Computer Networks Prepared by: A. S.

Mabunda

Chapter I
Generalities about Computer Networks

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Definition:

The computer network is a set of hardware and software means put in place
software to ensure communication between computers, workstations and
computer terminals. Networks vary in size, some are limited to a
office and others spread across the planet.

What is the usefulness of a computer network?

The creation of a network, through the interconnection of computer equipment, enables a

direct communication between connected devices and the sharing of information and
equipment. It is particularly possible to:
• Share expensive devices, such as printers: all
ordinateurs peuvent avoir accès à la même imprimante ;
• Transfer data between users without using portable media
(floppy disks, CDs, USB keys, or others): files can be accessed and
transferred over the network, which eliminates wasted time and inconveniences that
focus on file transfers on portable media. There are also
less restrictions on the size of files that can be transferred on
the network
• Centralize important programs: It is often important that all
users have access to the same program (and not to copies) in order to
allow for collaborative work and instant updates (for example
in a ticket sales agency that must guarantee that the same ticket is not
sold twice). Networking allows offices to have
centralized programs on which all users can work
simultaneously.

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Platform for communications

1.1. Network components

Networks are made up of a physical and software part. The devices and the
supports represent the physical elements or hardware of the network. The hardware
often corresponds to the visible components of the network platform, such as a
laptop, a desktop computer, routers, or the wiring used to connect
the peripherals.

1.1.1. The peripherals

Network devices are generally physical components of the network, such as,
computers, servers, network cards, routers, switches
printers, etc.

Fig. The devices of a network.

1.1.2. The supports

The network support is considered to be the part that serves to connect the devices,
In other words, it's the network cabling. This cabling can be done using cables in
copper, through optical fibers or radio waves (wireless network).

Fig. Network support.

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1.1.2. The services

Services and processes constitute communication programs, called

software that runs on network devices. A network service provides
information in response to a request. The services include many
common network applications that people use daily, such as
email hosting services and web hosting services.

Fig. Network services.

1.2. End and intermediate devices: their role on the network

1.2.1. End devices

The network devices that people are most familiar with are called
end devices. These devices form the interface between the human network and the
communication network. Some of these end devices include the following:

• Computers (workstations, laptops, file servers,

web servers) ;
• Network printers;
• VoIP Phones;
• Surveillance cameras.

In the case of a network, end devices are called hosts. A device

the host is either the source or the destination of a message transmitted through the
network. In order to distinguish between hosts, each host located

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on a network is identified by an address. When a host starts a communication,

It uses the destination host address to indicate where the message should be sent.

In modern networks, a host can act as a client, a server, or both.

Servers are computers that have software installed on them allowing them to
provide information and services to other computers on the network. The
the most common services are:
• file sharing;
• access to information from the World Wide Web;
• the email
• the sharing of printers ;
• e-commerce
• database storage.

Clients are computers that have installed software (for example, a

web browser) allowing them to query and display the obtained information at
to the server. The client is usually an ordinary personal computer.

1.2.2. Intermediate devices

In addition to the end devices that people are used to, the networks
depend on intermediate devices to provide connectivity, in order to
ensure the flow of data across the network. These devices connect the hosts
individuals to the network and can connect multiple individual networks to form
an inter-network. Among these intermediate network devices, we can mention the following:

• Network access devices (hubs, switches, and access points)

wireless) ;
• Inter-network devices (routers);
• Communication servers and modems;
• Security devices (firewalls).

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Data management during their passage through the network is also one
roles of intermediate devices. These devices use the host address
of destination, with information regarding network interconnections, in a way
to determine the path that messages should take through the network. The
processes that run on intermediate network devices fulfill these
functions:

• regenerate and retransmit data signals;

• manage information indicating the paths that exist through the network and
the inter-network;
• indicate to other devices the errors and communication failures;
• route data to other paths in case of link failure;
• allow or deny data flow, according to security parameters.

A router is a network interconnection device that ensures

the routing of computer data between two networks.

Fig. Image of a router (CISCO).

A switch is a device that connects multiple computers (through

cables or fibers) in a computer network. A switch has several ports.
He analyzes the data coming in through his entry ports and filters it to direct it.
only to the appropriate ports.

Fig. Image of a switch (CISCO).

A concentrator (or hub) is a device that allows traffic to be concentrated.

network coming from multiple hosts, and regenerating the signal. The hub, like
the switch has a number of ports. Its sole purpose is to retrieve
the binary data arriving on one port and broadcasting it to all ports.

Fig. Image of a concentrator.

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A wireless access point is a device that allows connection to a network.

using radio waves (electromagnetic). The best-known access points are
wireless routers.

Fig. Image of a wireless router (Wi-Fi).

1.2.3. Other peripherals

Network card: a network card, or local area network adapter, provides the connection
physical to the network from the computer. The media that connect the computer to
network devices connect directly to the network card.

Fig. Network card.

• MAC Address: A MAC (Media Access Control) address is an identifier

physical stored in a network card or a network interface and used for
assign a unique address globally to the card. The MAC address is
generally consisting of 48 bits (6 bytes) and is represented in the form
hexadecimal by separating the bytes with a double point or a dash (by
example, 5E:FF:56:A2:AF:15).

• Physical port: connector or socket on a network device to which the

support is connected to a host or other network device.

1.3. Network supports

Communication over a network occurs over a medium. This medium provides the
channel through which the message travels from the source to the destination.

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Networks primarily use three types of media to interconnect

devices and provide the path through which data can be transmitted. These
the supports are as follows:
• Metal wires in cables;
• Glass fibers or plastic optics (fiber optic cables);
• Wireless transmission.

The coding of the signal that must occur in order to transmit the message differs according to the
type of support. On metal wires, the data is coded in pulses
electric ones that correspond to specific models. The transmissions by fiber
Optics occur through light pulses, in light ranges.
infrared or visible. In wireless transmissions, wave patterns
Electromagnetic waves illustrate the different bit values.

The different types of network media have various advantages and features.
Not all network media have the same characteristics and are not suitable
not for the same objectives. The criteria for choosing a network medium are:
• the distance over which the supports can correctly transmit a signal;
• the environment in which the supports must be installed;
• the amount of data and the transmission rate;
• the cost of supports and installation.

1.3.1. Copper supports

Copper support is widely used for data communications in the

small and medium-sized networks. The wiring used for communications of
Data generally consists of a series of individual wires (for example: cables to
twisted pairs) or a single conductor passing through the center of the cable covered by a
shielding, called coaxial cable. These cables are used to connect computers
from a local network to intermediate devices, such as routers and
switches.

Copper supports.

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1.3.2. Fiber optic supports

Fiber optic wiring uses glass or plastic fibers to guide the

light impulses from the source to the destination. The bits are encoded in the form
light pulses and the raw data transmission rates are very
raised.

The implementation issues of fiber optic support include:

• a generally higher cost than copper materials for the same
distance (but for a higher capacity);
• different skills and equipment to connect and splice the infrastructure
of cable;
• a more delicate manipulation than the copper supports.

Fig. Optical fibers.

1.3.3. Wireless support

Wireless media carry electromagnetic signals at frequencies

radio and microwaves that represent the binary digits of communications from
data. As a network support, wireless transmission is not limited to
conductors or access ways, such as copper and fiber optic supports.

Wireless transmission is sensitive to interference and can be disrupted by

devices as common as cordless landline phones, certain types of lighting
fluorescents, microwave ovens and other wireless communications.

Moreover, wireless communication coverage requiring no access to a wire

support hardware, peripherals and unauthorized users accessing the network
can access the transmission. Network security thus constitutes a
essential component of wireless network administration.

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Fig. Types of wireless supports.

1.4. Network Representations

When representing complex information, such as connectivity of

network and the operation of an important inter-network, it is useful to resort to some
representations and visual graphics. Like any other language, the proper language
the network uses a common set of symbols to represent the different
end devices, network devices, and media. The ability to recognize the
Logical representations of physical network components are essential to be in
measure to visualize the organization and functioning of a network.

Symbols of common data networks.

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2. Local networks, wide area networks

Network infrastructures can vary considerably depending on the size of the area.
covered, the number of connected users, the number and types of services
available.

Geographic breakdown of a network

Computer networks are classified according to their range:

LesPAN: A PAN (Personal Area Network, in French Réseau Personnel), refers to a

restricted network of computer equipment usually used in the context of
for personal use (for example: connecting your portable device to a computer)
to transfer data). The most commonly used media are USB,
wireless technologies such as Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, and infrared.

LesLAN: LAN (Local Area Network, in French Réseau Local). It is a set

computers belonging to the same organization and interconnected in a small
geographical area (example: a set of computers connected to each other in a
laboratory room - practical work.

LesMAN: UnMAN (Metropolitan Area Network, in French metropolitan network)

interconnect several geographically close LANs (at most a few
dozens of km) at high speeds. Thus, a MAN allows two computers
distant from communicating as if they were part of the same local network. A MAN
is made up of switches or routers interconnected by high-speed links (in
general in fiber optics.

LesWAN: A WAN (Wide Area Network) interconnects

several LANs over large geographical distances. WANs operate
thanks to routers that allow choosing the most appropriate route to reach
a machine on the network. The most well-known WAN is the Internet.

Fig. Representation of the different types of network.

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For wireless networks, we add the letter W which stands for Wireless: WPAN, WLAN,
WMAN and WWAN. The figure below represents the different wireless technologies.
used in each type of network.

