PROCTOR TEST

THEORY
Proctor test is a test carried out to understand the compaction characteristics of
A soil with change in moisture contents.
The fundamental principle is that soil can be densified by mechanical means,
which forces soil particles closer together by reducing the volume of air voids.
Unlike consolidation, which is the expulsion of water under a static load,
compaction is the expulsion of air from the voids through mechanical energy
The moisture content in the soil is a critical factor in this process.
 Low moisture content (dry side): When the soil is too dry, particles resist
sliding against one another due to friction and adhesion, making it difficult
to compact.
 Optimum moisture content (OMC): As water is added, it forms a thin
film around the soil particles, acting as a lubricant. This lubrication
reduces
friction, allowing the particles to slide past one another and pack more
tightly, increasing the soil's dry density.
 High moisture content (wet side): If too much water is added beyond the
OMC, the water begins to replace the soil particles within the fixed
volume of the mold. Since water is less dense than soil particles, this
causes the overall dry density to decrease, as there are fewer soil solids
per unit
volume. The water fills the voids and pushes the soil particles apart, which
decreases the friction between them.
By performing the test at multiple moisture contents, engineers plot a
characteristic bell-shaped or parabolic curve of dry density versus moisture
content.
The peak of this curve represents the Maximum Dry Density (MDD), which is the
highest dry density attainable for that soil under the specific compactive effort.
The moisture content that corresponds to the peak of the curve is the Optimum
Moisture Content (OMC).
Purpose and practical application
The Proctor test is crucial for civil engineering and construction for several
reasons:
 Specifying compaction targets: The results (MDD and OMC) provide a
standard reference for field compaction. Contractors are typically
required to compact soil to a certain percentage of the laboratory-
determined
maximum dry density.
 Increased stability and strength: Compacted soil has increased shear
strength and bearing capacity, making it a more stable foundation for
roads, embankments, and structural fills.
 Reduced permeability: Denser soil has fewer voids, which reduces
water seepage and controls erosion.
 Controlled swelling and shrinkage: Proper compaction controls the
swelling and shrinkage of soil, particularly clay, which can cause cracking
and failure in pavements.
 Frost heave prevention: Denser soil is less susceptible to damage
from freeze-thaw cycles.

EQUIPMENT
1. 4.5 Kg Rammer
2. Compaction mould and colar
3. Base plate
4. IS sieve 4.75mm
5. Is no. 4
6. Oven
7. Weighing balance
8. Mixing pan
9. Spatula
[Link]
 PROCEDURE
samples from a client are first taken to the Drying room where they are spread
evenly so that the moisture is expelled from the soil. From there the following
procedure is followed:
1. A sample soil Is taken and passed through a sieve to the pan. The
contents from the pan and then taken and sieved through a 4.75 mm
sieve to
another pan measuring a weight of 1150g.
2. 200mm of tap water is measured and then mixed with the 1150g in the
pan until a uniform mixture is obtained. It should be noted that this varies
with the type of soil and this can be determined by observing if the soil has
obtained moisture.
3. The mold is then fixed with the base plate at the bottom and their weight
is measured and recorded. The collar is then fixed above the mould and
clamped tighly.
4. The sample is put inside the mold in three layers and compacted 27
blows per layer using the 4.5 KG Rammer.
5. The colar is removed and the surface of the mould with soil is leveled
well using a knife.
6. The weight of the sample and mould is then recorded and the soil
is removed from the mould.
7. The same procedure as above is repeated 5 times increasing the amount
of water by 50 ie. 200,250,300,350.
RESULTS
Ie the rusults indicated for 25th September 15, 2025
CARLIFORNIA BEARING RATIO
THEORY:
The California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test is a widely used method in engineering to
evaluate the strength of subgrade soils, sub-base, and base materials for
pavement design. Below is a concise explanation of the CBR test theory, its
purpose, procedure, and significance.
The CBR test measures the resistance of a soil to penetration under controlled
conditions and compares it to the resistance of a standard crushed rock material.
It provides an empirical value, the CBR value, which indicates the soil's load-
bearing capacity and suitability for use in road and pavement construction.
The CBR test is based on the concept of bearing capacity, which reflects a soil's
ability to support loads without excessive deformation. The test simulates the
loading conditions a soil might experience under a pavement, assessing its shear
strength and stiffness under standardized conditions.

The test measures the force needed to drive a standard plunger into a
compacted soil sample at a constant rate and compares it to the force required
for a standard material.
The CBR value correlates with the soil’s shear strength, which is influenced by
factors like soil type, moisture content, density, and compaction level.
High CBR Values (e.g., >80%): Indicate strong materials like well-graded crushed
aggregates, suitable for base courses.
Moderate CBR Values (e.g., 10–30%): Typical for sub-base materials or compacted
granular soils.
Low CBR Values (e.g., <10%): Indicate weak subgrade soils (e.g., clays), requiring
stabilization or thicker pavement layers.
Factors Affecting CBR
1. Soil Type: Granular soils (sands, gravels) typically have higher CBR
than cohesive soils (clays).
2. Moisture Content: CBR decreases with increasing moisture, especially
in clays (soaked CBR is lower than unsoaked).
3. Compaction: Higher compaction energy increases density and CBR.
4. Soaking: Soaked tests simulate worst-case conditions (e.g.,
flooding), reducing CBR for most soils.

APPARATUS
1. Mould
2. Base plate with Perforations
3. Colar
4. Spacer disk of diameter 148.7mm and height 47.7mm
5. Surcharge weight of 2.5 Kg
6. Slotted weight
7. Penetration plunger
8. Loading machine
9. Compaction Rammer
[Link] ring
[Link]
[Link] papers
[Link] tools
[Link] cylinder

PROCEDURE
1. Take the specimen and pass it through sieve number 20 to
obtain 5000g of the sample. This is what will be used to conduct
the
experiment.
There are two ways of compaction that can be used to determine
the CBR they are static and dynamic compaction. Static compaction
is
 where there is gradual application of the load using the loading
machine at 1.25mm penetration per minute. Dynamic compaction
is where there is use of Arama where the soil is put on a mold in
three layers and compacted at 56 blows by a 2.6 KG Rama.
2. The spacing disc is fixed at the bottom of the plate and then a
filter paper is put on the spacing disk. Lubricating oil is Applied on
the mold so that the specimen cannot stick in the mold. The
colour is fixed and they are then tightly clamped together.
3. Water that has been obtained as the optimum moisture content
from Proctor test is then mixed with the specimen, 5KG specimen.
The mixed sample is 10 placed inside the mold In three layers
compacting using a 2.6 KG Rama at 56 blows.
4. The mold is removed from the base plate and then the top surface
is trimmed off. The weight of the mold plus the soil is taken.
5. The mold is then fixed onto the machine whereby the machine will
apply static loading on the specimen. The plunger is then allowed
to penetrate at a rate of 1.25mm per minute.
6. Readings on the proving ring is taken with penetrations of 0.5, 1,
1.5, two, 4, 5, 7.5,10 and 12.5 mm.
7. The CBR value is calculated by determining load corresponding to
2.5mm and 5mm penetrations.
RESULTS
GRADING/ PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION
THEORY
The Particle Size Distribution (PSD) test is a fundamental geotechnical test used to
determine the size range and distribution of particles in a soil sample. This
information is critical for classifying soils, assessing their engineering properties,
and determining their suitability for construction, pavement design, or other
applications.
The PSD test quantifies the proportions of different particle sizes (e.g., gravel,
sand, silt, clay) in a soil sample. It helps in:
1. Soil Classification: Using systems like the Unified Soil Classification
System (USCS) or AASHTO to categorize soils (e.g., sandy silt, well-graded
gravel).
2. Engineering Properties: Particle size influences properties like
permeability, compressibility, shear strength, and compaction behavior.
3. Design Applications: PSD is critical for pavement design, filter design,
and assessing soil stability or liquefaction potential.

