UKF COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

QUESTION - ANSWER BANK

Course: RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS (ECT 468)

MODULE 2

TOPIC: Solar Energy: Introduction to photovoltaic (PV) systems - Principle of PV

conversion
Q1) With neat diagram , explain the principle and working of photovoltaic system (7 marks)
Q2) Explain the principle and working of photovoltaic system Model QP, 3 marks
Q3)Explain solar power extraction using solar cells ? Oct 2023, 6 marks

● A photovoltaic system, also PV system or solar power system, is an electric power system
designed to supply usable solar power by means of photovoltaics.
● It consists of an arrangement of several components, including solar panels to absorb and
convert sunlight into electricity, a solar inverter to convert the output from direct to
alternating current, as well as mounting, cabling, and other electrical accessories to set up a
working system.
● It may also use a solar tracking system to improve the system's overall performance and
include an integrated battery.
● The process of converting light (photons) to electricity (voltage) is called the solar
photovoltaic (PV) effect.
● A solar cell (also known as a photovoltaic cell or PV cell) is defined as an electrical device that
converts light energy into electrical energy through the photovoltaic effect.

● A solar cell is basically a p-n junction diode.

● Solar cells are a form of photoelectric cell, defined as a device whose electrical characteristics – such
as current, voltage, or resistance – vary when exposed to light.

● A solar cell is basically a junction diode, although its construction it is little bit different from
conventional p-n junction diodes.

● Some specific materials, which have certain properties such as bandgap ranging from 1 eV to 1.8 eV,
high electrical conductivity, and high optical absorption, are required for the construction of solar
cells.

● Semiconductors such as Silicon, Gallium Arsenide, Copper Indium Selenide, Indium Phosphide, and
Cadmium Telluride satisfies these conditions; hence they are generally used for constructing solar
cells.

● The antireflection layer is typically made of oxides of Titanium, Tantalum, or Silicon through the
vacuum deposition process or spin coating.
 ●

WORKING OF SOLAR CELL

• When light, in the form of photons, hits our solar cell, its energy breaks apart electron-hole pairs. Each photon
with enough energy will normally free exactly one electron, resulting in a free hole as well.

• If this happens close enough to the electric field, or if free electron and free hole happen to wander into its range
of influence, the field will send the electron to the N side and the hole to the P side. This causes further
disruption of electrical neutrality, and if we provide an external current path, electrons will flow through the
path to the P side to unite with holes that the electric field sent there, doing work for us along the way.

• The electron flow provides the current, and the cell's electric field causes a voltage. With both current and
voltage, we have power, which is the product of the two.

• An antireflective coating is applied to reduce those losses. The final step is to install something that will
protect the cell from the elements -- often a glass cover plate

●
TOPIC: Commercial solar cell

Commercial Solar Cell

● Commercial solar panels (cells) are an array of multiple photovoltaic (PV) solar panels that
convert sunlight into electricity.
● Photovoltaic (PV) solar panels comprise of solar cells made from silicon that is constructed with
a positive layer and a negative layer, which together create an electric field.
● Multiple cells make up a solar panel, and multiple panels or modules can be wired together to
form a solar array.
● Commercial solar panels employ a large number of solar arrays to generate more electricity.
● These can be installed on the top of buildings and generate enough energy to meet the building’s
power needs.
● Commercial solar panels are sources of clean and renewable energy that require very little
maintenance and has no carbon emissions which has become a global concern.

Schematic diagram of a commercial solar cell

Q4)Draw the structure of a commercial solar cell ? May 2024, 3 marks

• Light passes through both the n-type and p-type semiconductor sections, causing electrons to
travel through the material.

• There is a metallic conductor on the top and on the bottom.

• Electrons travel to the positive electrode and travel though the external circuit where they can do
work, such as powering a light bulb.

• The electrons travel back to the negative electrode of the PV cell where they recombine with
holes (half filled orbitals). This returns the material back to its low energy ground state.

The semiconductor material in commercial PV cells can be:

 (a) Single /Mono crystalline silicon,

(b) Polycrystalline silicon

(c) Thin-film, photovoltaic cell/module made from layers of semiconductor material, such
as amorphous silicon, cadmium telluride (CdTe), or copper indium gallium selenide
(CIGS).

MONO CRYSTALLINE SOLAR CELL

• These cells are made from pure monocrystalline silicon.