Fig. Application of different wireless technologies according to the type of network.

2.1. Local Area Networks (LAN)

A LAN generally extends over a single geographical area and provides services
and applications to individuals within a common organizational structure,
such as a company, a campus, or a region. Generally, a local network is
managed by a single organization. The administrative control that manages the strategies
Security and access control apply at the network level.

Fig. A local network.

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2.1.1. Topologies in a local network

The topology of a network constitutes the organization or the relationship of network devices.
and the existing interconnections between them. A logical topology constitutes the way
A network transfers frames (data) from one node (computer) to another. This
organization consists of virtual connections established between the nodes of a network
regardless of the (physical) arrangement of them.

The topologies generally used in networks are as follows:

• Point to point;
• Multiple access (by bus);
• In a ring;
• In star;
• Laced.

[Link]. Point-to-point topology

A point-to-point topology directly connects two nodes together, like
l’illustre la figure, en dessous. Dans les réseaux de données comportant des topologies
Point to point, the media access control protocol can be very simple. All
The frames on the support can only travel to or from the two nodes.
frames are placed on the support by the node located at one end and removed from the
support par celui situé à l’autre extrémité du circuit point à point.

A point-to-point network on which data can only flow in one direction.

times operates as a non-simultaneous bidirectional link. If the data can
to circulate correctly through the connection from each node simultaneously, it
This is a simultaneous bidirectional connection.

Fig. Point-to-point topology.

[Link]. Multiple access topology (or bus)

A multiple access topology allows nodes to communicate using
same shared support. Data from a single node only can be
placed on the medium at any time. Each node sees all the frames located on the
support, but only the node to which the frame is addressed processes the content of the frame.

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Fig. Multiple access topology.

[Link]. Star topology

In a star topology, communication between two nodes in the network occurs through
the intermediary of a central element. This topology is very commonly used in
the LANs. The central element is a switch.

Fig. Star topology.

The advantages of the star topology are as follows:

• Each link is independent of the others.

• We can easily expand the network by adding wiring or by
addition of central elements (switching tree).
• The implementation of the network is gradual.
• The evolution of the network does not require modifications to the network wiring.
existing. Just add additional cables
• The modifications are quick and inexpensive.

[Link]. Mesh topology

A mesh topology is an evolution of star topology; it corresponds to
several point-to-point connections. A network unit can have (1,N) point-to-point connections
points to several other units. Each terminal is connected to all the others.
The disadvantage is the number of connections required, which becomes very high.

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Fig. Mesh topology.

[Link]. Ring topology

In a ring topology, each node receives a frame in turn. If the frame
is not addressed to the node, it transmits it to the next node. A ring can
thus using a controlled access technique called passage of
token.

In a ring, all the nodes located around the ring between the source nodes and
destination examines the framework.

Several access control techniques for the medium can be used with a
ring, depending on the level of control required. For example, one frame at a time
is usually conveyed by the medium. If no data is being processed
transmission, a signal (called a token) can be placed on the medium and a node cannot
place a data frame on the medium only if it has the token.

Fig. Ring topology.

2.2. Wide Area Networks (WAN)

A wide area network is a network that connects local area networks (LANs).
When a company or organization has locations separated by
Due to significant geographic distances, it may be necessary to use a provider.
telecommunications services to interconnect local networks to them
different locations. Telecommunications service providers are in
general of telephone operators or internet service providers (ISPs), in general
they represent the wide area network (WAN).

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Wide area networks use specially designed networking devices for

perform interconnections between local networks such as routers, switches
and others.

Fig. Local networks and wide area network.

In brief, we can say that the main characteristics of wide area networks are the
following:
• They allow interconnecting LANs;
• they usually connect devices separated by an area
a geographical area larger than can be covered by a local network;
• they use the services of operators, such as telephone companies or
cable, satellite systems and network providers.

2.2.1. Internet

The Internet is an example of a wide area network. It is indeed the largest wide area network.
used in the world.

Fig. Representation of the internet network.

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The gradual interconnection of all the computers on the planet works like a
gigantic network. But in practice, these computers are not directly
interconnected with each other. Computers are first interconnected within a
organization or a building thus forming a multitude of small sub-networks.

Each computer connected directly to the Internet has a number

unique identification (called IP address) and can send and receive
information with any other computer or machine having an address
IP.

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Chapter II
Protocols and layered models

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The protocols

All communications across a network are governed by rules.

predetermined called protocols. These protocols are specific to
features of conversation and are implemented in software and hardware
loaded on each computer and network device.

The success of communication between computers on a network requires

the interaction of many different protocols. A group of associated protocols among
they are necessary to fulfill a communication function is called a series of
protocols or protocol stack.

Network protocol suites describe processes such as:

• the format or structure of the message;
• the method by which network devices share information
on paths with other networks;
• how and when error and system messages are transferred
between devices;
• the configuration and termination of data transfer sessions.

Technology independent protocols

Many types of devices can communicate using the same
sets of protocols. Indeed, the protocols specify network functionalities and
not the underlying technology that supports these features.

Protocols and standards in the industry

Often, many protocols that include a suite of protocols make
reference to other widely used protocols or industry standards. A standard
is a process or protocol recognized by the networking industry and ratified by a
standard organization, such as IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics)
Engineers), IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force) or ISO (International
Organization for Standardization.

The use of standards in the development and implementation of protocols

guarantee that products from different manufacturers can work together
together to create effective communications. If a specific manufacturer does not adhere
not strictly adhering to a protocol, its equipment or software may not
communicate correctly with products from other manufacturers.

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1.1. Use of Layered Models

To visualize the interaction between different protocols, a layered model is

generally used. A layered model describes the functioning of protocols in
its role in each of the layers, as well as the interaction with the upper layers and
lower.

The use of a layered model has certain advantages for describing

protocols and operations on a network. The use of a layered model:
• help in designing a protocol, as protocols that work at a
specific layers have defined information from which they
act, as well as an interface defined in relation to the upper layers and
lower;
• favors competition as products from different suppliers can
work together;
• prevents the modification of technology or features at the level
a layer affects upper and lower layers;
• provides a common language to describe functions and features
network.

1.1.1. Protocol and reference models

A protocol model provides a model that closely matches the structure.

of a particular suite of protocols. The hierarchical set of associated protocols
in a suite generally represents all the required features for the interface
between the human network and the data network. The TCP/IP model is a model of
protocol.

A reference model provides a common reference to maintain consistency.

in all types of protocols and network services. A reference model is not
intended to be an implementation specification, nor to provide a level of detail
sufficient to precisely define the services of network architecture. The main
The objective of a reference model is to help achieve a clearer understanding.
of functions and the processes involved. The OSI model (Open Systems
Interconnection is the most widespread inter-network reference model. It is
used for the design of data networks, for specifications of
operation and troubleshooting.

Although the TCP/IP and OSI models are the main models used when it comes to
of network features, the designers of protocols, services or devices
networks can create their own models to represent their products. Finally, the
designers must communicate with the industry by associating their products or their
services to OSI or TCP/IP models or both.

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Fig. OSI and TCP/IP model.

3.2. Interaction of protocols

The interaction between a web server and a web browser is an example of

the use of a suite of protocols in network communications. This interaction
uses several protocols and standards in the information exchange process. The
different protocols work together to ensure that messages are received
and understood by both parties.

Among these protocols, let's mention (we will take the layers of the OSI model):

Layer 1 (physical) protocols:

• Bluetooth: a wireless communication protocol allowing data exchange
at very short distance
• ADSL (Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line): protocol allowing the use of a
telephone line for transmitting and receiving digital data or to
connect to the internet.

Layer 2 Protocols (Data Link):

• Ethernet: a protocol very commonly used for data transmission
on twisted pair cables (also known as network cable)
• Wi-Fi: wireless communication protocol for connecting
several computing devices within a computer network of size
average.

Layer 3 protocols (network):

• IP (Internet Protocol) is a protocol that provides a unique addressing service.
for all connected devices in a network

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• ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) is a protocol used to convey

control and error messages, for example when a service or a host
is inaccessible
• ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) is a protocol that allows for the
translation of IP addresses to MAC addresses.

Layer 4 (transport) protocols:

• TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is a protocol that performs the
Data segmentation manages the flow of data. It operates in three phases:
the establishment of the connection, data transfers, and the termination of the connection
• UDP (User Datagram Protocol) is a protocol that allows the transmission of
data in a very simple way between two entities, each being defined by
an IP address and a port number.

Layer 5 protocols (session):

• NetBIOS : protocole principalement utilisé par Microsoft pour la gestion des
sessions under Windows
• RPC (Remote Procedure Call): protocol used in client-server networks
server to ensure communication between the client and the server.

Layer 6 protocols (Presentation):

• ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) is a protocol
character encoding that allows representing characters in code
binary.

Layer 7 (application) protocols:

• HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol) is a client-server communication protocol.
server that ensures the services and operation of web applications
• SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) is a communication protocol used
to transfer the email (messaging)
• FTP (File Transfer Protocol) is a protocol designed for file exchange over the
network. It allows for downloading files from the internet.

Port addressing
In general, protocols are associated with logical ports and these ports are numbered.

There are different types of port numbers:

Reserved ports (numbers 0 to 1023). These numbers are reserved for services and
applications. They are generally reserved for HTTP-type applications
(Web server), POP3/SMTP (mail server) and Telnet;

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Ports assigned (numbers 1024 to 49151). These port numbers are allocated to some
user processes or applications. These processes are essentially
specific applications that a user has chosen to install rather than
common applications that would receive a reserved port.