The PSD test is conducted using different methods depending on particle size:
1. Sieve Analysis (for coarse-grained soils, >0.075 mm):
Soil is passed through a stack of sieves with decreasing mesh sizes (e.g., 4.75 mm,
2 mm, 0.425 mm, 0.075 mm).
The weight of soil retained on each sieve is measured to determine the
percentage passing each size.
2. Hydrometer Analysis or Sedimentation Test (for fine-grained soils,
<0.075 mm)

The PSD influences the shear strength of soil as follows:

 Coarse-Grained Soils (e.g., sands, gravels):
 o Well-graded soils (high Cu C_u Cu) have higher packing
density, increasing the friction angle (ϕ \phi ϕ) and shear
strength.
o Uniform soils (low Cu C_u Cu) have lower interlocking, reducing ϕ
o Cohesion (c c c) is typically zero unless cementation exists.
 Fine-Grained Soils (e.g., clays, silts):
o Smaller particles increase cohesion (c c c) due to interparticle
forces (e.g., van der Waals forces, electrochemical bonding).
o Higher clay content reduces the friction angle (ϕ \phi ϕ) but
increases c c c.
 Mixed Soils: A balance of coarse and fine particles can optimize
shear strength by combining frictional and cohesive components.
6. Significance in Engineering
 Pavement Design: PSD affects the California Bearing Ratio (CBR), as
well- graded soils with fewer fines typically have higher CBR values,
indicating better load-bearing capacity.
 Permeability: Coarse soils (high sand/gravel content) have
higher permeability, affecting drainage and seepage.
 Liquefaction Potential: Poorly graded sands with low fines content
are more susceptible to liquefaction.
 Compaction: Well-graded soils compact better, improving strength
and stability.

PROCEDURE
1. A sample of soil 1000g is taken and passed through sieve number 20.
2. 2G of sodium hexametaphosphate is added to the sample, sodium
hexa metaphorfate acts as a dispersing agent.
3. Soil is passed through a stack of sieves with decreasing mesh sizes
(e.g., 4.75 mm, 2 mm, 0.425 mm, 0.075 mm)
4. Ensure accurate measurement by meticulously recording the weight of
soil retained in each sieve, establishing a precise foundation for reliable
analysis.
5. RESULTS
 ANNALYSIS

PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION

80

70

60
PERCENT PASSING %

50

40

30

20

10

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
PARTICLE SIZE

The distribution shows a gradual increase in percent passing, with a steeper

rise between 0.5 mm and 2 mm, suggesting the bulk of the material is in the
medium to coarse sand range. It flattens toward the upper end, implying
limited finer particles beyond the plotted range.
D10 (Effective Size): 0.50 mm (particle size at which 10% of the sample is finer)
D30: 1.08 mm (30% finer)
D60: 4.00 mm (60% finer)
Uniformity Coefficient (Cu = D60 / D10): 8.00)
Coefficient of Curvature (Cc = (D30)² / (D10 × D60))=0.59

VIBRATING HUMMER TEST

THEORY
The Vibrating Hammer Test is a geotechnical laboratory method used to
determine the compaction characteristics of granular soils (e.g., sands, gravels) by
simulating field vibratory compaction, such as that achieved with vibratory rollers.
The test provides the maximum dry density and optimum moisture content (OMC)
 of a soil under vibratory conditions, which are critical for assessing its suitability as
a subgrade, sub-base, or base material in pavement design, embankments, or
foundations.
 Compaction: Compaction reduces air voids, increasing dry density
and improving soil stability. The vibrating hammer applies cyclic
loading to
mimic field vibratory compaction, causing particles to settle into a denser
packing.
 Shear Strength: The shear strength of soil, per the Mohr-Coulomb failure
is influenced by density:
o Cohesion (c ): Typically zero in granular soils, but density affects
particle interlocking.
o Friction Angle (ϕ ): Higher density increases particle contact
points, raising ϕ \phi ϕ and shear strength.
o Normal Stress (σ ): Vibratory compaction increases resistance to
applied loads, improving performance under traffic or structural
loads.
 Moisture Content: Water acts as a lubricant, reducing friction up to
the OMC, where maximum density is achieved. Beyond OMC, excess
water occupies space, reducing density.
 Granular Soils: The test is most effective for cohesionless soils (e.g., sands,
gravels with <12% fines), as vibration efficiently rearranges coarse
particles compared to cohesive soils.
Relation to PSD and CBR:
  Particle Size Distribution (PSD): The test complements PSD data (from
sieve or hydrometer analysis). Well-graded soil achieve higher densities
under
vibration due to better particle packing, increasing shear strength and CBR
values.
 CBR Correlation: Higher dry density from vibratory compaction
correlates with higher CBR values, indicating better load-bearing capacity
for
pavement design.

Significance in Engineering

 Shear Strength Enhancement:

o Higher density increases the friction angle in granular soils, improving shear
strength
o For example, well-compacted sand may have ϕ of 35–40°, compared to 30–35°
for loosely packed sand, directly impacting stability.
 Pavement Design:
o The maximum dry density and OMC guide field compaction specifications
(e.g., achieving 95–98% of lab density).
o Correlates with CBR test results, as denser soils have higher bearing capacity,
reducing pavement thickness requirements.

 Applications:
o Designing subgrades, sub-bases, or bases for roads, airfields, and embankments.
o Assessing suitability of granular materials for fill or drainage layers.
o Quality control during construction to ensure field compaction meets
design standards.

PROCEDURE
1. Prepare Apparatus:
Assemble a cylindrical mold (150 mm diameter, 127 mm height, ~2,273 cm³
volume) with baseplate and extension collar.
Use a vibrating hammer (600–700 W, 30–50 Hz frequency) with a 100 mm
diameter foot.
Gather balance (0.01 g accuracy), oven (105–110°C), sieves (19 mm max),
moisture tins, mixing tools, and timer.
2. Collect and Prepare Soil:
Obtain 10–15 kg of representative soil, oven-dried.
Sieve to remove particles >19 mm (or >4.75 mm for finer soils).
Prepare 4–6 samples at different moisture contents (e.g., 4%, 6%, 8%, 10%, 12%)
by adding water, mixing, and curing for 16–24 hours.
3. Weigh Empty Mold:
Record the mass of the empty mold and baseplate.
Add moist soil to the mold in one loose layer (or 2–3 layers if specified).
Weigh the mold with loose soil to determine wet soil mass.
4. Apply Vibration:
Position the vibrating hammer foot on the soil surface.
Vibrate at 30–50 Hz for 8–12 minutes (or until density stabilizes, avoiding
segregation).Use 60–100% power, adjusting to prevent over-vibration.

5. Trim and Weigh:

Remove the hammer and trim the soil surface flush with the mold top.
Weigh the mold with compacted soil.
6. Extrude and Sample:
Extrude the soil using a hydraulic jack or manually.
Take a 100–200 g subsample for moisture content determination.
7. Determine Moisture Content:
Dry the subsample in an oven at 105–110°C for 24 hours.
 8. Calculate moisture content
Calculate Densities, Compute wet density, Compute dry density
9. Repeat for Other Moisture Contents:
Repeat steps 4–9 for each sample (different moisture contents).
Perform at least two replicates per moisture content for accuracy.
[Link] Compaction Curve:
Identify the maximum dry density of the soil sample.

RESULTS
Moi We
Dry
stur t
de
e de
nsi
cont nsi
ty (
ent ty
(%)
1.7 1.7
Test 1 2.5
8 4
1.9 1.8
Test 2 5.0
1 2
1.9 1.8
Test 3 7.5
5 1
1.9 1.7
Test 4 10.0
0 3

1.84

1.82

1.8
DRY DENITY

1.78

1.76

1.74

1.72

1.7

1.68
2 3 4 5 MOISTURE
6 7
CONTENT 8 9 10 11
Optimum Moisture Content (OMC): The moisture content at which the maximum dry
density is achieved. In the example above, the OMC is 5.0%.
Maximum Dry Unit Weight: The highest density achieved during the test. In the
example, it is 1.82

UNCONFINED COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

The Unconfined Compression Test is a simple, widely used test to determine the
shear strength of cohesive soils, particularly clays, under undrained conditions.
Here’s how it relates to shear strength:
The involves applying a compressive load to a cylindrical soil sample (typically
cohesive, like clay) without lateral confinement until failure occurs.
It measures the unconfined compressive strength, which is the maximum axial
stress the soil can withstand.
The test is typically performed under undrained conditions, meaning pore water
cannot drain during loading, making it suitable for short-term stability analysis.
Shear Strength Expression:
o The shear strength of cohesive soils in undrained conditions is
often expressed as the undrained shear strength.
o For the UCT, the undrained shear strength is derived from
the unconfined compressive strength:
 Unconfined compressive strength (maximum axial stress
at failure, in kPa).
 Undrained shear strength (kPa).
 o This relationship comes from the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion. In
undrained conditions for saturated cohesive soils, the friction angle
is often assumed to be zero, and the shear strength is purely
cohesive:
o The factor of 2 arises because, at failure, the maximum shear
stress occurs on planes oriented at 45° to the principal stress, and
the
principal stress difference.
Mohr-Coulomb Context:
o The Mohr’s circle at failure shows the maximum shear stress as
half the principal stress difference:
Application to Interface Testing (UCI Context):
o Interface shear strength is often tested using a direct shear test or
interface shear test, where a soil sample is sheared against a material
(e.g., steel, concrete).
o The shear strength at the interface is expressed using a
modified Mohr-Coulomb equation
 Adhesion (interface cohesion, often lower than soil cohesion).
 Interface friction angle (typically lower than the soil’s
internal friction angle ϕ.
o For cohesive soils, adhesion is related to the undrained shear
strength, and δ depends on the surface roughness and soil type.