• In these cells, the silicon has a single continuous crystal lattice structure with almost no defects or impurities.
• The main advantage of monocrystalline cells is their high efficiency, which is typically around 15%.

• Monocrystalline solar cells give a more aesthetic and premium look. They typically have a black hue. Each
corner of the cell is clipped, giving them an octagonal shape.

• The disadvantage of these cells is that a complicated manufacturing process is required to produce
monocrystalline silicon, which results in slightly higher costs than those of other technologies.

POLY CRYSTALLINE SOLAR CELL

• Unlike monocrystalline, polycrystalline silicon is composed of several small crystallites. It is a non-

homogeneous material and shows a discontinuity in electrical, thermal, and crystal properties.

• Because of defects in the crystal structure, poly-Si solar cells are less efficient than mono-Si cells. The highest
lab-scale efficiency published is 22%, and in production, it falls to 18–20%.

THIN FILM SOLAR CELLS

• Thin-film solar cell, type of device that is designed to convert light energy into electrical energy (through the
photovoltaic effect) and is composed of micron-thick photon-absorbing material layers deposited over a
flexible substrate.

• Thin-film solar cells were originally introduced in the 1970s by researchers at the Institute of Energy
Conversion at the University of Delaware in the United States.

• The technology continuously improved so that in the early 21st century the global thin-film photovoltaic
market was growing at an unprecedented rate and was forecast to continue to grow.

• Several types of thin-film solar cells are widely used because of their relatively low cost and their efficiency
in producing electricity. Thin-film solar cells are newer photovoltaic technology and consist of one or more
thin films of photovoltaic materials on a substrate.

• Their primary advantage over traditional crystalline silicon cells is cost. They are cheaper. It holds less
than 15% of the global market as of 2016.

• Another advantage is flexibility. The thickness of the film is in nanometers. That makes thin-film PV cells
pliable. However, we can manufacture rigid thin-film cells when the substrate used is rigid.

• Three common thin-film solar cells are cadmium telluride (CdTe), copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS),
and amorphous thin-film silicon (a-Si).
 (a)CADMIUM TELLURIDE SOLAR CELLS

Cadmium telluride (CdTe) solar cells use Cadmium telluride to absorb solar energy. They remain the most
prominent thin-film cells because of a lower manufacturing cost and lower carbon footprint.

● The toxicity of cadmium and scarcity of tellurium in the earth’s crust is another major problem that
limits its acceptance.
● CdTe shares 5% of the total photovoltaic market.
● These PV cells have an advantage of a low production cost compared to others.
● But they are inefficient. The highest known lab efficiency is 22.1% by First Solar. This value falls to
16.1% on a commercial scale.

(b)COPPER INDIUM GALLIUM SELENIDE SOLAR CELLS

• Copper Indium Gallium Selenide (CIGS) is another common thin-film photovoltaic cell. The cell has shown
high efficiency because of a high absorption coefficient of copper indium gallium selenide. Even though
the lab efficiency exceeds 20%, on a commercial-scale, it goes between 12 to 14%.

(c )AMORPHOUS THIN FILM SILICON(a-Si)

• The characteristic aspects of this technology are: Simple manufacturing process and easy automation.
• Need for little active material and reduction of energy and cost.
• Amorphous silicon cells have been the first thin-film cells to be marketed. However, due to the drop in
prices experienced by crystalline solar panels, they have been losing positions in the market and are
 currently very small.
• A-Si amorphous silicon technology has a considerably lower efficiency than those based on crystalline
silicon
• However, they are especially suitable for use in cloudy places, in dusty atmospheres, etc.
• Amorphous silicon solar panels do not consist on the attachment of individual cells as in the crystalline
solar panels, but in a tailor-made sheet in which thin strips are seen separating the cells, created and
connected to each other during the elaboration of the module itself
• The range of voltages is also wider than in crystalline silicon, ranging from a few volts to tens of volts
and makes them interesting also for solar pumping systems.

Features of Commercial Solar Panels

○ Commercial solar panels can be installed on the rooftop or open space available in
commercial buildings as they have enough area for a large number of solar panels to be
installed and produce enough solar electricity to meet all of their power needs.
○ Commercial solar panels generate enough power during the day that it can be stored
and harnessed to be used in the night as well.
○ Commercial solar panels are very sturdy and require very little maintenance.
○ They have a lifespan of over 15-20 years and post-installation the electricity generated
on the system is absolutely free.