Fig. Example of the ports.

1.3. Protocol data units and encapsulation

Encapsulation: When application data goes down the protocol stack.

view of their transmission over the network medium, different protocols add
information at each level. This is the encapsulation process.

The shape that data takes on any layer is called a unit of

protocol data. During encapsulation, each subsequent layer encapsulates
the protocol data unit it receives from the upper layer while respecting the
protocol in use. At each stage of the process, a unit of data of
the protocol has a different name that reflects its new appearance:
• Data: general term for protocol data units used in
application layer level;
• protocol data unit of the transport layer;
• Packet: protocol data unit of the network layer;
• Frame: protocol data unit of the network access layer;
• Bits: unit of protocol data used during physical transmission of
data through the support.

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Fig. Encapsulation process.

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Layered models

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OSI Model

The OSI model was designed by the International Organization for Standardization ISO.
(International Organization for Standardization) to provide a framework in which
design a set of open system protocols.

The OSI model provides a comprehensive list of functions and services that can
intervene at each layer. It also describes the interaction of each layer with the
top and bottom layers.

Fig. OSI model.

1.1. Role of each layer

Layer 7 (Application): The application layer enables connectivity.

end to end between individuals in the human network. It serves as a window for the
users, processes, and network services, in other words, it serves as an interface
man-machine between the human network and the computer network.

Layer 6 (presentation): Layers 1 to 5 transport raw bytes without

worry about their meaning. But what needs to be conveyed in practice is
text and numbers. The role of the presentation layer is therefore to convert the
application data manipulated by users in binary chains effectively
transportable by the network.

Layer 5 (Session): The session layer establishes a link between two programs or
two machines to communicate. It allows the establishment of a session between the
network users.

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Layer 4 (Transport): The transport layer defines services that enable

segment, transfer, and reassemble the communication data between the
end devices.

Layer 3 (Network): The network layer provides network addressing services (for example,
IP addresses) and decides the path that the data must take during
communications.

Layer 2 (Data Link): The data link layer describes the methods
exchange of frames between devices on a medium.

Layer 1 (Physical): The physical layer describes the mechanical, electrical means,
functional and methodological approaches to activate, manage, and deactivate
physical connections for the transmission of bits to and from a device
network.

1.1.1. Connection-oriented and connectionless protocols

Protocols are generally classified into two categories based on the level of control of the
data that we desire:

• Connection-oriented protocols: These are protocols that operate a control

data transmission during a communication established between two
machines. The receiving machine sends acknowledgments when
communication, thus the transmitting machine ensures the validity of the data
that she sends.

• Connectionless protocols: This is a mode of communication

in which the sending machine transmits data without notifying the machine
receiver, and the receiving machine receives the data without sending a notice of
reception at the first.

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1.2. Detailed operation of the layers

We will focus more on the functionalities of layers 1, 2, 3, and 4 of the

OSI model.

1.2.1. Couche Transport (4)

The transport layer segments the data and is responsible for the necessary control over
reassembly of these data blocks in the various communication streams. For this
to do, he must:
• monitor individual communications between applications
residing on the source and destination hosts;
• segment the data and manage each individual block;
• reassemble the segments into application data streams;
• identify the different applications.

Follow-up on individual conversations

Any host can host multiple applications that communicate over the network.
Each of these applications communicates with one or more hosted applications.
on remote hosts. It is the responsibility of the transport layer to manage the numerous streams of
communication between these applications.

Data segmentation
Each application creates a data stream to send to a remote application; these
data must therefore be prepared to be shipped on the medium in the form of
easy-to-manage blocks. Transport layer protocols describe the services that
segment the data coming from the application layer. This includes
the encapsulation must apply to each block of data. Headers must be
added to each application data block at the transport layer for
indicate which communication it is associated with.

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Fig. The segmentation.

Split the data into smaller blocks and send them from the source to the
destination allows multiple different communications to be interwoven (to make
the purpose of multiplexing) on the same network.

Reconstruction of segments
The host receiving the data blocks can direct them to the appropriate application. It is necessary
Furthermore, these individual data blocks can be reassembled into a stream of
complete data useful to the application layer. The protocols involved at the level of
the transport layer manages how the header information of the layer
transport is used to reassemble the data blocks into streams that will be transmitted to the
application layer.

Identification of applications
In order for data flows to reach the applications they are intended for, the
The transport layer must identify the target application. To do this, the transport layer assigns
an identifier for each application. The TCP/IP protocols call this
identify a port number. Each software process needing to access the
the network is assigned a unique port number on its host. This port number is
included in the transport layer header to specify which application this block
data is associated.

[Link]. Control of conversations

Establishment of a session: The transport layer is able to direct the connection
by creating sessions between applications. These connections prepare the applications
to communicate with each other before the data transfer. In these sessions, it is

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possible to manage communication data between two precisely

applications.

Reliable routing: Many circumstances can lead to corruption or

loss of a block of data during its transfer over the network. The transport layer ensures
to ensure that all blocks reach their destination by requesting from the source device
to retransmit the data that may have been lost.

Delivery in a defined order: Given that networks provide a multitude

of routes where transmission times vary, data may arrive
in disorder. By numbering and organizing the segments, the transport layer
ensures that these segments are reassembled in the correct order.

Flow control: Network hosts have limited resources, for example in

what concerns memory or bandwidth. When the transport layer determines
that these resources are overexploited, some protocols may request to
the application that sends the data to reduce the flow. This is carried out at the level of the
transport layer by regulating the amount of data that the source transmits in the form
of the group. Flow control helps prevent the loss of segments on the network and
to render the broadcasts useless.

[Link]. The TCP and UDP protocol

The two most commonly used protocols in the transport layer are the
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
Protocol).

UDP Protocol

The UDP protocol is a simple and connectionless (unconnected) protocol. It

has the advantage of imposing little overhead for data routing. The
Communication blocks used in the UDP protocol are called datagrams.

The UDP protocol is mainly used by applications for: Name system

domain (DNS); video streaming; Voice over IP (VoIP).

Fig. UDP Datagram.

Meaning of the fields:

Port Source: indicates from which port the packet was sent.
Destination Port: indicates to which port the package should be sent.

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Length: indicates the total length (expressed in bytes) of the UDP segment (in-
header and data). The minimum length is therefore 8 bytes (header size).
Checksum: this allows us to ensure the integrity of the received packet.
when it is different from zero. It is calculated over the entire UDP header and
data.

TCP protocol

The TCP protocol is a connection-oriented protocol (with a connection). The protocol

TCP specifies other functions, namely ordered delivery, reliable routing.
and flow control. Each segment of the TCP protocol uses 20 bytes of overhead.
in the header to encapsulate the data of the application layer.

The TCP protocol is used by applications such as web browsers,

emails, file transfer, etc.

Fig. TCP Segment.

Meaning of the fields:

Port source: This field is coded on 16 bits and represents the source port number.
Port destination: This field is coded on 16 bits and represents the port number.
destination.
Order number: This field is coded on 32 bits and corresponds to the number of the
segment. This value allows to locate at what point in the data stream the segment,
who has arrived, must be situated in relation to the other segments.
Receipt number: This field is encoded on 32 bits and indicates the next number of
expected segment. For example, if it is worth 1500, it means that all segments
<1500 ont été reçus.
Header length: Header length in 32-bit words (options make
part of the header).
Window: This field is coded on 16 bits and corresponds to the number of bytes that the
recipient wishes to receive without acknowledgment.
Checksum: This field is encoded on 16 bits and represents the
validity of the segment.

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Pointer for urgent data: Relative position of the last urgent data.
Options: Optional.
Data: Sequences of bytes transmitted by the application.

1.2.2. Network Layer (3)

The network layer provides services for the exchange of data elements.
individuals on the network between identified endpoints. To carry out this
end-to-end transport, layer 3 uses four basic processes:
• addressing;
• encapsulation;
• routing;
• the uncapping.

Addressing
The network layer must first provide a mechanism for addressing these
end devices. If individual data elements need to be routed
towards an endpoint, it must have a unique address. In a network
IPv4 (IP version 4), when this address is added to a device, it is then
designated as host.

Encapsulation
The network layer must also provide encapsulation. Not only the
devices must be identified by an address, but individual items
(layer network protocol data units) must also contain these
addresses. During the encapsulation process, layer 3 receives the data unit from
Layer 4 protocol and adds a layer 3 header, or label, to create the unit.
of layer 3 protocol data. In a network layer context, this unit of
Protocol data is called a packet. When creating a packet, the header must
including, among others, the address of the host to which it is sent. This address is called
destination address. The layer 3 header also contains the host address
transmitter. This address is called the source address.

Routing
The network layer must then provide services to route these packets to their
destination host. Source and destination hosts are not always connected to
same network. In fact, the packet may have to pass through many networks. On the way,
each packet must be routed on the network to reach its final destination. The
Intermediate devices that connect networks are called routers. Their role
involves selecting the paths to direct packets to their destination. This
The process is called routing.

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During routing through an internetwork, the packet may traverse many

intermediate devices. Each route taken by a packet to reach the
The following device is called out. When routing the packet, its content
(transport layer protocol data unit) remains intact until it
reaches the destination host.