PROCEDURE

CONCRETE LAB TESTS

WATER ABSORPTION
Objective: To determines water absorption of brick. Equipment/
Machines
a) Dry bricks
b) Weighing
machine Principle
Brick for external use must be capable of preventing rain water from passing
through them to the
inside of walls of reasonable thickness. A good brick should absorb water
maximum 1/7 th of the
weight of the brick
Methods/Procedures
(i) 20 bricks are taken randomly from a stack.
(ii) The bricks are put in an oven at a temperature of 1050 for drying.
(iii) Bricks are weighed in a digital weighing machine and is record as W1
(iv) The bricks are immersed in water at room temperature for 24 hours.
(v) After 24 hours immersion, the bricks are taken out of water and wiped with
a damp cloth for3 minutes
(vi) The bricks are weight again and recorded as W2.
(vii) Water absorption in % is calculated as (𝑊2−𝑊1)/𝑊1×100

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF BRICKS

Equipments/Machines
1. Compressive strength testing machine
2. Bricks
3. Water
4. Sand
5. Cement
6. Trowel
Principle
Bricks are mostly subjected to compression and tension. The usual crushing
strength of common hand
moulded well burnt bricks is about 5 to 10 N/mm2 (50 to 100/kg/cm2) varying
according to the nature of
preparation of the clay. Pressed and machine moulded bricks made of thoroughly
plugged clay are
strongerthan common hand moulded bricks from carelessly prepared clay.

Methods/Procedures
(i) Eight bricks are taken for the compressive strength testing.
(ii) The bricks are then immersed in water at room temperature for 24 hours.
(iii) Then these are taken out of water and surplus water on the surfaces is
wiped off with a moist cloth.
(iv) The frog of the bricks is flushed level with cement mortar (1:3)
(v) The bricks are stored under damp jute bags for 24 hours followed by
its immersion in water at room temperature
for three days.
(vi) The bricks are placed in the compression testing machine with flat
faces horizontal and mortar filled face being
upwards.
(vii) Load is applied at a uniform rate of 14 N/ m2 per minute till failure.

RESULTS

AGGREGATE IMPACT VALUE

PRINCIPLE
The Aggregate Impact Value (AIV) test is a standard laboratory procedure in civil
engineering and materials science used to assess the toughness of coarse
aggregates. Toughness refers to the ability of aggregates to resist sudden impacts
or shocks, which is crucial for their performance in construction applications like
road pavements, where they are subjected to dynamic loads from moving
vehicles. This test simulates the impact forces that aggregates experience in
service, helping to predict their resistance to disintegration and breakage under
repeated shock loading.
Impact in Aggregates: When vehicles move over roads, aggregates in the
pavement layers (e.g., base, sub-base, or wearing course) experience sudden
impacts from wheel loads, especially over undulations or speed breakers. This
can cause aggregates to fracture into smaller particles, leading to pavement
degradation, rutting, or loss of structural integrity. The AIV test quantifies the
aggregate's resistance to such sudden shock loads, which differs from its
resistance to gradual compressive loads (measured by the Aggregate Crushing
Value test).
Mohr-Coulomb and Failure Criteria: At a fundamental level, the test relates to the
shear strength and fracture mechanics of aggregates. Under impact, aggregates
fail due to tensile stresses induced by the shock wave, often following principles
similar to the Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope for brittle materials. The impact
simulates dynamic loading, where energy absorption capacity (toughness) is key.
The test assumes that the percentage of fines generated correlates directly with
the aggregate's internal flaws, mineral composition, and bonding strength.
Limitations of Theory: The AIV does not account for long-term abrasion or
weathering but focuses on initial toughness. It is a relative measure, not an
absolute strength value, and results can vary with aggregate shape (e.g., flaky or
elongated particles are more prone to breakage). Testing parent rock strength
alone is insufficient, as aggregates in concrete or pavement behave differently due
to their processed state.

APPARATUS
1. Impact Testing Machine
2. Sieves: IS sieves of 12.5 mm, 10 mm, and 2.36 mm.
3. Measure and Tamping Rod: Cylindrical metal measure (75
mm diameter, 50 mm depth)
 4. tamping rod (10 mm diameter, 230 mm long) for compaction.
5. Balance and Oven

PROCEDURE
1. The test sample consists of aggregates passing 12.5mm sieve and retained on
l0 mm sieve and
dried in an oven for 4 hours at a temperature of 100 C to 110 C.
2. The aggregates are filled Up to about 1/3 full in the cylindrical measure
and tamped 25 times
with rounded end of the tamping rod.
3. The rest of the cylindrical measure is filled by two layers and each layer
being tamped 25 times
4. The overflow of aggregates in cylindrically measure is cut off by tamping
rod using it has a
straight edge.
5. Then the entire aggregate sample in a measuring cylinder is weighted
nearing to 0.0lgm.
6. The aggregates from the cylindrical measure are carefully transferred into
the cup which is
firmly fixed in position on the base plate of machine. Then it is tamped 25 times.
7. The hammer is raised until its lower face is 38cm above the upper surface
of aggregates in the
cup and allowed to fall freely on the aggregates. The test sample is subjected to a
total of 15 such
blows each being delivered at an interval of not less than one second. The crushed
aggregate is
than removed from the cup and the whole of it is sieved on 2.366mm sieve until no
significant
amount passes. The fraction passing the sieve is weighed accurate to [Link].
Repeat the above
steps with other fresh sample.
8. Let the original weight of the oven dry sample be Wl gm and the weight
of fraction passing
2.36mm I.S sieve be W2gm. Then aggregate Impact value is expressed as the % of
fines formed in terms of the total weight of the sample.

AGGREGATE CRUSH VALUE

THEORY
In construction, ensuring the quality and durability of materials is critical to the
longevity and performance of infrastructure. One method for assessing the
strength of aggregates—the primary materials used in concrete and road
construction—is the Aggregate Crushing Value test (ACV) . This test provides a
practical and reliable measure of how well aggregates withstand crushing under
gradually applied compressive loads, offering essential insights into their
suitability for real-world applications.

While individual rock specimens may exhibit impressive compressive strengths

ranging from 45 MPa to 545 MPa, these values do not always reflect how
aggregates perform within a structural context. Factors such as aggregate size,
shape, texture, and flaws influence their behavior under load. The Aggregate
Crushing Value test bridges this gap by offering a standardized procedure to assess
the strength of aggregates in conditions that mimic actual construction
environments.

In the Aggregate Crushing Value test , a sample of aggregates is subjected to a

gradually increasing compressive load until failure occurs. The resulting
crushing value—expressed as a percentage of the original mass—indicates the
material’s resistance to crushing. Lower ACV values signify stronger aggregates
that are
better suited for high-load applications such as road bases and heavy-duty
pavements, while higher ACV values suggest materials that may crush more easily
under pressure.
APPARATUS
1. Testing Cylinder:
2. plunger and base plate.

Aggregates Crushing Value Apparatus Dia-150 mm

3. Metal Tamping Rod: 16 mm diameter, 45-60 cm length for compacting
the sample.
4. Precision Balance: 3 kg capacity with 1 g accuracy for weighing samples.
5. Standardized IS Sieves:
 12.5 mm sieve for selecting aggregates.
 10.0 mm sieve for retaining the sample.
 2.36 mm sieve to separate crushed fines after testing.
 6. Compression Testing Machine: Capable of applying a controlled 40-
tonne load.
7. Cylindrical Measure: 11.5 cm diameter and 18 cm height for
sample preparation.

