CHAPTER TWO

KINEMATICS AND DYNAMICS OF PARTICLES

We study kinematics and dynamics because they are the foundation of understanding how
objects move and why they move. Kinematics focuses on how objects move. It does not concern
itself with the forces causing the motion. Dynamics explains why objects move by studying the
forces acting on them. We study dynamics to understand how forces change motion, design
machine, and predict motion in complex systems.

2.1. Kinematics in One and Two Dimensions

We study kinematics to predict future positions of moving objects, describe motion

mathematically, analyze trajectory and build models for engineering and physics problems.

2.1.1. Position, Displacement, velocity and Acceleration

Position:- position is location of an object with respect to same frames of reference. Reference
frame is frame which is at rest or moving with constant velocity.

Displacement:- The displacement ∆ of an object is defined as its change in position, and is

given by:

∆ = − .

where and are final and initial position of an object.

Speed:-The average speed of an object over a given time interval is the total distance traveled
divided by the total time elapsed:

= .
Where total distance and total time.

Velocity:- Unlike average speed, average velocity is a vector quantity. It is defined as velocity ⃗
during a time interval ∆ is the displacement ∆ divided by ∆ :

∆
⃗= .
∆

In general, the average velocity of an object during the time interval ∆ is equal to the slope of
the straight line joining the initial and final points on a graph of the object’s position versus time.

Instantaneous Velocity:- the instantaneous velocity ⃗ is the limit of the average velocity as
the time interval ∆ becomes infinitesimally small:

lim ∆
⃗ = .
∆ →0∆
The instantaneous speed of an object, which is a scalar quantity, is defined as the magnitude of
the instantaneous velocity. Like average speed, instantaneous speed has no direction associated
with it and hence carries no algebraic sign.

Acceleration:- the changing of an object’s velocity with time is called acceleration. The average
acceleration denoted ⃗ ( ⃗) during the time interval ∆ is the change in velocity ∆ divided
by ∆ :

∆⃗
⃗ = .
∆
The instantaneous acceleration ⃗ is the limit of the average acceleration as the time interval ∆
goes to zero:

lim ∆ ⃗
⃗ = .
∆ →0∆
2.1.2. Motion in one dimension with constant acceleration

Because the average acceleration equals the instantaneous acceleration when acceleration is
constant, we can write equation for acceleration as:
 −
⃗= .

So we can write final velocity as

= +⃗ .

Because the velocity is increasing or decreasing uniformly with time, we can express the average
velocity in any time interval as the arithmetic average of the initial velocity
and the final velocity:

+
= .
2
We can now use this result to obtain an expression for the displacement of an object as a function
of time.

+
∆ = .
2
By substituting the equation for final velocity, we obtain

1
∆ = + ⃗ .
2
Solving equation for we can also arrive at the equation

= + 2 ⃗∆ .

Quiz 1. Equations from 2.7 to 2.12 are kinematical equations for motion in one dimension with
constant acceleration. Drive similar equation for two dimensional motion with constant
acceleration.

Worked examples

1. A person walks 40m east and 25m west. Find the displacement

Solution ∆ = 40 + (−25 ) = 15

2. You drive from home to work, 18 away. On the way, traffic is heavy, so your average
speed is 36 /ℎ . how long does it take to reach work?
Solution:-

18
= → = = = 30
36 /ℎ

3. You walk 120 north, 80m east and 120 south, A, what is your displacement? B, what
distance did you walk?

Solution:-

A, 120 north is cancelled by 120 south therefore displacement is 80 east. B, the distance
is:

= 120 + 120 + 80 = 320

4. An airplane accelerates from 0 to 96 / in 32 seconds during takeoff. What is

airplane’s acceleration

∆⃗ /
Solution:-. ⃗ = = = 33 /
∆

5. A cyclist’s position along a path is modeled by: ( )=6 − 2 + 5m. find the
instantaneous velocity at four seconds.

Answer is 40 /

6. A boat travels 10 upstream against a 3km/hr current. The boat’s speed in still water is
12 /ℎ . what is the boat’s average velocity upstream?

Solution:- need speed upstream = 12 /ℎ − 3 /ℎ =9 /ℎ , time taken =

10 /9 /ℎ . average velocity = 10 /

7. A train slows from 25 / to 10 / in 6 while approaching a station. What is its

acceleration?

Answer is 2.5 /

8. A runner’s position is given by: ( ) = 4 + . A, find the average velocity from 2 to

5 . B, find her instantaneous velocity at 3 .
 9. A car starts from rest and accelerates at 3 / . Find its velocity and displacement after 5
seconds.
10. If a runner travels 300 forward and 200 backward in 100 seconds. Find average
speed velocity.