Applications of Solar Panels

● Commercial solar panels can be used to power industrial buildings in off-grid or remote
locations.
● Commercial solar panels installed on the rooftop of buildings can be used to light up signs or
message boards. Solar energy charges the battery so that the signs can remain illuminated even
during the night.
● Commercial solar panels can be used for preheating ventilation air as well as water heating in
offices and businesses.
TOPIC:Thin film PV device fabrication - LPCVD, APCVD, PECVD
THIN FILM PV DEVICE FABRICATION
• Thin film: thickness typically <1000nm.
• Special properties of thin films: different from bulk materials, it may be –

• Not fully dense

• Under stress

• Different defect structures from bulk

• Quasi ‐ two dimensional (very thin films)

THIN FILM DEPOSITION METHODS
• Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD)
❏ Reactant gases introduced in the chamber, chemical reactions occur on wafer surface leading to the
deposition of a solid film.
❏ E.g. APCVD, LPCVD, PECVD, most commonly used for dielectrics and Si
• Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD) (no chemical reaction involved)
❏ Vapors of constituent materials created inside the chamber, and condensation occurs on wafer surface
leading to the deposition of a solid film.
❏ E.g. evaporation, sputter deposition, most commonly used for metals.

CHEMICAL VAPOR DEPOSITION (CVD)

CVD : DEPOSIT FILM THROUGH CHEMICAL REACTION AND SURFACE ABSORPTION

CVD steps:
• Introduce reactive gases to the chamber.
• Activate gases (decomposition) by heat or plasma.
• Gas absorption by substrate surface .
• Reaction take place on substrate surface, film firmed.
• Transport of volatile byproducts away form substrate.
• Exhaust waste.

CVD ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

Advantages
• High growth rates possible, good reproducibility.

• Can deposit materials which are hard to evaporate.

 • Can grow epitaxial films

• Generally better film quality, more conformal step coverage

Disadvantages
• High process temperatures.

• Complex processes, toxic and corrosive gasses.

• Film may not be pure (hydrogen incorporation…)

TYPES OF CVD

Q5) Explain any two methods used for thin film deposition May 2024, 7 marks
(a) APCVD
➔ Atmospheric pressure systems (APCVD) have major drawbacks:

◆ At high T, a horizontal configuration must be used (few wafers at a time).

◆ At low T, the deposition rate goes down and throughput is again low.

◆ The fundamental reason for the low throughput of APCVD is that only a small percentage of
the gas is reactant gases, with the rest carrier/diluent gas

THROUGHPUT= NO: OF SUBSTRATE THAT A SYSTEM CAN COAT PER HOUR

(b) LOW PRESSURE CVD(LPCVD)

• LPCVD is the first and most widely used deposition method used in solar cell processing.
• Due to the its wide usage in semiconductor industry for a similar application.
• LPCVD refers to a thermal process used to deposit thin films from gas-phase precursors at sub
atmospheric pressures.
• Process conditions are typically selected so that the growth rate is limited by the rate of the surface reaction,
which is temperature-dependent.
• The temperature can be controlled with great precision, resulting in excellent within-wafer, wafer-to-wafer, and
run-to-run uniformities.
• LPCVD reactors use: P = 0.25 – 2.0Torr, T = 500 – 900°C.
• Transport of reactants from gas phase to surface through boundary layer is still not rate limiting (despite the high
T), so wafers can be stacked vertically for high throughput (100-200 wafers per run).
• Because LPCVD operates in reaction limited regime, it is VERY sensitive to temperature and so temperature
needs to be controlled closely (within +/- 1°C), so use hot walled reactor for this precise control.
• Again, a 5-25°C temperature gradient is often created to offset source gas depletion effects (or one can use
distributed feeding).
 • Requires no carrier gas, and low gas pressure reduces gas-phase reaction which causes particle cluster that
contaminants the wafer and system.