PROCEDURE

1. Place the cylinder on a clean, level base plate. Divide

the aggregate into three equal portions by mass.
2. Fill the cylinder with the first portion, tamp it 25 times with
the tamping rod (spreading blows evenly over the surface).
Add the second portion, tamp similarly, then add the third
portion without tamping.
3. Level the surface with the tamping rod, ensuring the cylinder
is exactly full.
4. Place the plunger on the aggregate surface and center it in
the compression machine.
5. Apply the load uniformly at a rate of 4 kN/s until it reaches
400 kN .Maintain the maximum load for 10 minutes to ensure
complete crushing.
6. Release the load gradually.
 7. Carefully remove the crushed aggregate from the cylinder
onto a clean metal tray, tapping the cylinder to release all
material.
8. Transfer the aggregate to a 2.36 mm IS sieve.
9. Sieve the material by hand until no further significant
amount passes (typically < 1 g passes in the last minute).
[Link] the fraction passing the 2.36 mm sieve (fines) to
the nearest . Record as W₂ (g).
[Link] the retained material (coarse fraction) to verify
total mass recovery (should be within 0.5% of original).
[Link] the test at least twice on separate samples from
the same batch.
[Link] the results if they agree within 1% (absolute difference
≤ 1 ACV unit). If not, repeat.

SLUMP TEST
THEORY
In the Slump Test is determined the workability of freshly mixed concrete. The
Workability of fresh concrete means the ability to work with fresh concrete. Thus,
the Workability of fresh concrete means the ability of transportation, placed,
compacting and finishing in fresh concrete. It is measured the water/cement ratio
of fresh concrete mix indirectly. But some kind of reasons such as high range
water reducers and retarders, the slump test is not a good indicator to measure
the water/cement ratio.
The test measures the slump, or vertical settlement, of a fresh concrete sample
when a standard mold (a frustum-shaped cone) is removed, allowing the
concrete to deform under gravity.
The slump indicates the concrete’s consistency and fluidity. A higher slump
suggests a wetter, more workable mix, while a lower slump indicates a stiffer mix.
The test is based on the assumption that the deformation of the concrete sample
reflects its ability to flow and fill formwork in practical applications.
APPARATUS
1. Slump Cone, Top diameter= 100 mm
Bottom diameter= 200 mm and height= 300mm
2. Base plate
3. Tamping rod( diameter 16 mm, height 60cm)
4. Scoop
5. Tape measure
6. Measuring balance
7. Sand, cement and
aggregate PROCEDURE
1. Mix the sand, cement and aggregates in a ratio of 1:2:4 to obtain a
M20 concrete.
Material Cement Sand Aggregate Water
Quantity 3.465 1.87 6.105 15.62

2. The base plate and the slump cone are fixed together then the concrete
is put inside the cone in three layers, 25 blows per layer using the
tamping rod.
 3. The cone is filled well and after the last layer, level the top surface with
the tamping rod.
4. Remove the cone slowly to prevent damaging of the slump.
5. Once the slump has settled, put the cone upside down laying the
tamping rod at the top.
6. Measure the hight from the top of the slump to the rod.

RESULTS
Slump Height Type of slump
10 mm True Slump

There are various types of slumps as shown:

Types of Slump:
1. True Slump: The concrete subsides uniformly, maintaining a cohesive
shape. This is the desired outcome and indicates a well-proportioned mix.
2. Shear Slump: One side of the concrete shears off, indicating a lack
of cohesion, often due to insufficient cement paste or poor mix
design.
3. Collapse Slump: The concrete completely collapses, suggesting
excessive water content or segregation, leading to a highly fluid mix
unsuitable for most applications.
Slump values are typically measured in millimeters (or inches) and classified as:
1. Low Slump (0–25 mm): Stiff mix, suitable for applications like
road pavements requiring minimal flow.
2. Medium Slump (25–100 mm): Common for general construction
(e.g., beams, columns).
3. High Slump (100–175 mm): Fluid mix, used for congested reinforcement
or pumped concrete.
4. Collapse Slump (>175 mm): Too wet, often unsuitable due to
segregation risks.
The slump value is compared to the design specifications to ensure the concrete
meets the required workability for the project.
The slump was a low slump hence it is good for the construction of the proposed
road. It is safe to use the materials that have been given.

The following are some factors affecting the workability of concrete.

14. Cement Content of concrete
[Link] Content of concrete
[Link] Proportions of concrete
[Link], Shape, Grading & Surface Texture of Aggregates
[Link] of Admixtures in concrete
[Link] of supplementary cementitious materials

The importance of the test

In the Slump Test is measured the workability of the fresh concrete. The
importance of the Slump Test is to check and ensure the consistency in the
concrete. The Slump test is done to checks to see quickly if the concrete is suitable for
use. it is shown whether to use that the concrete specimen is used for the
purpose of what kind of constructions for the different slump values.
LOS ANGELES ABRASSION
THEORY
The aim is to determine the abrasion value of coarse aggregate by using Los -
Angeles testing machine with an abrasive charge.
Aggregates undergo significant wear and tear throughout their life. Aggregates
must be hard and tough enough to resist crushing, degradation and disintegration
and be able to transmit loads from the pavement surface to the underlying layers
and eventually the subgrade. Testing the strength of parent rock alone does not
exactly indicate the strength of aggregates in concrete. For this reason assessment
of strength of the aggregates are made by using a sample bulk aggregates in
standardized manner. The principal mechanical property of aggregate required in
any construction is
1. Satisfactory resistance to crushing under the roller during construction
2. Adequate resistance to surface abrasion under traffic

Los Angeles Abrasion Testing Machine

Aggregates used in road construction should be strong enough to resist abrasion
and crushing under traffic wheel load. If aggregates are weak the stability of
pavement structure is adversely affected. If the aggregates used are not resistant
to abrasion it may cause premature failure or a loss of skid resistance of
pavements, also poor resistance to abrasion can produce excessive dust.
Abrasion test is carried out on the aggregate sample to test the hardness
property of
aggregates and to decide whether they are suitable for different pavement
construction works. Los Angeles test is widely used to test abrasion of aggregate
and the method has been standardized in India (IS:2386 part-IV). The Los Angeles
abrasion test finds the percentage wear due to relative rubbing action between
the aggregate and steel balls.
Los Angeles machine has a circular rotating drum of length 520 mm and internal
diameter 700 mm mounted on horizontal axis. An abrasive charge consisting of
cast iron spherical balls of 48 mm diameters and weight 340-445 g is placed in
the cylinder along with the aggregates based on the selected grading. The
number of the abrasive spheres varies according to the grading of the sample.
The quantity of aggregates to be used depends upon the grading and usually
ranges from 5-10 kg. The cylinder is then locked and rotated at the speed of 30-
33 rpm for a total of 500 -1000 revolutions depending upon the gradation of
aggregates. After
specified revolutions, the material passing 1.7 mm IS sieve is measured
and expressed as percentage total weight of the sample. This value is
called Los Angeles abrasion value.
APPARATUS
1. Los angeles abrasion machine
2. Sieves ie 20mm,12.5mm, 10mm and pan
3. Trowel
4. Sieve shaker
5. Balance machine
PROCEDURE
1. Select a sample of 5000 grams and pass it through the sieves that have
been fixed in descending order with pan at the bottom
2. Put the set of sieves on the mechanical sieve shaker and fit them tighly. Put
it on and let shaking take place for 5 minutes.
3. Measure amount that has been retained on sieve 10mm and 12.5 mm
and record.
4. Transfer the weighed aggregates on los angeles machineand fix the cover
5. Rotate the machine at 30-33 revolutions per minute
6. The rotated sample is sieved through sieve 1.70mm and placed in
mechanical sieve shaker
7. Weight retained on the sieve is recorded
BITUMEN LAB
MARSHAL TEST
THEORY
The Marshall Test is a widely used laboratory procedure in civil engineering to
evaluate the performance characteristics of hot mix asphalt (HMA) and
determine the optimum asphalt binder content for a bituminous mix.
Developed by Bruce Marshall in the 1930s and standardized by ASTM D6927 and
AASHTO T245, the test assesses the stability (load-bearing capacity) and flow
(deformation under load) of compacted asphalt specimens, alongside volumetric
properties like air voids, voids in mineral aggregate (VMA), and voids filled with
asphalt (VFA).
The theory is rooted in empirical relationships between mix composition,
mechanical behavior, and field performance, aiming to design a durable,
workable, and cost-effective asphalt mix for pavements.
AIM
Aim of conducting Marshall of HMA Marshall Stability is related to the resistance
of bituminous materials to distortion, displacement, rutting and shearing
stresses.
The stability is derived mainly from internal friction and cohesion.
Cohesion is the binding force of binder material while internal friction is the
interlocking and frictional resistance of aggregates. As bituminous pavement is
subjected to severe traffic loads from time to time, it is necessary to adopt
bituminous material with good stability and flow.