Uncapping
Finally, the packet arrives at the destination host and is processed by layer 3. The host
check the destination address to verify that the packet was correctly addressed to it
device. If the address is correct, the packet is decapsulated by the network layer, and
the protocol data unit of layer 4 contained in the packet is transmitted to the
appropriate transport layer service.

[Link]. The Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4)

The network layer services constitute the IP (Internet Protocol) protocol.
Version 4 of the IP protocol (IPv4) is currently the most widely used version. It is about
the only layer 3 protocol used to transport user data over the Internet.

The IP protocol was designed not to overload networks. It only provides the
required functions to transfer a packet from a source to a destination by passing
by an interconnected system of networks. This protocol is not intended for monitoring and
packet flow management. These functions are performed by other protocols of others
couches.

Basic characteristics of the IPv4 protocol:

• Without connection: no connection is established before sending packets of
data.
• At best (unreliable): no surcharge is used to guarantee the
packet transmission.
• Independent of media: operates independently of the medium carrying the
data.

Fig. En-tête IPv4.

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This course examines the following 6 key areas:

Destination IP address: The destination IP address field contains a
32-bit binary value representing the network layer address of the host
recipient of the package.
Source IP address: The source IP address field contains a binary value of
32 bits representing the network layer address of the source host of the packet.
- Lifespan: The TTL (Time to live) lifespan is a binary value of 8 bits
indicating the remaining lifespan of the packet. The TTL value is decremented by 1 at
less each time the packet is processed by a router (that is to say, each
jump). When the value becomes zero, the router drops or abandons the packet
and it is withdrawn from the network data flow. This mechanism prevents packets from
being able to reach their destination are transferred indefinitely from one router to
the other in a routing loop. If routing loops were allowed to
if continued, the network would be congested with data packets never reaching their
destination. Decrementing the TTL value at each hop ensures that it will eventually
become null and the packet with the expired TTL field will be deleted.
Protocol: This 8-bit binary value indicates the type of useful data that the
Transport packet. The protocol field allows the network layer to transmit
the data to the appropriate upper layer protocol. (Examples of values:
01ICMP ;06TCP ;17UDP.
Service type: The service type field contains an 8-bit binary value.
used to define the priority of each packet. This value allows for the application of
a quality of service (QoS) mechanism for high-priority packets, such as
those carrying voice data of telephony. The router processing the packets
can be configured to determine the packet to be transmitted first based on
of the service type value.
Fragment offset: A router may need to fragment a packet during its
transmission of one medium to another. When fragmentation occurs, the packet
IPv4 uses the fragment offset field and the MF indicator in the IP header to
reconstruct the packet upon its arrival at the destination host. The offset field
the fragment identifies the order in which to place the packet fragment in the
reconstruction.
Additional fragment indicator: The defragment indicator
supplementary (MF) is a single bit of the Indicator field used with the
offset of the fragment for the fragmentation and reconstruction of packets.
The additional fragment indicator is defined, indicating that it is not
of the last fragment of a packet. When a receiving host sees a packet arrive
with the indicator MF = 1, it examines the offset of the fragment to see where this
fragment must be placed in the reconstructed packet. When a receiving host
receives a frame with the indicator MF = 0 and a non-zero value in the field
of the fragment offset, it places this fragment at the end of the reconstructed packet. The

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Fragmentation information of a non-fragmented packet is all null.

(MF = 0, fragment offset = 0).

Indicator do not fragment: The do not fragment indicator (DF) is a single

Field indicator stating that packet fragmentation is not
authorized. If the Don't Fragment indicator bit is set, fragmentation
the packet is NOT allowed. If a router has to fragment a packet to
allow its downward transmission to the data link layer but that
If the DF bit is set to 1, the router drops this packet.

[Link]. Network addressing: IPv4

Addressing is one of the primary functions of network layer protocols.
allows the implementation of data transmission between hosts located on a
same network or on different networks.

Fig. IPv4 configuration under Windows.

All devices belonging to a network must be identified in a way

unique. At the network layer, communication packets must be
identified by the source and destination addresses of the systems on both sides. With
IPv4 addressing means that each packet contains, in the header of the
Layer 3, a 32-bit source address and a 32-bit destination address.

Fig. Decimal and binary representation of an IP address.

Decimal to point: The binary configurations representing IPv4 addresses are

expressed in decimal point, separating each byte with a point. By
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for example, the address 10101100000100000000010000010100 is expressed in

decimal point as follows: [Link].

[Link].A. Network and host parties

Although the 32-bit set defines the IPv4 address of a host, a variable number of
bits constitute the host part of the address. The number of bits contained in the host part
determine the number of possible hosts on a network.

Subnet mask

To define the network and host parts of an address, devices use a

32-bit configuration called 'subnet mask', as indicated in the
figure. We express the subnet mask in the same decimal separated format
by points that of the IPv4 address. The subnet mask is created by placing
the binary number "1" in each bit position that represents the network part and in
placing the binary number '0' in each bit position that represents the host part.

Fig. Network and host addresses.

As indicated in the figure above, the prefix /24 corresponds to the mask of
subnet and is expressed under the shape [Link]
(11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000). The remaining bits (on the right) of the mask of
Subnets are zeros and indicate the host part of the address on the network.

Class addressing

Classes A, B, and C unicast address defined networks of a certain

size, as well as specific address blocks for these networks, as indicated in
The figure. A company or an administration can allocate an entire block of addresses to itself.
of class A, B, or C. The use of the address space is called class addressing.

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IP Address Classes

Address blocks A
A class A address block has been created to support very large networks.
large size, containing more than 16 million host addresses. The IPv4 addresses of
Class A uses a /8 fixed prefix, with the first octet indicating the network address.
The remaining three octets correspond to host addresses.

Class B blocks
The Class B addressing space was created to meet the needs of networks.
medium or large size, containing more than 65,000 hosts. The IP addresses of
Class B uses the first two octets to indicate the network address, the two octets
The following correspond to the host addresses.

Class C blocks
The address space of class C is the most available of the address classes. This
The address space is reserved for small networks, consisting of 254 hosts.
maximum.

Class C address blocks use the /24 prefix. Thus, a Class C network does not
can only use the last octet for host addresses, the first three octets
corresponding to the network address.

Network address, broadcast address and host address

In the address range of each IPv4 network, there are three types of address:
• The network address: the address that refers to the network;
• The broadcast address: a specific address used to send the
data to all network hosts;
• Host addresses: addresses assigned to endpoint devices on the
network.

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Fig. Types addresses.

The network address

The network address is generally used to refer to a network. It is a
a more practical and representative way to identify the network than to use a term
of the type 'the first network'. All hosts of the network [Link], for example, have the
same network bits.

In the IPv4 address range of a network, the smallest address is reserved for the address
network. In the host portion, this address contains a '0' for each host bit.

Adresse de diffusion
The IPv4 broadcast address is a specific address assigned to each network. It
allows data to be transmitted to all hosts on a network. To do this, a
A host can send a single packet addressed to the network's broadcast address.

The broadcast address corresponds to the highest address in the address range of a
network. This refers to the address in which the bits of the host part are all '1'.
For example, for the [Link] network with a 24-bit subnet mask, the broadcast address
would be [Link].

Host addresses
As mentioned earlier, each end device requires a unique address.
to deliver a packet to a host. In IPv4 addresses, we assign values
located between the network address and the broadcast address for the devices on this network.

The formula that determines the total number of hosts a network can have
is the following: 2n- 2, where 'n' is the number of bits in the host part.

Example: Let's take a address network of class C

[Link]=11000000.10101000.00000001.00000000. In this address the
The first three octets represent the network part and the last octet represents the host part.
So: number of guests = 28- 2 = 254.
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[Link].B. Creation of subnets

The creation of sub-networks allows for the creation of multiple logical networks from a
single address block. We create the subnets using one or more bits
host as network bits. To do this, it is appropriate to develop the mask for
borrow a few bits from the host part and add to the network bits. More bits of the
host part is borrowed, more subnets can be created. Each bit
borrowed allows to double the number of available subnets. For example, in
borrowing 1 bit, you can define 2 subnets, by borrowing 2 bits, you can define
4 subnets. However, for each borrowed bit, the number of available addresses
by subnet decreases.

Subnet calculation formula

Number of subnets = 2noùn= the number of bits borrowed for the sub-
networks.

Example with 2 subnets:

Figure. Bit borrowing for subnets.

In our example (figure above), we borrowed 1 bit from the host part to
create subnets. So we can create 21= 2 subnets.

The number of hosts: To calculate the number of hosts per subnet, one must use the
formule2n - Where is the number of bits left for the hosts. After application of
this formula, (272 = 126), it follows that each subnet can have up to
126 hosts.

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Subnet Network address Guest beach Address of

diffusion
0 [Link]/25 [Link] - [Link] [Link]
1 [Link]/25 [Link] - [Link] [Link]
Table. Addressing scheme: example 2 subnet.

Example with 4 subnets:

Let's take the example of a network requiring 4 subnets. Report to
you in the figure below.

Borrowing bits for subnets.

In this example, we borrowed 2 bits from the host part, so we can

create 224 subnets and each subnet can have up to 26- 2 = 62 hosts.

Subnet Network address Host beach Address of

diffusion
0 [Link]/26 [Link] - [Link] [Link]
1 [Link]/26 [Link] - [Link] [Link]
2 [Link]/26 [Link] - [Link] [Link]
3 [Link]/26 [Link] - [Link] [Link]
Tab. Addressing scheme: subnet example 4.