(c )Plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD)

• Plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) is a chemical vapor deposition process used to deposit
thin films from a gas state (vapor) to a solid state on a substrate.
• Chemical reactions are involved in the process, which occur after creation of a plasma of the reacting gases.
• The plasma is generally created by radio frequency (RF), alternating current (AC) frequency or direct
current (DC) discharge between two electrodes, the space between which is filled with the reacting gases.
• A plasma is any gas in which a significant percentage of the atoms or molecules are ionized. The electrons
can be maintained at very high equivalent temperatures – tens of thousands of kelvins, equivalent to several
electron volts average energy
• “Good” quality films (though generally not as good as LP or APCVD films deposited at much higher T):
energy supplied by plasma (i.e. ion bombardment of film) increases film density, composition, and step
coverage.
• Use RF-induced plasma to transfer energy into the reactant gases, forming radicals that is very reactive.
(RF: radio-frequency, typically 13.56MHz for PECVD)
• Low temperature process (<300°C), as thermal energy is less critical when RF energy exists.
• Used for depositing film on metals (Al…) and other materials that cannot sustain high temperatures.
• Surface reaction limited deposition, thus substrate temperature control is important to ensure uniformity.
• At low T, surface diffusion is slow, so one must supply kinetic energy for surface diffusion – plasma (ion
bombardment) provides that energy and enhances step coverage.
• Disadvantages: plasma damage, not pure film (often lots of H incorporated into film).

TOPIC:Tandem Solar cell fabrication;

WHY TANDEM SOLAR CELLS

TANDEM SOLAR CELL

Q6)Explain tandem solar cells with block diagrams? June 2023, 6 marks. May 2024,7 marks
Q7) Explain the principle of operation of a tandem solar cell? Oct 2023, 3 marks
Q8)Explain single crystal silicon and tandem solar cell with neat sketches Model QP, 7
marks
(note: single crystal silicon is normal solar cell -explanation in QN 1)

• One method to increase the efficiency of a solar cell is to split the spectrum and use a solar cell that is
optimised to each section of the spectrum.
• Tandem solar cells can either be individual cells or connected in series.
• Series connected cells are simpler to fabricate but the current is the same through each cell so this contains the
band gaps that can be used.
• The most common arrangement for tandem cells is to grow them monolithically so that all the cells are grown
as layers on the on substrate and tunnel junctions connect the individual cells.
• Tandem cells are stacks of p-n junctions, each of which is formed from a semiconductor of different
 bandgap energy. As the number of bandgaps increases the efficiency of the stack also potentially
increases.
• In reality, the semiconductor materials do not exist to allow for arbitrary materials with a specific bandgap and
of high quality.

TANDEM SOLAR CELL

•
• A tandem solar panel consists of 2 solar cells on top of each other.
• In this case the top cell is made of perovskite. (The mineral perovskite, named after the Russian mineralogist
Count Lev Perovski, was used in solar cells for the first time in 2009. Since then, scientists have demonstrated
increasing energy yields from these perovskite solar cells in the laboratory )
• This cell converts part of the solar spectrum into electricity and transmits the infrared light to the bottom
silicon solar cell.
• The silicon bottom cell is of the bifacial type, which means that it also converts the diffuse light that falls
on the rear side of the panel to electricity.

TOPIC : Solar power extraction using PV-Cells, I-V Characteristics

I V CHARACTERISTICS OF SOLAR CELL

9) Draw and explain the VI characteristics of a solar [Link] does temperature affect the
performance of a solar cell? June 2023, 7 marks ,Model QP, 7 marks
(note : explain IV characteristics, electrical characteristics , effect of temperature )

The power produced by the PV cell in Watts can be easily calculated along the I-V curve by the equation P=IV.
At the ISC and VOC points, the power will be zero and the maximum value for power will occur between the
two. The voltage and current at this maximum power point are denoted as VMP and IMP respectively.

Electrical Characteristics
10) With reference to a solar cell, define (1) Open Circuit Voltage (2) Short circuit Current
(3) Fill factor (4) efficiency June 2023, 3 marks
11) Describe any 4 electrical characteristics of a solar cell? Dec Oct 2023, 8 marks

• Short Circuit Current (ISC)

• The short circuit current ISC corresponds to the short circuit condition when the impedance is low and is
calculated when the voltage equals 0.
• I (at V=0) = ISC
• Open Circuit Voltage (VOC)
• The open circuit voltage (VOC) occurs when there is no current passing through the cell.
• V (at I=0) = VOC
• Maximum Power (PMAX), Current at PMAX (IMP), Voltage at PMAX (VMP)
• The power produced by the PV cell in Watts can be easily calculated along the I-V curve by the
equation P=IV. At the ISC and VOC points, the power will be zero and the maximum value for power will occur
between the two. The voltage and current at this maximum power point are denoted as VMP and IMP respectively.