APPARATUS
6. Automatic compactor
7. Mould and base plate
8. Water bath
9. Testing machine
[Link]
PROCEDURE
The marshal test is carried in 3 stages namely:
1. Preparation stage
2. Mixing stage
3. Compaction
Preparation
1. Aggregates are washed and passed through 75 micrometer sieve and
dried at a temperature of 105 degrees.
2. They are then dry sieved using 75 micrometer sieve
3. 1050g of the aggregates are taken and heated at a temperature of
about 175 degrees.

Mixing
1. The bitumen are heated in a separate oven to a temperature not higher
than the required mixing temperature.
8. The mold cylinders and extension collars are heated at about 93 C-149 C.
9. About 0.1g mass of the binder is added to each standard aggregate
blend
[Link] hot bitumen are removed from its oven and are transferred into
a mixing bowl containing heated aggregates & the binder and are
mixed thoroughly with the help of a spatula (hand mix).
[Link] the mold was removed from the oven and a filter paper disk
are placed in the bottom of the mold.
[Link] the mixed materials are transferred into the mold by spading the
mixing with the heated spatula 15 times round the perimeter and 10
times over the interior of the mold and form the top of mixture into a
dome.
Compaction
1. Before compaction, a fitter paper is fitted at the bottom and top of
the sample in the mold before compacting.
2. It is then assembled in the Marshall Compaction Machine with the help
of the mold holder.
3. Then the machine is reset and 65 blows are applied to each side of
the mixture.
4. Then, the collar, base and paper disk are removed and the sample is
extruded with an extruder and is allowed to cool in air as shown
below.
5. The Test experiment is conducted by compacting the mixture with
the Marshal automatic compaction apparatus
RESULTS
RISE TEST
THEORY
The aim of the Rice Method is to provide a reference density for calculating key
volumetric properties, such as air voids (Va), voids in mineral aggregate (VMA),
and voids filled with asphalt (VFA), which are critical for optimizing the asphalt mix
design and ensuring pavement performance.
The Rice Method is used in asphalt mix design to determine the theoretical
maximum specific gravity (Gmm) of an asphalt mixture without air voids.
The core mechanism relies on Archimedes' principle for volume determination
combined with vacuum deairing to remove free and entrapped air, ensuring the
sample's volume reflects only the solid components (aggregates and bitumen)
without voids.
APPARATUS
8. Pycnometer
9. Vacuum pump
[Link] guage
[Link] Table
[Link] balance
[Link] bath
[Link]
[Link] number 4
[Link] water
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]

PROCEDURE
1. Collect a loose HMA sample 2,500 g . Heat the sample to 135°C if needed
to loosen it, then break it up by hand or with a spatula to separate
aggregates into particles smaller than 6.25 mm without fracturing them.
2. Place the loose sample in a container .Weigh the Dry Sample in Air
and record the weight.
3. Add water to the container with the sample.
4. Apply Vacuum to Remove Entrapped Air: Seal the container and apply
vacuum (3.7 kPa or 27.75 mm Hg) for 15 minutes. Monitor pressure with the
manometer. Slowly release the vacuum after 15 minutes.
5. Record the mass of the container and sample submerged in water
(in grams). This equals the mass of water displaced by the sample.
6. Calculate Theoretical Maximum Specific Gravity
(Gmm) RESULTS
EXTRACTION TEST
THEORY
Purpose
The bitumen extraction test is a laboratory procedure used in pavement
engineering to:
1. Determine Asphalt Binder Content: Quantify the percentage of asphalt
binder in an HMA sample by weight, which is critical for verifying mix
design compliance with specifications.
2. Recover Aggregates: Separate the aggregate from the asphalt binder
to allow further testing, such as sieve analysis for gradation or
aggregate properties.
3. Quality Control and Assurance: Ensure the HMA meets design
requirements for performance, durability, and stability in road construction.
The extraction test is grounded in the principle of selective dissolution and
mass balance:
1. Selective Dissolution: Asphalt binder (bitumen) is soluble in specific
organic solvents (e.g., trichloroethylene, dichloromethane, or n-propyl
bromide),
while aggregates (sand, gravel, or crushed stone) are not. By dissolving the
binder, it can be separated from the aggregate.
2. Mass Balance: The weight of the asphalt binder is determined either by:

Direct Measurement: Weighing the extracted binder after solvent evaporation.

Indirect Measurement: Calculating the binder content as the difference
between the total HMA sample mass and the mass of the recovered aggregate.
The test assumes that the solvent completely dissolves the asphalt binder
without affecting the aggregate’s mass or properties.
The extraction test can be performed using various methods, as outlined in
AASHTO T 164 or ASTM D2172:
a. Centrifuge Extraction: Uses a centrifuge to separate the binder-
solvent solution from aggregates (most common).
b. Reflux Extraction: Uses heat and solvent reflux to dissolve the binder.
c. Vacuum Extraction: Employs a vacuum to enhance solvent penetration.
d. Ignition Method (AASHTO T 308): An alternative to solvent extraction,
where the binder is burned off, and the remaining aggregate is
weighed.
This avoids solvent use but requires calibration for aggregate mass loss due
to burning.
Safety Considerations:
Solvents are often flammable or toxic, requiring proper ventilation, protective
equipment, and adherence to safety protocols.
The ignition method (if used) involves high temperatures, necessitating fire
safety measures.
APPARATUS
1. Centrifuge Extractor: A bowl-type centrifuge (manual or motorized)
capable of speeds up to 3,600 rpm, with a bowl capacity suitable for the
sample size (e.g., 1,000–3,000 g).
2. Filter Rings
3. Balance
4. Oven: Capable of maintaining 115 degrees.
5. Solvent: Typically trichloroethylene (TCE), dichloromethane, or a
safer alternative like n-propyl bromide, per standard specifications.
6. Wash Bottle or Dispenser
7. Drying Pans or Trays
8. Desiccator
9. Sieve: No. 200
[Link] System
PROCEDURE
1. Weigh the Dry Sample and record its weight.
2. Place the filter ring securely in the centrifuge bowl to capture fine
aggregates during [Link] the centrifuge is balanced and in a
well-ventilated area or fume hood due to solvent vapors.
3. Add sufficient solvent 300 mL for a 1,000 g sample to cover the sample
in the bowl. Use a wash bottle to ensure even distribution and minimize
splashing.
4. Allow the sample to soak briefly (1–2 minutes) to begin dissolving
the asphalt binder
5. Place the bowl in the centrifuge and secure the lid.
6. Start the centrifuge, gradually increasing speed to avoid splashing, up to
a maximum of 3,600 rpm.
7. Centrifuge for 2–3 minutes or until the efluent (solvent + binder solution)
appears clear, indicating most binder has been extracted.
8. Stop the centrifuge and pour off the efluent into a container for disposal or
further analysis.
9. Add fresh solvent to the bowl, stir gently to resuspend aggregates,
and repeat centrifugation.
[Link] cycles (typically 3–5) until the efluent is nearly colorless (light
straw color), indicating complete binder removal. This may require
500– 1,000 mL of solvent total, depending on sample size and binder
content.
[Link] the filter ring and transfer the extracted aggregate to a clean,
tared drying pan.
[Link] the aggregate in an oven at 115°C to constant mass (change <
0.1% between weighings, typically 1–2 hours).
[Link] the aggregate in a desiccator to prevent moisture absorption.
[Link] the dried aggregate
[Link] mineral filler (particles passing No. 200 sieve) is suspected in the efluent,
filter the collected efluent through a fine filter paper or centrifuge it
further.
[Link] Asphalt Binder Content
 PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION
THEORY
Purpose
The particle size distribution test for aggregates in HMA serves to:
1. Characterize Aggregate Gradation: Determine the proportion of
aggregate particles across various size ranges (from coarse to fine) to
ensure the mix meets design requirements for strength, stability, and
durability.
2. Verify Mix Design Compliance: Confirm that the aggregate gradation in
the produced HMA matches the job mix formula (JMF), which specifies
target
gradation for optimal pavement performance.
3. Assess Performance: Gradation affects HMA properties like
workability, compaction, permeability, and resistance to rutting or
fatigue.
4. Quality Control: Identify deviations in aggregate sizes due to
production issues, such as segregation or crusher variability.
The PSD test is based on the principle of mechanical sieving, where aggregates are
separated into size fractions by passing them through a series of standard sieves
with progressively smaller openings. The theory relies on:
1. Particle Size Separation: Aggregates are sorted based on their ability to
pass through or be retained on sieves with specific mesh sizes (e.g., 19 mm,
4.75 mm, 0.075 mm).
2. Mass Distribution: The mass of aggregates retained on each sieve
is measured and expressed as a percentage of the total sample
mass, producing a gradation curve.
Gradation Types: The distribution is classified as:

a) Well-Graded: A wide range of particle sizes, promoting dense

packing and stability (common in dense-graded HMA).
b) Gap-Graded: Missing certain size ranges, used in stone matrix
asphalt (SMA) for specific performance.
 c) Open-Graded: Predominantly coarse particles with high voids, used
in porous asphalt for drainage.