[Link].C. Default gateway

A bridge is the generic term for a device that connects two networks.
computer networks (for example, a local area network and the Internet). It therefore performs
packet routing but can also perform more advanced processing on
These. Most often, it also serves as a firewall or proxy.

A gateway address is simply, in a local network, the IP address of the

machine that connects the local network to a wide area network (for example, IP address
of the router).

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[Link]. Application of the AND operation

Inside data network devices, there is a digital logic
applied to interpret addresses. When an IPv4 packet is created or transmitted,
The destination network address must be extracted from the destination address. This is
possible through the logical operator AND.

The IPv4 host address is logically added by an AND operation to its mask of
subnet to determine the network address to which the host is associated. When
this AND operation is applied between the address and the subnet mask, the
The obtained result is the network address.

Fig. Using the subnet mask to determine the host's network address
[Link].

Reasons for using the AND operation

The devices on a network perform the AND operation between the host address and the
subnet mask for various reasons:
Routers use it to determine an acceptable route for a packet.
entrant
A source host must determine whether a packet should be sent directly to a
local network host or directed to the gateway.

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[Link]. Public and Private IPv4 Addresses

Public and private addresses.

[Link].A. Private IPv4 addresses

The address blocks of the private space are reserved for private networks (local networks).
Generally, guests who do not require Internet access can use the
private addresses without limitation. However, internal networks must configure
network addressing schemes to ensure that hosts on private networks use
IP addresses that are unique within their network environment.

Here are the ranges of private addresses:

[Link] to [Link] ([Link] /8)
from [Link] to [Link] ([Link] /12),
de192.168.0.0 to [Link] ([Link] /16).

[Link].B. Public addresses

These addresses are normally assigned to hosts publicly accessible from
Internet.

Unlike private IP addresses, public IP addresses are not used

in a local network but only on the internet (wide area network). The routers
have a public IP address on the wide area network side, which makes the network
local (or a host) visible on the internet. But also, when you access a website
You are using the public address of the web server.

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A public IP address is unique in the world, which is not the case for addresses.
private ones that must be unique within the same local network but not at the level
planetary as these addresses cannot be routed on the internet.

[Link].C. The exceptions

The network [Link] is reserved for local loopback tests, including.
the IP address [Link] which is the 'localhost' address, that is to say your local loopback
PC.
- The network [Link] is also reserved (and used in particular to define a route
by default on a router.)

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[Link]. IOS commands and CISCO router configuration

In this section, we will describe the procedures to follow to connect and

configure the routers.

These procedures require the use of the Cisco Internetwork operating system.
Operating System (IOS) and related configuration files for devices
intermediaries.

It is essential that administrators and network technicians understand the

configuration process with IOS. The practical work will allow you to
familiarize yourself with the methods generally used to configure and monitor the
Cisco devices.

• Fundamental notions of IOS

Like a personal computer, a router cannot function without a system.

of operation. Without an operating system, the hardware is inoperative. Cisco IOS is the
Cisco peripheral device system software. It is a core technology that extends to
practically all Cisco products. Cisco IOS is run by most of the
Cisco devices, regardless of their size and type. This software is for example
used for routers, local area network switches, small access points
wireless, large routers equipped with dozens of interfaces and many others
devices.

Cisco IOS provides the following network services to devices:

basic routing and switching functions;

reliable and secure access to network resources;
network scalability.

The operational details of Cisco IOS vary from one device to another depending on the
but and the function game of the device.

To access the services provided by IOS, you generally use an interface of

command line (ILC). The functions accessible through ILC vary depending on the version
of Cisco IOS and the type of device.

The IOS file itself, which reaches several megabytes in size, is stored in
a semi-permanent memory area called Flash. Flash memory provides a
non-volatile storage. In other words, this memory keeps its content when the
The device is no longer powered. Unlike read-only memory, however, the
Flash memory allows for modification or overwriting of its content if necessary.

Thanks to Flash memory, it is possible to upgrade IOS by installing

new versions or to add new functions to it. In many
Router architectures, IOS is copied into RAM when powered on
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device and it runs in RAM. This function improves performance

of the device.

Access methods

There are several ways to access the ILC environment. The most common methods are
widespread use:

- the console port;

- the Telnet or SSH protocol;
the AUX port.

Console port

It is possible to access the ILC environment via a console session as well.

called CTY line.

The console directly connects a computer or terminal to the console port of the
router or switch via a slow serial link.

The console port is a management port that allows out-of-band access to a router.
The console port is accessible even if no network service has been configured on the
Peripheral. The console port is often used to access a device.
before the network services are launched or when they are failing.

The console is used especially in the following circumstances:

initial configuration of the network device;

disaster recovery and troubleshooting procedures when remote access is
impossible
password recovery procedures.

When a router is commissioned for the first time, its network settings do not
have not been configured. The router cannot therefore communicate via a network. For
prepare the initial startup and configuration of the router, a computer running a
the terminal emulation software is connected to the console port of the device. Thus,
it is possible to enter commands using the computer keyboard connected to
router configuration.

If it is impossible to remotely access a router while it is operating, a

connecting to its console port can allow a computer to determine the status of
Peripheral. By default, the console transmits startup and debugging messages.
and device error.

For many IOS devices, console access does not require any by default.
security form. However, it is advisable to set a password for the console
to prevent unauthorized access to the device. In case of loss of the password,

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a special procedure game allows access to the device without a password. It is

recommended to place the device in a room or a locked cabinet for
prohibit physical access.

Port AUX

Another way to start a remote ILC session is to establish a connection.

switched telephone through a modem connected to the AUX port of the router. Like
From the console connection, this method does not require either configuration or availability.
network services on the device.

The AUX port can also be used locally, like the console port, with a
direct connection to a computer running a terminal emulation program. The
console port is required for router configuration, but the routers do not
not all have an AUX port. Furthermore, it is better to use the console port
rather than the AUX port for troubleshooting, as it displays messages by default.
startup, debugging, and error of the router. Generally, the AUX port is not used.
locally instead of the console port only in case of issues related to the console port,
for example when you ignore certain console parameters.

Telnet and SSH

Another method of remote access to an ILC session involves establishing a connection.

Telnet with the router. Unlike console connections, Telnet sessions
require active network services on the device. The network device must
have at least one active interface configured with a layer 3 address,
example of an IPv4 address. Cisco IOS devices have a process
Telnet server that is launched at device startup. IOS also contains
a Telnet client.

A host equipped with a Telnet client can access the ongoing vty sessions on the

Cisco device. For security reasons, IOS requires the use of a password.
in the Telnet session as a minimal authentication method. The methods
allowing to configure logins and passwords will be
explained further in this chapter.

The Secure Shell (SSH) protocol allows for more secure remote access to devices.
Like Telnet, this protocol provides the structure for a session opening to
distance, but it uses more secure network services.

SSH provides a password authentication that is more resilient than that of Telnet and
uses encryption during the transport of session data. The SSH session
encrypts all communications between the client and the IOS device. This preserves the
confidentiality of the user ID, password, and session details

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management. It is recommended to always use SSH instead of Telnet as far as

possible.

Most recent versions of Cisco IOS contain an SSH server. In some

devices, this service is enabled by default. Other devices require a
activation of the SSH server.

iOS devices also include an SSH client allowing to establish

SSH sessions with other devices. Similarly, you can use a computer.
distant equipped with an SSH client to start a secure ILC session. The software of
SSH client is not provided by default on all operating systems. It may therefore
it may be necessary to acquire, install, and configure an SSH client software for
your computer.

2. The configuration files

Network devices need two types of software to operate: the

operating system and configuration software. The operating system, like
that of any computer, facilitates the basic use of components
peripheral materials.

The configuration files, for their part, contain the commands of the Cisco software.
IOS used to customize the features of a Cisco device. The
commands are analyzed (translated and executed) by the Cisco IOS software at
system startup (from a file called startup-config) or when they are
entries in the ILC environment in configuration mode.

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A network administrator creates a configuration that defines the desired functionality.

of a Cisco device. The size of a configuration file usually ranges from
a few hundred to a few thousand bytes.

Configuration file types

A Cisco network device contains two configuration files:

the current configuration file that the device uses during operation
normal
the initial configuration file, which is loaded when the device starts
and serves as a backup copy of the configuration.

It is also possible to store a configuration file remotely on a server.

en guise de copie de sauvegarde.

Initial configuration file

The initial configuration file (startup-config) is used at system startup.

to configure the device. The initial configuration file, called startup-
config is stored in non-volatile RAM (NVRAM). Like NVRAM memory
it is non-volatile, this file remains intact when the Cisco device is powered off.
The startup-config files are loaded into RAM every time the router is
started or reloaded. Once loaded into RAM, the configuration file
initial is considered to be the current configuration, also called
running-config.

Configuration file in progress

The current configuration stored in RAM is used to exploit the

network device.

The current configuration is modified when the network administrator configures the
device. Changes to the current configuration take effect immediately.
their effects on the functioning of the Cisco device. After performing some
Modifications, the administrator has the option to save them in the startup file.
configuration so that they can be reused during the next restart of the device.

Since the current configuration file is in RAM, its content is

lost if the device is turned off or restarted. Changes made to the file
running-config are also lost if they have not been saved to the file
startup-config before powering off the device.