FILL FACTOR
• Fill Factor (FF)

• The Fill Factor (FF) is essentially a measure of quality of the PV cell. It is calculated by comparing the
maximum power to the theoretical power (PT) that would be output at both the open circuit voltage and
short circuit current together

• A larger fill factor is desirable and corresponds to an I-V curve that is more square-like. Typical fill
factors range from 0.5 to 0.82. Fill factor is also often represented as a percentage.
 EFFICIENCY (Η)
• Efficiency is the ratio of the electrical power output Pout, compared to the solar power input, Pin, into
the PV cell. Pout can be taken to be PMAX since the PV cell can be operated up to its maximum power output
to get the maximum efficiency.

• Pin is taken as the product of the irradiance of the incident light.

Effect of temperature
● On Voc :
○ As the temperature of the PV cell increases, the open-circuit voltage decreases. This is because
higher temperatures increase the intrinsic carrier concentration in the semiconductor material,
leading to a reduction in the built-in potential across the p-n junction.
○ Voc decreases by approximately 0.3-0.5% for every 1°C increase in temperature.

● On Isc :
○ The short-circuit current slightly increases with increasing temperature. This is because
higher temperatures improve the mobility of charge carriers in the semiconductor material,
leading to a slight increase in the number of electron-hole pairs generated by the incident
photons.

● On Efficiency:
○ Photovoltaic cells exhibit optimal efficiency within a specific temperature range, typically between
15°C (59°F) and 35°C (95°F).
○ At lower temperatures, the electrical properties of the cell improve, leading to higher voltage output
and improved efficiency.
○ As temperatures rise above the optimal range, the efficiency of PV cells begins to decline

TOPIC : PV-Inverters without D.C. to D.C. converters, stand alone and grid
collected PV systems,
PHOTOVOLTAIC/ SOLAR INVERTER

• A solar inverter is a device within a photovoltaic (PV) system that converts the direct current (DC) electricity
generated by solar panels into usable alternating current (AC) electricity, which is required to feed into the
electrical grid and run home appliances.

How does a solar inverter work?

Solar panels produce DC power when sunlight (in the form of photons) hits the layers of semiconducting material
(such as crystalline silicon or gallium arsenide) and causes electrons to move between positive and negative layers,
creating an electric charge. This DC electricity then flows to the inverter. The solar inverter transforms the solar
panel's DC output into grid-compatible AC power, an essential component enabling PV systems to leverage solar
energy.

STRUCTURE OF PV INVERTERS
1) CENTRAL INVERTERS
● Here, the PV plant (typical > 10KW ) is arranged in many parallel strings that are connected to a
single central inverter on the DC side
● Advantages:
○ High Efficiency
○ Low cost per KW
● Disadvantage :
○ Energy yield of PV plant decreases due to module mismatching and potential partial
shading conditions.
○ Reliability of the plant may be limited due to the dependence of power generation on a
single component
○ A failure of central inverter results in that the whole PV plant is out of operation.

2) STRING INVERTERS

● Here, the PV plant is arranged in many parallel strings . Each of the PV strings is assigned to a
designated inverter, the so-called string inverter
 ● Separate Maximum Power Point(MPP) tracking of each PV string.
● This increases the energy yield by the reduction of mismatching and partial shading losses.
● These superior technical characteristics increase the energy yield and enhance the supply reliability

3)MODULE INTEGRATED INVERTER

● This system uses one inverter for each module

● This topology optimizes the adaptability of the inverter to the PV characteristics , since each module has its
own Maximum Power Point (MPP) tracker
● Although, the Module-integrated inverters are characterised by a more extended AC-side cabling, since
each module of the PV plant has to be connected to the available AC grid .
● Also, the maintenance process are quite complicated

Inverters used in photovoltaic applications are historically divided into two main
categories:
1. Standalone inverters
2. Grid-connected inverters
[Link] stand -alone and grid connected solar PV systems with the help of block
diagrams?June 2023, 8 marks Model QP, 3 marks
Q13. With a neat diagram, describe stand-alone and grid connected solar PV systems? Oct
2023, 10 marks

1. STAND ALONE INVERTERS

• Standalone inverters are for the applications where the PV plant is not connected to the main energy distribution
network.
• The inverter is able to supply electrical energy to the connected loads, ensuring the stability of the main
electrical parameters (voltage and frequency).
• This keeps them within predefined limits, able to withstand temporary overloading situations. In this situation,
the inverter is coupled with a battery storage system in order to ensure a consistent energy supply.
 •
• Stand-alone systems are not connected with utility power lines and these are self sufficient systems. These
systems could either be used to charge the batteries that serve as an energy storage device or could work
directly using the solar energy available in the daytime.
• These systems consist of the following:
❖ Solar panels mounted on the roof or in open spaces. Photovoltaic modules produce direct current
(DC) electrical power.
❖ Batteries to store DC energy generated by the solar panels.
❖ Charge controller to prevent overcharging the battery.