Sieve Analysis: The test assumes that sieving accurately separates particles by
their smallest dimension, and the mass retained reflects the true size distribution.

APPARATUS
1. Standard sieve set (e.g., 37.5 mm, 25 mm, 19 mm, 12.5 mm, 9.5 mm, 4.75
mm, 2.36 mm, 1.18 mm, 0.6 mm, 0.3 mm, 0.15 mm, 0.075 mm)
2. Sieve shaker ( automated)
3. Balance
4. Oven (115°C for drying aggregates)
5. Drying pans or trays
6. Desiccator
7. Brushes
8. Sample splitter or rifler

PROCEDURE
1. Use aggregates recovered from the bitumen extraction test (ie.,
centrifuge extraction ). Ensure the aggregate is clean and free of residual
binder.
2. Sample size: Typically 1000 [Link] the aggregate in a clean, tared
drying pan.
3. Dry in an oven at 115°C to constant mass (change < 0.1%
between weighings, typically 1–2 hours).
Cool the sample in a desiccator to prevent moisture absorption.
4. Weigh the Dry Sample: Weigh the cooled aggregate and Record.
5. Assemble Sieve Stack: Arrange standard sieves in descending order of
mesh size (largest at top, e.g., 37.5 mm to 0.075 mm, plus a pan at the
bottom).Ensure sieves are clean and free of residual material.
 6. Sieve the Sample: Place the dry aggregate sample on the top
[Link] the sieve stack in a mechanical sieve shaker.
7. Operate the shaker for 5 minutes until no significant material
passes through.
Alternatively, hand-sieve by shaking each sieve for 1–2 minutes, ensuring
particles have ample opportunity to pass.
8. Weigh Retained Aggregates: Carefully remove each sieve and weigh the
aggregate retained on each. Include material in the pan (passing 0.075 mm) as
W pan.
9. Verify total mass: Sum of masses retained on all sieves plus pan
should equal Wt within 0.3%. If not, repeat the test.

CONSISTENCY TEST
THEORY
Consistency tests for bitumen aim to:
1. Characterize Flow and Deformation: Assess how bitumen behaves
under mechanical stress, temperature changes, and time, which affects
mixing, compaction, and pavement performance.
2. Ensure Specification Compliance: Verify that the bitumen meets
standards (e.g., ASTM, AASHTO, or Superpave) for viscosity, stiffness, or
softness for
specific climates and traffic loads.
3. Predict Performance: Evaluate resistance to rutting (at high
temperatures), cracking (at low temperatures), and fatigue.
4. Guide Mix Design: Ensure bitumen consistency supports proper coating
of aggregates and HMA durability.
Bitumen is a viscoelastic material, exhibiting both viscous (flow) and elastic
(stiffness) properties, which vary with temperature, loading rate, and
[Link] tests measure these properties to classify bitumen grades (e.g.,
penetration grade, performance grade) and predict behavior in HMA. The
theory behind each major test is outlined below:
1. Penetration Test (ASTM D5, AASHTO T 49):
Measures the depth that a standard needle penetrates a bitumen sample under
a 100 g load for 5 seconds at 25°C.
 Penetration reflects bitumen’s relative hardness or softness. Lower
penetration values indicate harder (stiffer) bitumen, suitable for high-
temperature climates to resist rutting. Higher values indicate softer bitumen,
better for low-
temperature flexibility to prevent cracking.
Penetration is inversely related to viscosity and stiffness. It classifies bitumen
into grades (e.g., 60/70 penetration grade means 6–7 mm penetration).
Ensures bitumen consistency matches mix design requirements for workability
and pavement durability.
2. Softening Point Test (Ring and Ball, ASTM D36, AASHTO T 53):
Determines the temperature at which a bitumen sample, held in a ring, sags
under the weight of a steel ball as it is heated at a controlled rate in a water or
glycerin bath.
The softening point indicates the temperature susceptibility of bitumen, marking
the transition from a semi-solid to a more fluid state. Higher softening points
suggest stiffer bitumen, resistant to deformation at high pavement temperatures.
It correlates with the maximum service temperature for rutting resistance.
Bitumen with a higher softening point is preferred in hot climates.
Used to assess suitability for specific environmental conditions and to
complement penetration grading.
3. Viscosity Test (ASTM D4402, AASHTO T 316 for Rotational Viscometer):

Measures the resistance of bitumen to flow using a rotational viscometer at

specified temperatures ,135°C for mixing/compaction, 60°C for in-service
conditions).
Viscosity quantifies bitumen’s flow behavior, critical for pumpability, mixing
with aggregates, and compaction in HMA production. High viscosity at high
temperatures indicates resistance to rutting, while low viscosity at mixing
temperatures ensures workability.
Superpave specifications require viscosity testing to ensure proper handling
and performance in HMA.
4. Ductility Test (ASTM D113, AASHTO T 51):
Measures the distance a bitumen sample can be stretched into a thread
before breaking at 25°C at a constant pulling rate.
Ductility reflects bitumen’s cohesive strength and elasticity, indicating its ability
to deform without cracking under tensile stress. Higher ductility suggests
better flexibility, reducing low-temperature cracking in pavements.
It assesses the binder’s ability to bind aggregates and resist fatigue or thermal
cracking.
Ensures bitumen can withstand elongation during pavement deformation,
especially in cold climates.
RESULTS

1. Penetration Test (AASHTO T 49, ASTM

D5) Purpose
Measures the depth a standard needle penetrates a bitumen sample under a
100 g load for 5 seconds at 25°C, indicating hardness/softness.
Apparatus
 Penetration apparatus with a standard needle (2.5 g, 1 mm diameter tip)
 Balance
 Water bath (25 degrees)
 Sample container (55 mm diameter, 35 mm deep)
 Timer
 Thermometer
 Transfer dish
Procedure
1. Prepare Bitumen Sample:
o Heat bitumen to 150°C to make it fluid, then pour into a
sample container to a depth ≥ 10 mm above expected
penetration.
o Cool at room temperature for 1–2 hours, then place in a 25°C
water bath for 1–1.5 hours.
2. Set Up Apparatus:
o Clean and dry the penetration needle. Verify its mass (2.5 g).
o Place the sample container in the transfer dish with water at
25°C, ensuring the sample surface is submerged.
3. Perform Penetration:
o Position the needle tip just touching the sample surface (use a
mirror to avoid parallax).
o Apply a 100 g load (including needle and holder) and release
for exactly 5 seconds.
o Measure penetration depth (in tenths of a millimeter, dmm) using
the apparatus dial or digital gauge.
4. Repeat Measurements:
o Conduct at least three penetrations at different points (≥ 10
mm apart, ≥ 10 mm from container edge).
o Average the results if they differ by ≤ 4 dmm (for penetration <
200) or ≤ 8 dmm (for penetration ≥ 200). If not, repeat.
5. Report average penetration to the nearest whole dmm, test
temperature (25°C), and load (100 g).
2. Softening Point Test (Ring and Ball, AASHTO T 53, ASTM
D36) Purpose
Determines the temperature at which bitumen softens and sags under a steel
ball’s weight, indicating temperature susceptibility.
Apparatus
1. Ring and ball apparatus (two brass rings, two 9.5 mm steel balls, 15.9
g each)
2. Water or glycerin bath
3. Heater with stirrer
4. Thermometer
5. Sample rings (internal diameter 15.9 mm, depth 6.4 mm)
6. Glass plate
7. Bala
Procedure
1. Prepare Bitumen Sample:
o Heat bitumen to 150°C, then pour into two preheated rings on a
glass plate coated with a release agent (e.g., glycerin).
o Cool at room temperature for 30 minutes, then trim excess
bitumen flush with the ring surface.
2. Set Up Apparatus:
o Place rings in the bath (water for softening point < 80°C, glycerin
for 80°C).
o Position steel balls (preheated to bath temperature) on each sample.
o Fill the bath to ≥ 50 mm above the rings with distilled water
(5°C start) or glycerin (32°C start).
3. Heat and Test:
o Heat the bath at a rate of 5°C/min with constant stirring.
o Record the temperature when each ball falls 25 mm through the
ring (softening point).
o Stop if no softening occurs by 85°C (water) or 165°C (glycerin).
 4. Calculate
o Average the two temperatures if they differ by ≤ 1.5°C. If not, repeat.
o Report the softening point to the nearest 0.5°C and bath medium.