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3. CISCO IOS Mode

Cisco IOS was designed as a modal operating system. The adjective modal qualifies
a system offering different modes of operation, each with its own domain of
operation. The modes of the ILC environment are organized according to a structure
hierarchical.

In order from top to bottom, the main modes are as follows:

user execution mode;

privileged execution mode;
- global configuration mode;
other specific configuration modes.

Chaque mode permet d’effectuer des tâches particulières et possède un jeu de

specific commands that are available when the mode is in effect. By
For example, to configure a router interface, the user must enter mode
interface configuration. All configurations entered in configuration mode
The interface only applies to the interface in question.

Some commands are available to all users; others cannot

to be executed only after switching to the mode in which they are available. Each
mode is identified by a distinct prompt that only allows entering commands
appropriate for this mode.

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It is possible to configure the hierarchical structure of modes for security purposes.

A different authentication may be required for each hierarchical mode. This
allows to control the leeway that can be granted to network staff.

The figure shows the hierarchical structure of IOS modes with prompts and
classic features.

Order invitations

In the ILC environment, the mode in which you are working is recognizable by its
unique command prompt. This prompt consists of words and symbols that
appear at the beginning of the command line. As the word prompt indicates, the
the system invites you to make an entry.

By default, any prompt starts with the device name. After the name of the
device, the rest of the prompt specifies the mode. For example, the default prompt for the
global configuration mode on a router is:

Router(config)#

As shown in the figure, when you enter commands and switch from one mode to
The other, the prompt changes to reflect the current context.

Main modes

The two main modes of execution are:

the user mode;

the preferred mode.

For security reasons, Cisco IOS provides two distinct access modes for sessions.
execution.

These two main access modes are used within the framework of the structure.
hierarchical of the Cisco ILC environment.

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These two modes offer similar commands. However, the execution mode
The privileged individual enjoys broader powers in the actions that he is allowed to execute.

User execution mode

The user execution mode has restricted powers but allows for operation.
certain basic operations. User mode is at the top of the
hierarchical structure of IOS modes. This mode is the initial entry point into
the ILC environment of an IOS router.

The user execution mode only allows a limited number of commands.

basic surveillance. It is often referred to as a "viewing only" mode.
for this reason. User execution mode does not allow any command
likely to modify the device configuration.

By default, no authentication is required to access the execution mode.

user from the console. It is therefore advisable to define a method
authentication during the initial setup.

The user execution mode is recognized by the ILC prompt that ends with the symbol
Here is an example showing the symbol > in the prompt:

Router>

Preferred mode

To execute the configuration and management commands, the network administrator

must use privileged execution mode or a specific mode located lower in the
hierarchy.

The privileged execution mode is recognized by the prompt that ends with the symbol #:

Router#

By default, the privileged execution mode does not require authentication. Therefore, it is
It is recommended to ensure that authentication is configured.

To access global configuration mode and other configuration modes

more specifically, it is necessary to go through privileged execution mode. We
we will discuss in detail the configuration of devices and some of the modes of
configuration further in this section.

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4. Basic IOS Commands

Step Invite Order

Activate privilege mode Router> enable
Configure the router from the terminal Router# configure terminal
Name the router Router(config)# hostnameCESIM
Assign an encrypted password to the mode enable secret cisco1
CESIM(config)#
privilege
Set a text password in privileged mode CESIM (config)# enable passwordcisco2
Configure the console line CESIM (config)# line with 0
Enable console password verification CESIM (config-line)# login
Set a user password at login passwordcisco3
CESIM (config-line)#
from a console session
Configure the Telnet line CESIM (config-line)# line vty 0 4
Enable Telnet password verification CESIM (config-line)# login
Set a user password on login passwordcisco4
CESIM (config-line)#
from a Telnet session
Exit mode CESIM (config-if)# exit
Select the Ethernet 0 interface CESIM (config-if)# int e0
Define the IP address of the interface and its mask CESIM (config-if)# ip add [Link] [Link]
Activate the interface CESIM (config-if)# no shutdown
Log out of the interface CESIM (config-if)# exit
Select interface Serial 0 CESIM (config-if)# int s0
Define the IP address of the interface and its mask CESIM (config-if)# ip add [Link] [Link]
Assign a synchronization value of clock rate 56000
CESIM (config-if)#
the ETCD clock
Activate the interface CESIM (config-if)# no shutdown
Return to the root CESIM (config-if)# CTRL - Z
Save the config copy run start or the command
CESIM #
write

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STATIC ROUTING
Configure static routes ip route [Link] [Link]
CESIM(config)#
[Link]

RIP version 1 routing

Launch the RIP routing protocol CESIM (config)# router rip

Declare the directly connected networks for network192.168.1.0
CESIM (config-router)#
the routing updates
Quitter CESIM (config-router)# exit

DIAGNOSTIC
Display the routing table CESIM # show ip route
Display the configuration CESIM # show running configuration
Protocols and interface statuses CESIM # show ip brief
Ping CESIM # ping @ip
Show the route taken by a packet CESIM # Traceroute @ip

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1.2.3. Data Link Layer (2)

The data link layer connects the software and hardware layers. It exists in
as a connection layer between the software processes of the layers located below
above and the physical layer located beneath. As such, it prepares the
network layer packets to be transmitted over a certain type of medium (copper, fiber or
air).

Data link layer.

The data link layer is responsible for the exchange of frames between nodes.
through the supports. It provides two basic services:
• It allows the upper layers to access the supports through techniques.
such as the locking (creation) of frames;
• She controls how the data is placed on the media and received
supports through techniques such as access control to the support and the
error detection.

[Link]. Access of higher layers to the supports

The data link layer is responsible for transmitting and receiving data from
and on the network. This layer provides services to support the
communication process of each medium through which the data must
to be transmitted.

A network layer packet exchange can involve many transitions of

support and data link layer. At the level of each segment along the
path, an intermediate device (usually a router) accepts a frame from a

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Support, uncapsulate the frame, then forward the packet in a new frame.
corresponding to the support of this segment of the physical network.

Fig. Transmission of a frame through different types of media.

In the figure, each connection established between the devices uses a different medium.
An Ethernet connection can be established between the PC and the router. Routers are
connected via a satellite link and the laptop is connected to the last one
routeur via une liaison sans fil. Dans cet exemple, pendant son voyage du PC vers
the laptop, an IP packet is encapsulated in an Ethernet frame, decapsulated,
processed, then encapsulated in a new data link frame to cross the
satellite link. For the last link, the packet uses a link frame of
wireless data from the router to the laptop.

Without the data link layer, a network layer protocol (for example, IP)
should plan to establish a connection to every type of support that may appear along
of a delivery path. Furthermore, the IP protocol should adapt to each
development of a new network technology or a new medium. This
the process would hinder innovation and the development of protocols and
network supports. This is one of the major reasons for the layered approach
applied to networks.

[Link]. Control of transfer on local media

Layer 2 protocols specify the encapsulation of a packet into a frame and the
techniques for placing the encapsulated packet on each medium and to it
retrieve. The technique used to place the frame on the media and retrieve it from
supports is named access control method to the support. To ensure that the data
be transferred across various different media, different methods of
access control to support may be required during the same communication.
Control information may indicate:
which nodes are in communication;
When does communication between nodes start and end?
individuals;
what errors occurred while the nodes were communicating;

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which nodes will communicate soon.

A node serving as a terminal device uses an adapter to establish the
network connection. For example, to connect to a local network, the device
would use the appropriate network card to establish a connection to the supports of this
network. The adapter manages frame locking and media access control.

At the level of intermediate devices such as a router, where the type of media
may vary depending on each connected network, different physical interfaces on the
Routers are used to encapsulate the packet in the appropriate frame and a
appropriate access control method for the support is used to access each
liaison.

[Link]. The framework

The data link layer prepares a packet to be transported over the local medium by
encapsulating it with a header and a trailer to create a frame.

Fig. The framework.

The data link layer frame includes:

• Data - The packet of the network layer;
• A header: contains control information such as addressing and is
located at the beginning of the protocol data unit;
• A tail of a tape: contains control information added at the end of
the protocol data unit.

Formatting the data to be transmitted

When data travels on media, it is converted into a stream of bits,

or '1' and '0'. If a node receives long streams of bits, how does it determine
the place where a frame starts and ends or which bits represent the address?

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Fig. Formatting of the data to be transmitted (creation of a frame).

Frame locking splits the stream into decipherable groupings, information

control being inserted into the header and in the tape queue as values
located in different fields. This format assigns a structure to physical signals.
that can be received by the nodes and decoded into packets at the destination.

The types of standard fields include:

• Start and end indicator fields - The start and end limits of the
trame
• Name or addressing fields;
• Field type - The type of protocol data unit contained in the frame;
• Quality: control fields;
• A data field: the useful data of the frame (network layer packet).

The fields located at the end of the frame constitute the tail of the band. These fields are
used for error detection and mark the end of the frame.

[Link]. Data Link Layers

To support a wide range of network functions, the link layer of
data is often divided into two sub-layers: an upper sub-layer and a
underlayer.
• The upper layer defines the software processes that provide
services to network layer protocols.
• The lower layer defines the access processes to the support executed by
the equipment.

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Figure. The data link sublayers.