2. GRID CONNECTED INVERTERS

Q14. Draw the block diagram of a grid connected PV system ? Oct 2023, 3 marks
● A grid connected photovoltaic system will be interacted with utility grid.
● The main advantage of this system is that power can be drawn from the utility grid and when power is not
available from grid, PV system can supplement that power. These grid connected systems are designed with
battery or without battery storage.
● These systems consist of the following:
■ Solar panels mounted on the roof or in open spaces. Photovoltaic modules produce direct
current (DC) electrical power.
■ Batteries to store DC energy generated by the solar panels.
■ Charge controller to prevent overcharging the battery.
■ Specially designed inverter to transform the PV generated DC electricity to the grid
electricity (which is of AC) at the grid voltage.
 ● The primary component in grid-connected PV systems is the inverter, or power conditioning unit (PCU).
● The PCU converts the DC power produced by the PV array into AC power consistent with the voltage and
power quality requirements of the utility grid, and automatically stops supplying power to the grid when the
utility grid is not energized.
● A bi-directional interface is made between the PV system AC output circuits and the electric utility
network, typically at an on-site distribution panel or service entrance. This allows the AC power produced
by the PV system to either supply onsite electrical loads, or to back-feed the grid when the PV system
output is greater than the on-site load demand.

● At night and during other periods when the electrical loads are greater than the PV system output, the
balance of power required by the loads is received from the electric utility
● This safety feature is required in all grid-connected PV systems, and ensures that the PV system will not
continue to operate and feed back into the utility grid when the grid is down for service or repair.

TOPIC : Grid interfacing-with isolation, without isolation,

Q15. Compare grid interfacing with isolation and without isolation May 2024, 3 marks

1. Safety
○ With isolation: Provides electrical separation, enhancing safety and reducing the risk of
shock or equipment damage.
○ Without isolation: Direct connection; higher risk of faults propagating between systems.

2. Efficiency
● With isolation: : Lower efficiency due to additional components like transformers or optocouplers.
● Without isolation:Higher efficiency as fewer components are involved.

3. Complexity:
○ With isolation: : More complex design and higher cost due to isolation components.
○ Without isolation: Simpler and more cost-effective but less robust.
TOPIC: Maximum power point tracking-Methods(MPPT)

DC TO DC CONVERTER
• A DC-to-DC converter or a voltage regulator is a device or circuitry that converts a source of DC from one
voltage level to another.

• Most solar systems come with a special type of component that is able to convert DC to DC.

• Solar panels generate DC to be converted to AC for use in appliances by an inverter.

• A DC/DC Converter maybe installed per solar panel to help maximize the solar energy generated. A DC-DC
converter can boost the total solar energy produced by up to 30%.

• It measures the power and energy produced per module, as well as the temperature and voltage of the panel.
They are able to shut down the panel's DC voltage when the temperature or voltage is too high.

• They operate by taking DC input from the solar panel, changing it to AC and converting it back to a different
DC voltage and current to exactly match the solar panel to the battery or inverter.

EXAMPLES OF DC TO DC CONVERTERS

• Examples of DC to DC converter are

• 1. Boost converter is power converter in which the panel DC input voltage is less than DC output voltage. That
means the solar panel input voltage is less than the battery voltage in system.

• 2. Buck converter is power converter which DC input voltage is greater than DC output voltage. That means
the solar panel input voltage is greater than the battery voltage in system.

• DC-DC converters are often installed at the back of a solar panel. They solve the impact of shading conditions,
module mismatch, temperature variance and aging mismatch of panels.

Maximum Power Point Tracking(MPPT)

Q16. What is meant by Maximum Power Point Tacking (MPPT) in Solar PV system? June
2023, 3 marks
Q17. Discuss maximum power point tracking in solar PV system? Oct 2023, 4 marks
Q18. With a neat block diagram , explain the MPPT technique May 2024, 7 marks
Q19. Explain any one method of maximum power point tracking for the solar energy
system. Model QP, 3 marks

• Maximum Power Point Tracking is a way of extracting maximum power from solar panels under all conditions.