3. Viscosity Test (Rotational Viscometer, AASHTO T 316, ASTM

D4402) Purpose
Measures bitumen’s resistance to flow at high temperatures (e.g., 135°C for
mixing/compaction), indicating workability.
Apparatus
 Rotational viscometer with temperature control
 Sample chamber
 Spindle
 Thermocontroller (135 degrees)
 Balance (accurate to 0.1 g)
 Oven (135–150°C for sample preparation)
 Sample containers (metal or glass)
Procedure
1. Prepare Bitumen Sample:
o Heat bitumen to 135–150°C until fluid, then pour 8–11 g
(per spindle/chamber specs) into a preheated sample
chamber.
o Place the chamber in the thermocontroller at 135 ± 0.1°C for
30 minutes to stabilize.
2. Set Up Viscometer:
o Calibrate the viscometer per manufacturer instructions.
o Insert the spindle into the sample chamber, ensuring no air bubbles.
 3. Measure Viscosity:
o Operate the viscometer at a specified speed (e.g., 20 rpm) to
achieve 50–75% torque.
o Record viscosity (in Pascal-seconds, Pa·s) after 5 minutes of
steady shear.
o Take three readings at 1-minute intervals, averaging if within 2%
of each other.
4. Test at Additional Temperatures (Optional):
o Repeat at other temperatures (e.g., 165°C or 60°C) if specified
for performance grading.
o Clean the spindle and chamber between tests.
5. Report:
o Report average viscosity (Pa·s), test temperature, spindle type,
and speed.

AGING TEST
THEORY
Bitumen aging tests aim to:
Simulate Aging Processes: Replicate oxidative hardening and volatile loss during
HMA mixing, compaction (short-term), and long-term field exposure.
Evaluate Performance Changes: Measure changes in bitumen properties (e.g.,
viscosity, penetration, stiffness) to predict pavement performance, such as
resistance to rutting, cracking, or fatigue.
Ensure Specification Compliance: Verify bitumen meets standards (e.g., Superpave
Performance Grade, PG) after aging.
Guide Mix Design: Ensure aged bitumen maintains adequate flexibility and cohesion
for HMA durability.
Bitumen is a viscoelastic, organic material that undergoes aging due to:
1. Oxidation: Exposure to oxygen forms polar compounds (e.g.,
ketones, sulfoxides), increasing viscosity and stiffness.
2. Volatile Loss: Evaporation of lighter hydrocarbon fractions
during heating reduces bitumen’s mass and alters its
composition.
3. Physical Hardening: Molecular restructuring over time
increases brittleness.

Aging occurs in two stages:

Short-Term Aging :
Occurs during HMA production (mixing, transport, compaction) at high
temperatures (e.g., 135–165°C).
Involves rapid oxidation and volatile loss due to heat and air
exposure. Long-Term Aging (PAV):
Occurs over years in pavement service due to environmental exposure (oxygen,
UV, temperature cycles).
PAV simulates accelerated aging by subjecting RTFOT-aged bitumen to high
pressure and temperature, mimicking 5–10 years of field aging.
Apparatus
1. Rolling Thin Film Oven
2. Glass sample bottles
3. Air supply (4,000 mL/min)
4. Balance
5. Oven (135–150°C)
6. Thermometer
7. Cooling rack
 8. Scraper
Procedure
1. Heat bitumen to 135–150°C, pour 35 g into eight tared bottles, cool,
and weigh.
2. Preheat RTFOT to 163°C, place bottles in rotating carriage (15 rpm), set
air flow to 4,000 mL/min.
3. Heat for 85 min, remove bottles, and cool for 15–30 min.
4. Scrape bitumen into a container, weigh for mass loss.
5. Calculate mass loss
6. Test residue (e.g., viscosity, DSR) and Report mass loss, conditions.

FOUNDATION LAB
CONSOLIDATION TEST
THEORY
Soil Consolidation refers to the process in which the volume of a saturated
(partially or fully) soil decreases due to an applied stress.
When a load is applied in a low permeability soil, it is initially carried by the water
that exists in the porous of a saturated soil resulting in a rapid increase of pore
water pressure. This excess pore water pressure is dissipated as water drains
away from the soil’s voids and the pressure is transferred to the soil
skeleton which is gradually compressed, resulting in settlements. The
consolidation procedure lasts until the excess pore water pressure is
dissipated.
The increment of applied stress that causes consolidation may be due to either
natural loads (e.g. sedimentation processes), or human-made loads (e.g. the
construction of a building or an embankment above a soil mass) or even the
decrease of the ground water table.
The Oedometer Test
The simplest case of consolidation examined is the one-dimensional
consolidation. In this case, the lateral strain of the soil mass is neglected. The
testing procedure to quantify the critical soil properties associated with soil
consolidation is the Oedometer Test.
The Oedometer Test aims at measuring the vertical displacement of a
cylindrical, saturated soil sample subjected to a vertical load while it is radially
constrained. In the subsequent test, the incremental loading consolidation
test is described
APPARATUS
1. Oedometer (consolidation apparatus) with loading frame
2. Consolidation cell
3. Dial gauge
4. Loading weights (for incremental loads, e.g., 5–200 kPa)
5. Porous stones (top and bottom of specimen)
6. Filter paper discs
7. Balance
8. Vernier caliper or micrometer
9. Oven (105–110°C )
[Link] trimmer or cutting ring
[Link] reservoir or saturation tank
[Link] or timer
[Link] water
[Link] and mixing tools
[Link] content
cans PROCEDURE
1. Position the dial gauge (or electronic instrument)
2. Measure weight, height, diameter of the confining ring
3. Measure height (H) and diameter (D) of aluminum sample
4. Trim specimen into the confining ring
5. Take water content measurement from the trimmings
6. Weigh soil sample and confining ring
7. Soak porous stones and filter papers
 8. Place the consolidation cell in the loading frame and adjust
height. The loading beam should be almost horizontal.
9. Take initial reading ( reading will be subtracted from
all measurements). Place seating load
[Link] water to the reservoir

SHEAR TEST
THEORY
The shear test aims at determining the shear strength of a material, i.e. the
maximum shear stress that a material can withstand before failure
occurs. Shear forces lead the material surfaces to move in opposite
directions, causing a sliding motion and a mechanical stress. Shear tests
differ from compression tests by applying parallel instead of
perpendicular forces to the two-contact surface. During a shear test, a
stress is applied onto a sample setup in a modified three-point flexure or
four-point bend fixture, so that the sample experiences a sliding failure
along a plane that is parallel to the forces applied.
The shear test measures the time required to pull a defined area of PSA
from the test panel under a constant load. Shear strength is the internal
or cohesive strength of the adhesive mass. The crosshead speed used
depends on the type of shear test; for example, during a lap joint shear
test the crosshead speed used is 1.27 mm/min.