The two common local network sublayers are as follows:

Logical Link Control (LLC): The LLC sublayer

place the information in the framework that indicates which network layer protocol
is used for the framework. This information allows several protocols to
Layer 3 (for example, IP) to use the same network interface and the same
supports ;

Access control to the support (MAC, Media Access Control): The sub-layer
MAC ensures data link layer addressing and delimitation of
data according to the requirements of the physical signaling of the support and the
type of data link layer protocol used.

[Link]. Data Link Layer Standards

Unlike upper layer protocols, which are mainly implemented in
software such as the host operating system or specific applications, the
data link layer processes run both at the software level and at the
material. At this layer, the protocols are implemented within the
electronic components of network adapters with which the device connects
connect to the physical network.

For example, a device implementing the data link layer on a PC

would be the Ethernet network card. For a laptop, a wireless adapter is
generally used. Each of these adapters constitutes the hardware that follows the
standards and Layer 2 protocols.

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The protocols and functional services at the data link layer

are described by engineering organizations (for example, IEEE, ANSI, and ITU) and
communications sector companies.

Fig. Data link layer standards.

Example of frame: the Ethernet frame.

Fig. Ethernet frame fields.

Meaning of the fields:

- Preamble & Frame Start Delimiter: The Preamble fields, 7 bytes,

and Frame start delimiter, 1 byte, allows for synchronization between
the sending and receiving devices. The first eight bytes of the frame
preparing the reception nodes to receive. The few first bytes
essentially indicating to the receptors to prepare to receive a new message
track.
Destination MAC Address field: This 6-byte field identifies the address of the
destination. This address is used by layer 2 to help devices to
determine if a frame is addressed to them. The address of the frame is compared to

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the MAC address of the device. If they match, the device accepts the
frame.

Source MAC Address Field: This 6-byte field identifies the interface
or the network card sending the frame.

- Length/Type Field: This 2-byte field defines the exact length of the field
of the frame data. This length is then used in the sequence of
frame control, to ensure the message is received. A length or a type
may be entered in this field. However, only one or the other can be used in
a given implementation. If the field aims to designate a type, the
champ Type describes the protocol implemented.

- Data and Filling Fields: These two fields of 46 - 1,500 bytes

contain the encapsulated data of a higher layer which is a unit of
Layer 3 protocol data, that is, an IPv4 packet. The minimum length
the frame is set to 64 bytes. If a small packet is encapsulated, the Pad field is
used to increase the frame size to reach the minimum value.

- Frame Control Sequence Field: This 4-byte field allows for detection
the errors of a frame.

1.2.4. Physical layer (1)

The OSI physical layer provides the means to transport bits over the network medium.
constituting a data link layer frame. This layer accepts a frame
complete the data link layer and the code in the form of a series of signals
transmitted on the local medium. The coded bits forming a frame are received by a
final or intermediate peripheral.

Fig. Communication process in the OSI model.

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The transmission of frames over the local medium requires the components of the physical layer.
following:
• physical components;
• data coding;
• signaling.

Physical components
The physical elements are electronic peripherals, media, and connectors.
which transport and transmit signals to represent bits.

Coding
Coding is a method of converting a stream of data bits into a predefined code.
Codes are groupings of bits used to provide a predictable model.
that can be recognized by both the sender and the receiver. The use of templates
predictable helps to distinguish data bits from control bits and to provide a
better detection of support errors.

Signaling
The physical layer must generate the electrical, optical, or wireless signals that
represent the 1 and 0 on the medium. The method of representing bits is
called signaling method. The physical layer standards must define the
type of signal representing a 1 and a 0. It can simply be a change of
level of the electrical signal or optical pulse, or a signaling method
more complex.

Fig. Fundamental principles of the physical layer.

It is also the responsibility of the physical layer to retrieve these individual signals from
to support, to restore their binary representations and to transmit the bits to the
data link layer in the form of a complete frame.

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[Link]. Operation of the physical layer

There are three basic forms of network support on which data is
represented: copper cable, fiber optic, wireless.

The representation of bits (that is, the type of signal) depends on the type of medium.
For a copper cable support, the signals are variations of pulses.
electric. For fiber optics, the signals are variations of light. For the
Wireless supports, signals are variations of radio transmissions.

Fig. Representation of signals on physical media.

[Link]. The standards and types of physical layer media
The physical layer is concerned with the network medium and signaling. The standards
of this layer define the physical, electrical, and mechanical properties of
available supports for different data communications. These specifications
ensure that the cables and connectors work as intended with different
implementation of the data link layer.

For example, the standards for copper supports are defined for:
• the type of copper wiring used
• the bandwidth of communication
• the type of connectors used;
• the wiring and color codes of the connections with the support;
• the maximum distance of the support.

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Characteristics of physical media

Fig. Supports Ethernet.

Wireless supports.

[Link].A. Data transport capacity

Different physical media support bit transfer at different rates.
speeds. Data transfer can be measured in three ways:

Bandwidth
The ability of a medium to carry data is described as bandwidth.
of raw data from the support. Digital bandwidth measures the amount
information that can move from one location to another over a period of time
Data. Bandwidth is usually measured in kilobits per second (Kbits/s)
or megabits per second (Mbits/s).

Gross flow
The throughput is the measure of the transfer of bits over the medium during a given period.
Due to a number of factors, the flow generally does not correspond to the
bandwidth specified in physical layer implementations such as Ethernet.

Many factors influence the flow rate. These factors include the amount of
traffic, its type, as well as the number of devices encountered on the measured network.

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Application throughput (usable throughput)

A third measure has been created to calculate usable data transfer. This
The measure is called application throughput. It corresponds to the usable data transferred.
over a given period, and consequently represents the most measure
interesting for network users.

Unlike the raw throughput, which measures the transfer of bits and not the transfer of
usable data, the application throughput does not take into account the bits dedicated to overhead
related to the protocol. The application throughput corresponds to the raw throughput minus the overhead
traffic for session establishment, receipts, and encapsulation.

Let's take for example two hosts on a local network transferring a file. The bandwidth
The LAN throughput is 100 Mbits/s. Following the sharing and overload of the medium, the
The throughput between the computers is only 60 Mbits/s. With the process overhead.
of TCP/IP stack encapsulation, the actual data rate received by the computer of
The destination (application throughput) is only 40 Mbits/s.

[Link].B. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Wiring

Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cabling, as used in networks
Ethernet cables consist of four pairs of coded wires that have been
twisted and then housed in a flexible plastic sleeve. As illustrated in the figure, the
color codes identify individual pairs and the wires of the pairs to facilitate
the connection of the cables.

Fig. Unshielded twisted pair cable (UTP).

UTP cabling, terminated with RJ-45 connectors, is a common copper medium.

pour l’interconnexion de périphériques réseau, tels que des ordinateurs, avec des
intermediate devices, such as routers and network switches.

Types of UTP cables

Different situations may require UTP cables that meet different

wiring conventions. This means that the individual wires of the cable must be
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connected in different orders to various pin series of RJ-45 connectors.

The main types of cables obtained using wiring conventions.
The specifics are as follows: direct Ethernet (straight cable), Ethernet crossover (cable)
crossed).

Fig. RJ-45 termination T568A and T568B.

Straight UTP cables

A straight cable has connectors at each end, which are terminated at
the same according to the T568A standard or the T568B standard.

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Straight cables.

Identifying the cable standard used allows you to determine if you are using
the cable suitable for the task. Use straight cables for the following connections:
• Ethernet port switch of a router;
• Switch computer;
• Hub computer.

Crossover UTP cables

In a crossover cable, one end must be terminated according to the pinout of the standard.
T568A at one end terminated with the wiring of the T568B standard.

Fig. Crossed cable.

The crossover cables directly connect the following devices on a network.
local
• Switch to switch;
• Switch to hub;
• Hub to hub;
• Computer to computer;
• Computer with Ethernet port of a router.

2. TCP/IP Model

The first layered protocol model for inter-network communications was

created in the early 1970s and called the Internet model. It defines four categories of
functions that must be executed for communications to succeed.
The architecture of the TCP/IP protocol suite follows the structure of this model. For this
For this reason, the Internet model is generally referred to as the TCP/IP model.

The TCP/IP model is an open standard; no company controls the definition of it.
model.

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Fig. TCP/IP Model.

2.1. Communication process

A complete communication process includes these steps:

1. Creation of data on the application layer of the original end device;

2. Segmentation and encapsulation of data when it descends the stack
protocols in the final source device;
3. Generation of data on media at the network access layer
the battery;
4. Data transport via the inter-network, which consists of media and
any intermediary devices;
5. Reception of data at the network access layer of the end device
of destination;
6. Decapsulation and assembly of data as they move up the stack in the
destination device;
[Link] of this data to the destination application at the layer level
application of the final destination device.

2.2. Comparison of OSI and TCP/IP models

The protocols that make up the TCP/IP protocol suite can be described according to
the terms of the OSI reference model. In the OSI model, the network access layer and the
The application layer of the TCP/IP model is still divided to describe functions.
discreet ones that must intervene at the level of these layers.

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Fig. OSI and TCP/IP Models.

At the level of the network access layer, the TCP/IP protocol suite does not specify
which protocols to use when transmitting over a physical medium; it
describe only the handover from the Internet layer to the physical network protocols.
OSI layers 1 and 2 deal with the procedures necessary for access to the media and the
physical means to send data across a network.

The main parallels between the two network models are found at layers 3 and 4.
of the OSI model. Layer 3 of the OSI model, the network layer, is used almost everywhere.
in the world in order to address and document the range of processes that
intervene in all data networks to address and route
messages across an inter-network. The IP protocol is the protocol of the TCP/IP suite.
which contains the feature described at layer 3.