• Solar panels are easily affected by changes in temperature and operating conditions that they produce a non-
linear and impure output.

• An MPPT system is used to sample the output of the PV cells and apply the proper resistance (load) to obtain
maximum power for any given environmental conditions.

• The major principle of MPPT is to extract the maximum available power from PV module by making them
operate at the most efficient voltage (maximum power point).

• That is to say: MPPT checks output of solar panels module, compares it to battery voltage then fixes what is the
best power that panel can produce to charge the battery and converts it to the best voltage to get maximum
current into battery.

• It can also supply power to a DC load, which is connected directly to the battery.

• MPPT is most effective under these conditions:

• Cold weather, cloudy or hazy days: Normally, PV module works better at cold temperatures and MPPT is
utilized to extract maximum power available from them.
• When battery is deeply discharged: MPPT can extract more current and charge the battery if the state of charge
in the battery is lowers.
• MPPT devices are typically integrated into a systems that provides voltage or current conversion, filtering, and
regulation for driving various loads, including power grids, batteries, or motors.
• Inverters, solar controllers, solar panels, optimizers and DC-DC converters may incorporate MPPT
 ● A MPPT, or Maximum Power Point Tracker is an electronic DC to DC converter that optimizes the match
between the solar array (PV panels) and the battery.
● It is an algorithm that included in charge controllers used for extracting maximum available power from PV
module.
● The voltage at which PV module can produce maximum power is called Maximum Power Point
● MPPT checks the output of PV module, compares it to battery voltage then fixes what is the best power that
PV module can produce to charge the battery and converts it to the best voltage to get maximum current
into battery
● MPPT is a DC to DC converter which operates by taking DC input from PV module, changing it to AC and
converting it back to different DC voltage and current to exactly match the PV module to the battery
● The MPPT tracks the voltage and current from the solar module to determine when the maximum power
occurs in order to extract the maximum power
● The MPPT then adjusts the voltage of the battery to optimize the charging. This results in a maximum
power transfer from the solar module to the battery

TOPIC: PV-Inverters with D.C. to D.C. converters-on low frequency

side and high frequency side with isolation, without isolation.

TOPOLOGIES OF PV INVERTERS
NEED OF ISOLATION TRANSFORMER
An isolation transformer is slightly different to your standard transformer in that its chief purpose is to isolate
two different electrical circuits. Simply, it isolates the load from its power supply, and this can be extremely
useful when engineers need to separate equipment from a power source. These transformers manage to do so
while also transferring electricity from the source to the device.
ADVANTAGES
Safety
Noise
Surge Protection
Improved Quality of Power

PV INVERTER WITH DC TO DC CONVERTER AND ISOLATION

Explain the working of PV Inverters with DC- DC converter and isolation?June 2023, 7
marks

PV INVERTERS WITH ISOLATION TRANSFORMER

1) PV INVERTERS WITH LOW FREQUENCY TRANSFORMERS( LF INVERTERS)

Explain PV inverters with DC-DC converters on the low-frequency side with isolation with a
block diagram May 2024, 7 marks
 ● DC power from the PV array is first boosted up by the boost converter before being converted into AC
power at 50Hz or 60Hz using a low frequency (LF) inverter
● Low frequency transformer provides galvanic isolation between the PV modules and the grid
● Due to the use of this LF transformer, these inverters are large in size , heavy more expensive and less
efficient compared to other types of inverters
● However, they are considered durable ,less likely to emit DC currents and feature a high peak power
capacity making them more suitable for off-grid applications with high power requirements

2)PV INVERTERS WITH HIGH FREQUENCY TRANSFORMERS( HF INVERTERS)

Explain PV inverters with DC-DC converters on the high-frequency side with isolation with
a block diagram Model QP, 7 marks
● DC power from the PV array is first converted to high frequency [Link] a HF transformer is used to
boost the low voltage to a higher voltage.
● However, as the frequency of this AC voltage is much greater than that of the grid, a further conversion step
is needed where it is converted to a DC voltage using a rectifier
● The final inverter stage produces a waveform with a voltage and frequency suitable for grid connection
● Due to the usage of the HF transformer, these inverters too provide galvanic isolation
● Moreover these are light, compact, inexpensive and feature a higher efficiency compared to the inverters
with LF transformers

PV INVERTER DC TO DC CONVERTER WITH NO ISOLATION