APPARATUS
1. Direct shear box (square: 60 mm × 60 mm × 50 mm deep)
2. Loading frame with motor or hand-operated mechanism
3. Normal load weights (for applying stresses, e.g., 0.5, 1, 2 kg/cm²)
4. Shear load cell or proving ring (for measuring shear force)
5. Dial gauge or linear variable differential transformer (LVDT)
(0.002 mm accuracy, for horizontal and vertical displacement)
6. Porous stones (top and bottom of specimen)
 7. Filter paper discs (optional, for drainage)
8. Balance
9. Vernier caliper or micrometer
[Link] extruder or cutting ring
[Link] (105–110°C for drying)
[Link] content cans
[Link] and trimming tools

PROCEDURE
1. Collect and Prepare Soil Sample:
o Obtain a representative soil sample (cohesive or granular,
disturbed or undisturbed).
o For undisturbed samples, use a cutting ring to trim to fit the
shear box (e.g., 60 mm × 60 mm × 20 mm).
o For remolded samples, compact soil into the shear box at the
desired density and moisture content (e.g., optimum moisture
content from Proctor test).
o Weigh the sample to 0.01 g for moisture content determination
(if needed).
2. Saturate Sample (Optional for Drained Test):
o Place the sample in the shear box between two porous stones
(with filter paper if used).
o Submerge the shear box in a water tank for 24 hours (or as
specified) for saturated conditions, ensuring full saturation for
drained tests.
3. Assemble Shear Box:
o Secure the two halves of the shear box (upper and lower)
with alignment screws.
o Place the prepared sample in the shear box, ensuring a smooth,
level surface.
 o Install the top porous stone and loading cap.
4. Set Up Apparatus:
o Mount the shear box in the loading frame, ensuring
proper alignment.
o Attach the normal load arm and dial gauges (one for
horizontal displacement, one for vertical displacement).
o Connect the shear load cell or proving ring to measure shear force.
Test Procedure
5. Apply Normal Load:
o Apply the first normal stress (e.g., 0.5 kg/cm² or 50 kPa)
using weights or a loading mechanism.
o Allow the sample to consolidate under the normal load (typically 10–
30 minutes for drained tests, or until vertical displacement
stabilizes).
6. Apply Shear Load:
o Remove alignment screws to allow the shear box halves to
move relative to each other.
o Apply shear force at a constant rate of strain (e.g., 0.1–2 mm/min
for drained tests, 1–2 mm/min for undrained tests, per soil type and
standard).
Record shear force (via proving ring or load cell) and horizontal
displacement at regular intervals (e.g., every 0.2 mm displacement)
until failure or a maximum displacement of 10–20% of sample width
(6–12 mm).
7. Record vertical displacement (dilation or compression) during shearing
to assess volume change (especially for dense sands or overconsolidated
clays).
8. Repeat steps 5–7 with at least two additional normal stresses (e.g., 1,
2 kg/cm² or 100, 200 kPa) on fresh samples from the same batch. Use
a minimum of three normal stresses to plot the failure envelope.
 9. After shearing, remove the sample from the shear box and determine its
moisture content by oven-drying a portion at 105–110°C (per ASTM
D2216).
[Link] peak shear stress (τ) versus normal stress (σ) for each test.

RESULTS

UCS
The UCS test aims to:
Measure Compressive Strength: Determine the maximum compressive stress a soil
specimen can withstand before failure under axial loading.
Estimate Shear Strength: Provide an estimate of undrained shear strength ($s_u$)
for cohesive soils, typically for short-term stability analysis.
Assess Soil Suitability: Evaluate soil strength for applications like foundations,
embankments, or pavement subgrades.
Support Design: Provide data for bearing capacity calculations and slope stability
assessments.
The UCS test is grounded in the principles of soil mechanics and material strength:
1. Unconfined Compression: The test applies a vertical (axial) compressive
load to a cylindrical soil specimen without lateral confinement, simulating
conditions where lateral stresses are negligible (e.g., shallow excavations
or unsupported slopes).
2. Undrained Shear Strength: For cohesive soils (e.g., clays), the UCS test
is typically conducted under undrained conditions (no drainage
allowed), reflecting short-term behavior where pore water pressure
remains constant.
Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion: For saturated cohesive soils in undrained
conditions, the friction angle is often assumed to be zero (total stress analysis),
and the shear strength is governed by cohesion . The UCS test measures this
cohesion directly.
Stress-Strain Behavior: The test records axial stress versus strain, providing
insights into the soil’s stiffness, ductility, and failure mode (e.g., brittle shear
failure or plastic deformation).

APPARATUS
1. Compression testing machine (capacity ≥ 50 kN, with load pacing device)
2. Load cell or proving ring (accurate to 0.1 N)
3. Dial gauge or linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) (0.01
mm accuracy, for axial deformation)
4. Sample extruder or trimming device
5. Cylindrical mold or cutting ring (diameter 38–100 mm, height-to-
diameter ratio 2:1, typically 38 mm × 76 mm)
6. Balance (accurate to 0.01 g)
7. Vernier caliper or micrometer
8. Oven (105–110°C for drying)
9. Moisture content cans
[Link] and wire saw for trimming
 [Link] reservoir or saturation tank (for undisturbed samples)

PROCEDURE
1. Collect Soil Sample: Obtain an undisturbed sample (e.g., from a Shelby
tube) or prepare a remolded sample at the desired density and
moisture content (e.g., from Proctor test).Trim the sample to a
cylindrical shape
(diameter 38–100 mm, height-to-diameter ratio 2:1, typically 38 mm × 76
mm) using a cutting ring or wire saw.
2. Measure Sample Dimensions: Measure the diameter and height of the
specimen to 0.01 mm using a caliper. Calculate the initial cross-
sectional
area and volume. Weigh the specimen to 0.01 g to determine initial mass.
3. Saturate Sample : For undisturbed cohesive soils, submerge the sample
in distilled water for 24 hours (or as specified) to ensure saturation for
undrained testing, if required.
4. Set Up Compression Machine: Place the specimen centrally on the lower
platen of the compression machine. Ensure the upper platen contacts
the specimen evenly. Attach a load cell or proving ring to measure axial
[Link] a dial gauge or LVDT to measure axial deformation.
5. Apply Axial Load: Apply a compressive load at a constant strain rate of
0.5– 2% per minute (e.g., 0.5–1.5 mm/min for a 76 mm high specimen).
Record load (N) and deformation (mm) at regular intervals (e.g., every 0.1
mm deformation or 10 seconds).
6. Continue Until Failure: Continue loading until a peak load is reached
(failure) or axial strain reaches 15% if no clear peak occurs. Note the failure
mode (e.g., shear plane, bulging).
7. Determine Moisture Content: After testing, remove a portion of the
specimen and determine its moisture content by oven-drying at 115°C to
constant mass (per ASTM D2216)

HYDROMETER METHOD OF PSD

 THEORY
The hydrometer method test is used to determine the particle size
distribution (PSD) of fine-grained soils (particles < 0.075 mm, passing the No.
200 sieve),
such as silts and clays, by measuring the settling rates of soil particles in a
water suspension. This test complements the sieve analysis for coarse-grained
soils and is standardized in ASTM D422.
APPARATUS
1. Hydrometer (ASTM 152H or similar, calibrated for soil suspensions)
2. Sedimentation cylinder (1,000 mL, marked at 1,000 mL)
3. Mixing apparatus (mechanical mixer or hand plunger)
4. Dispersion agent (e.g., sodium hexametaphosphate, 40 g/L solution)
5. Balance (accurate to 0.01 g)
6. Oven (105–110°C for drying)
7. Sieve (No. 200, 0.075 mm)
8. Thermometer (0–50°C, 0.1°C accuracy)
9. Stopwatch or timer
[Link] water
[Link] and wash bottles
[Link] rod or stirring rod
[Link] bath or constant-temperature room (20–25°C)

PROCEDURE
1. Mix 100 ml of the 5% dispersing solution and 880 ml of deionized
water in a 1000 ml cylinder. This mixture is the blank. (Note: 100 ml +
880 ml = 980 ml. This blank is not diluted to 1000 ml; the other 20 ml is
the
volume occupied
by 50 g of soil.).
2. Weigh 25-50 g of soil and transfe r to a dispersing cup. Record weight.
3. Add 100-ml of 5% dispersing solution.
4. Attach dispersing cup to mixer and mix the sample for 30 – 60 sec.
5. Transfer the suspension quantitatively from the dispersing cup to a
1000 ml cylinder.
 6. Fill to the 1000-ml mark with deionized water equilibrated to
room temperature, or allow to stand overnight to equilibrate.
7. At the beginning of each set, record the temperature, and
the hydrometer reading
of the blank, using the procedure described below.
8. To determine the density insert plunger into suspension, and
carefully mix for 30 sec. until a uniform suspension is obtained. Remove
plunger (begin 40 second timer) and gently insert the hydrometer into
the
suspension.
9. Record the hydrometer reading at 40 sec. This is the amount of silt plus
clay suspended. The sand has settled to the bottom of the cylinder by this
time.
(Repeat 8 – 9 for each sample)
10. Record the hydrometer reading again after 6 hours, 52 minutes. This
is the amount of clay in suspension. The silt has settled to the bottom of
the cylinder by this time.