2.1.3. Free fall motion

A freely falling object is any object moving freely under the influence of gravity alone,
regardless of its initial motion. If we neglect air resistance and assume that the free-fall
acceleration doesn’t vary with altitude over short vertical distances, then the motion of a freely
falling object is the same as motion in one dimension under constant acceleration.

1. A stone is dropped from the top of a 45 building. A, how long does it take to hit the
ground? B, what is its velocity just before impact?
2. A ball is thrown upward with velocity of 14 / . a, how long until it reaches maximum
height? B, what is maximum height reached? C, how long until it returns to the thrower’s
hand?
3. A ball is thrown downward from a 30 balcony with initial velocity 5 / .
A, how long does it take to reach the ground? B, what is the impact velocity?
4. A ball is thrown upward from a 10m platform with initial velocity 12 / . how long until
the ball hits the ground?
5. A diver wants to enter the water at speed of 20 / . from what height must they step off
(assuming they fall freely from rest)?

2.1.4. Projectile motion

Projectile is any object thrown obliquely into the space. The object which is given an initial
velocity and afterwards follows a path determined by the gravitational force acting on it is called
projectile and the motion is called projectile motion.
Assumption of projectile

 is constant over the range of motion and is directed downward.

 Air resistance is neglected.
 Horizontal acceleration is zero

Resolve initial velocity into components:

= , horizontal; constant if air resistance is neglected

= , vertical; affected by gravity

Horizontal motion (constant velocity):

( )= +

Vertical velocity (constant acceleration):

1
( )= + −
2
( )= −

Range: =

Maximum height: =

Speed at impact: = +

1. A ball rolls off a table 1.5m high with horizontal speed 3m/s. find time to hit the floor,
horizontal distance from table edge, and impact speed and angle.
 2. A projectile is launched from ground at = 20 / at = 30°. Find time of flight,
maximum height, range, and impact speed.
3. A projectile is launched from a platform = 10 above ground with = 25 / . find
flight time, horizontal range, and impact speed and angle.
4. You have speed = 30m/s and want range = 80 on level ground. Find the launch
angles that achieve that range

2.2. Particle Dynamics and Planetary Motion

Dynamics gives the cause of motion. We apply Newton’s laws motion and quantities such as
force, torque, energy and momentum are studied under dynamics.

Quiz 2. Define force, write types force and criteria to characterize fundamental forces.

2.2.1. Newton’s laws of motion and its application

1. Newton’s first law

This law states that: A body at rest stays at rest, and a body in motion continues in uniform
motion in a straight line unless acted upon by an external force. The meaning of the statement is
the objects do not change their state by themselves. They resist changes and this resistance is
called inertia.

2. Newton’s Second Law (Law of Acceleration)

The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net force applied and inversely
proportional to its mass.

⃗ = × ⃗

That means: more force more acceleration; more mass less acceleration for the same force.

3. Newton’s Third Law (Action–Reaction Law)

The law states that: for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. Meaning forces
always comes in pairs acting on different bodies.

Examples
 1. A 10 crate is pulled rightwards with a 60 horizontal force. Kinetic friction between
crate and floor is = 0.25. find the crates acceleration
2. 5kg block slides down a 30° frictionless incline. Find its acceleration
3. A person of mass 70 stands on scale in an elevator accelerating upward at 1.2 / .
What does the scale read?

Solution:- let be the normal force(scale reading).

= ⇒ − =

Therefore

= ( + )

4. Two blocks, =3 and =5 , are connected by a light rope over a frictionless,

mass less pulley. hangs and is on a frictionless horizontal table. Find the
acceleration and tension in the rope.

Solution:- for : = ; for : − =

So we have

=( + )

=
( + )

5. A person pushes a 20 box with a force of 80 directed 30° downward from the
horizontal. Coefficient of kinetic friction is = 0.20. Find acceleration of the box on a
horizontal floor.

2.2.3. Uniform Circular Motion

Uniform Circular Motion is motion of objects in a circular path with a constant speed. Objects
moving in a circular path with a constant speed can have acceleration. For objects moving in a
circular path with a constant speed, acceleration arises because of the change in direction of the
velocity.
In case of uniform circular motion:

 Velocity is always tangent to the circular path and perpendicular to the radius of the
circular path.
 Acceleration is always perpendicular to the circular path, and points towards the center of
the circle. Such acceleration is called the centripetal acceleration

The centripetal acceleration is always directed toward the center of the circle.

To keep the object moving in a circle, a force must act toward the center (centripetal force)

Centripetal force does not increase speed; it only changes direction.

Example, a ball of mass 0.5 is tied to string of length 1.2 and whirled in a horizontal circle
at speed = 2.5 / . find a, centripetal acceleration, b, tension in the string.