measures are devised to reduce or eliminate them.
➢ It is very difficult to ascertain whether the finished weld is up to the expected
standard or not. In order to locate the defects and hidden flaws the welded
portion may be inspected visually or examined with instruments.
➢ The welded joints may be subjected to the following tests :

95
 Destructive tests:

— Tensile test;

— Impact test;

— Bending test;

— Hardness test, etc.

Non-destructive tests:

— Visual examination;

— Liquid penetrant test;

— Magnetic-particle inspection test;

— Eddy-current testing;

— Ultrasonic inspection;

— Radiography;

— Thermal testing;

— Hydraulic air pressure tests for pressure vessels.

PRINCIPLES OF WELDING DESIGN

1. Welds should be so located that adequate strength will be provided at the proper
places on a structure or part.
2. Weldments should be so designed as to require a minimum of weld metal.
3. Welds at the valuable cross-sections should be avoided.
4. Laps, straps and stiffening angles should be avoided except as required for strength.
5. The joint should have properly prepared grooves.
6. Avoid large flat falls, which tend to buldge and flux.
7. An important strength weld should not be located where much of it may be
removed later by machining.
8. Welds should not be subjected to bending.
9. Weld bend size should be kept to a minimum to consume weld metal.
10. Components should fit properly before welding.
11. As far as possible, the use of welding fixtures should be avoided.

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 .

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98