Layer 4, the transport layer of the OSI model, is often used to describe services or
general functions that manage individual conversations between hosts
source and destination. These functions include the receipt, the resumption on error and the
sequencing. At this layer, the TCP/IP Transmission Control protocols
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP) provide the functionalities
necessary.

The TCP/IP application layer includes several protocols that provide

specific features for multiple end-user applications. Layers 5, 6 and
7 of the OSI model are used as references for developers and the
application software publishers, in order to create products that need to access the
networks for communications.

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Chapter III
Network Models: Client-Server and Peer
to Peer

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1. Client-server model

When the user tries to access the information located on their device, they
whether it's a PC, a laptop, a personal digital assistant, a
mobile phone or other device connected to the network, the data may not
cannot be stored on this device. In this case, a request for access to the information
doit être adressée au niveau du périphérique sur lequel résident les données.

In the client/server model, the device requesting information is

named client and the one responding to the request is named server. The client processes
and server are considered to be part of the application layer. The client
starts the exchange by requesting data from the server, which responds by sending a
or several data streams to the client. Application layer protocols describe the
format of requests and responses between clients and servers. In addition to the transfer of
effective data, this exchange may also require control information,
such as user authentication and identifying a data file to
transfer.

Fig. Client-server model.

Although the data is generally described as being transmitted from the server
To the client, some data is always transmitted from the client to the server. The flow of
data can be equal in both directions or even more significant in the client direction
to the server. For example, a client can transfer a file to the server for purposes
storage. The transfer of data from a client to a server is referred to as
download amount. The transfer of data from a server to a client is
designated by the term download.

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Fig. Data exchange between the client and the server.

1.1. The server

A server is generally a computer that contains information to share.

with numerous client systems. For example, web pages, documents,
databases, images, video files, and audio files can all be
stored on a server and transmitted to requesting clients. In other cases (by
for example, a network printer), the print server transmits the requests
client printing to the specified printer.

Different types of server applications may have different requirements.

client access. Some servers may require authentication of
User account information to verify that the user is authorized to access
to the required data or to perform a specific operation. These servers call upon
a central list of user accounts and permissions (data access and
Execution of operations) are granted to each user.

1.1.1. The demons

In a client/server network, the server executes a service, or process, sometimes

named server daemon. Like most services, daemons run
generally run in the background and are not under the direct control of the end user.
Demons are described as 'listening' to a request from a client.
because they are programmed to respond every time the server receives a request
for the service provided by the daemon. When a daemon 'hears' a request from a
client, he exchanges appropriate messages with the client, as required by his
protocol, then send the required data to the client in the appropriate format.

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Fig. Server process.

Servers usually have multiple clients requesting information in

at the same time. For example, a Telnet server can have many clients
requesting to connect to this server. These individual client requests must be
treated simultaneously and separately for the network to function correctly. The
process and application layer services are supported by the functions of the
lower layers to properly manage multiple conversations.

The most common services on servers are:

• file sharing;
• access to information on the World Wide Web;
• the email;
• printer sharing;
• e-commerce
• database storage;
• the game and the provision of application software (software as a service).

1.1.2. Technical characteristics of the servers

In server market products, the focus is on throughput (number of

responses given per unit of time), availability and adaptability to a
increase in demand. The servers handle multiple users.
simultaneously, and require a computing power greater than that of the
personal computers. Servers can be equipped with multiple processors, this
which allows them to serve more customers, accelerates the processing of requests, and
increase the flow.

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Network operating systems

While an operating system for personal computers is expected to provide the

best performance on the software currently being manipulated by the user, a
operating system for servers is designed to distribute computing power among
the different users who operate the server.

The popular operating systems on servers are:

• the Windows NT series from Microsoft: Windows NT, Windows server
2000, Windows Server 2003 and Windows Server 2008;
• the Unix family
• the Linux family: Debian, Fedora, Ubuntu, etc.

1.1.3. Web hosting

Web hosting is a service that involves making your data or your site available.
internet on a secure computer connected to the internet (web server).

[Link].Accommodation Categories

Shared or pooled accommodations

Shared web hosting involves sharing the hardware and software resources of a
same web server (physical or virtual) among several users. Thus the costs of
location is largely diminished by the presence of several websites on the same
server.

Dedicated accommodations
The client has their own server and can generally manage it as they wish.
but the server provider remains the owner of the server. This is the most
expensive but also the most efficient.

1.2. The client

A client is the software that sends requests to a server. It can be a software

manipulated by a person, or by a computer robot. The client computer is
generally a standard personal computer, equipped with related software for
different types of requests that will be sent, like a web browser.

1.2.1. Types of customers

Thin client
The client workstation accesses an application located on a computer (the server) via a
interface and a web browser. The application runs entirely on the server,
The client posts receives the pre-made response to the request they made.

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Thick client
The client workstation must have an operating system capable of running locally a
part of the treatments. The processing of the response to the user client's request will
implement a combined work between the server computer and the client workstation.

2. Peer to Peer Model

In addition to the client/server network model, there is also a Peer to Peer model.
(peer to peer, in French). The Peer to Peer network involves two different forms: the
Peer to Peer network design and Peer to Peer (P2P) applications. The two
forms have similar characteristics but, in fact, function very
differently.

2.1. Peer to Peer Networks

In a Peer to Peer network, at least two computers are connected via a

network and can share resources (for example, printers and
files) without having a dedicated server. Each connected end device (named
homologue) can operate as a server or as a client. A computer can
fulfill the role of server for a transaction while simultaneously serving as a client
for another computer. The roles of client and server are defined according to
each request.

Fig. Peer to Peer Network.

For example, a simple home network connecting two computers that share
a printer is a Peer to Peer network. Each user can configure their
computer to share files, run network games or share a
Internet connection. Another example of a Peer to Peer network: two connected computers
to a large network and using software applications to share resources
through the network.

Unlike the client/server model, which uses dedicated servers, networks

Peer to Peer decentralizes resources across a network. Instead of being stored on
dedicated servers, the information to be shared can be located anywhere on a
connected device. Most current operating systems support.
enables file and printer sharing without needing server software
additional. Peer to Peer networks generally do not use accounts
user, permissions, or centralized monitors, it is difficult to apply the

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security and access rules for networks with more than a few computers.
Accounts and user access rights must be defined individually for each
homologous device.

2.2. Applications Peer to Peer

A Peer to Peer (P2P) application allows a device to operate both as

client and server within the same communication. In this model, each
Client is a server and each server is a client. Both can initiate a
communication and are considered equal in the communication process.
However, Peer to Peer applications require that each endpoint device
provides a user interface and runs a background service.

Fig. Peer to Peer Application.

Peer to Peer applications can be used on Peer to Peer networks,

client/server networks and over the Internet.

For example, when you upload documents to the internet using

the application 'eMule' (url :[Link]

2.3. Example of Peer to Peer protocols

BitTorrent
BitTorrent is a method for widely distributing large amounts of data.
by distributing the inherent load in terms of equipment, Internet hosting and
bandwidth.

The techniques used are: peer-to-peer downloading from different 'peers'.

(peer) for the same file and the splitting of the file into blocks. The blocks can
arrive in any order from multiple sources, the file being
considered downloaded when all the blocks have arrived, regardless of the order
arrival of these or their origins.

Gnutella
In Gnutella, each node acts as both a server and a client. Each server is
connected to a set of neighbors. To initiate a search, a server queries all

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his neighbors by sending them a search message. His neighbors do the same with
their own neighbors.

Servers with files that respond to the request send their response (name
to the neighbor who relayed the request to them. The response
climbs back up step by step to the server that initiated the request. The server
the requester will then choose the files to download by sending
directly a download request to the server that has the file.

3. Network commands on MS-DOS

3.1. Verification of a connection

IPCONFIG
The network command 'ipconfig' allows you to display the IP properties of the computer.
For each card, we find the IP address, the subnet mask, and the gateway.
default.

Command 'ipconfig'.

In our example, for the Ethernet card, we find the IP address ([Link]), the
subnet mask ([Link]) and the default gateway ([Link]).

IPCONFIG /ALL
The command "ipconfig /all" displays a summary of the IP properties of the network cards.

Fig. Command 'ipconfig / all'.

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Identical to the previous one but more complete, 'IPCONFIG /all' also displays the
host name (of the computer), the description of the card and its MAC address, etc.

PING
It allows you to determine if the connection to an IP address is effective by displaying
the commands actually received. It is based on the ICMP network protocol.

Fig. Command 'ping x.x.x.x' where x.x.x.x represents an IP address.

Fig. Command 'ping [Link]' where [Link] represents the domain name of a website.

Tracert
This command allows you to display the hops when connecting to the IP address (X.X.X.X)
or the domain name ([Link]).

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Fig. Command "tracert [Link]" where [Link] is the domain name.

3.2. Various checks

NETSTAT
This command displays all active (listening) ports on a computer
both in TCP and in UDP. It allows for example to detect harmful programs.

Fig. Command "netstat".

ARP
This command is used for the ARP (Address Reverse Protocol) network protocol.
It allows you to display and modify the IP address / physical (MAC) mappings.
of a network card).
ARP -a displays the IP address / MAC address mapping of computers and devices.
connected. Dynamic mappings use DHCP to configure the address
IP.

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Fig. Command 'arp -a'.

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