Mindanao State University

College of Agriculture
Department of Agricultural Education and Extension
Marawi City

COURSE BOOK OUTLINE

Course Description: Rural Development

Course Objectives:

1. To understand well the philosophy, principles, programs and problems confronting social group
in the community or Philippine society.

Course Scope and Outline

I. The Rural Sector Imperatives of Philippine Development

A. Why rural development?
B. Rural development: what and how?
C. The Strategy for Rural development

II. Agro-Industrial Interphase in Rural Development

A. Agricultural growth and rural industrialization
B. Linkages of agricultural productivity growth
C. Multiplier effects of rural growth
D. Agricultural growth and the decreasing importance of agriculture in development: a
contradiction

III. Agrarian Reform and Rural Development

A. Land reform and agrarian reform
B. Past programs and accomplishments
C. Land reform under Martial law
D. The Comprehensive Agrarian Reform law
E. Growth with Equity and CARL

IV. Science and Technology for Sustained Rural Development

A. Issues and problems in technology development and utilization
B. Technology assessment and technology transfer
C. Technology development and application
D. Institutions for rural development

V. Credit Cooperatives for Rural Development

A. Why Cooperatives?
B. Cooperative Laws

VI. Marketing and Infrastructure for Rural Development

 A. Rural infrastructure
B. Post-harvest facilities
C. Constraints in the adoption of post-production technologies
D. The market information system

VII. Communication in Rural Development

A. Idea behind development communication
B. Problems that develop communication can help to overcome?
C. Communication Campaigns
D. Types of Development Initiatives that Require Communication Inputs
E. Planned Development Communication Activities
F. Overall Considerations in Planning Communication Inputs
G. Individual that plans Communication Inputs

VIII. Agriculture Education and Manpower Training for Rural Development

A. Present State of Agriculture Education and Training
B. Problems and Constraints

IX. Social Services and Nutrition for Rural Development

A. Problems and Issues Affecting Nutritional Status of the Rural Population
B. Institutions and Organizations involved for the Philippines’ Nutritional Status
C. Steps to Improve the Delivery of Social Services and Health Welfare Program

X. Institutional framework for rural development

A. What is a Framework?
B. Social Protection Operational Framework and Strategy of the Philippines
C. Institutions Deficiencies and Rural Poverty
D. The Problem Areas Internal to the Extension System
E. Characteristics of Appropriate Institutions

XI. Environmental management for sustained development

A. Components of Sustainable Development
B. What is Environment Management and Environmental Management?
C. Importance of Environmental Management
D. Major Environmental Problems in the Philippines
E. Suggested Actions to be Undertaken
F. Trade Union’s Recommendations in Promoting Environmentally Sustainable Development
 LESSON 1

THE RURAL SECTOR: IMPERATIVES OF PHILIPPINE DEVELOPMENT

WHY RURAL DEVELOPMENT?

The same paper (World Bank 1997) goes on to describe the global rural poverty situation: “The
significant majority of the rural poor depend on agriculture for most of their meager livelihoods. Others
depend on associated non-farm activities. Many of the rural poor live in regions where arable land is
scarce, agricultural potential is low and drought, floods and environmental degradation are common.
Access to basic human needs: education, potable water, health care and sanitation is far less available in
rural areas. The problem of malnutrition, low life expectancy and high infant mortality are more severe in
rural areas.

Definition of Terms
Population
- is any complete group with at least one characteristic in common. Populations are not just people.
Populations may consist of, but are not limited to, people, animals, businesses, buildings, motor vehicles,
farms, objects or events.

Rural development
- aims to improve livelihoods by implementing comprehensive development for rural areas where a
majority of people in poverty live. Rural development can also contribute to reduce poverty in urban
areas by reducing excessive population influxes from rural areas.

- involves efforts that are economic and social in nature intended to encourage concepts of retention,
growth, and expansion in areas outside cities, including improving quality of life for rural residents
through such activity.
Rural Poverty
- is multidimensional and includes factors other than income (such as education, health, politics, and
society, vulnerability etc.
Poverty incidence
- defined as the percentage of households below the poverty threshold, has been consistently higher
in the rural areas. Regional analysis of poverty incidence distribution is important in identifying
where the poor are located in order to determine the necessary interventions that are suited to
specific areas.
In the OECD/DAC Guidelines on Poverty Reduction, poverty is described as the lack of the following
five capabilities:
① Economic capabilities: to earn an income, to consume, and to have assets;
② Human capabilities: to have access to health care, education, sufficient nutrition, clean water, and
hygienic living conditions;
③ Political capabilities: human rights, to participate in political and policymaking process, and to be
able to have an influence on decision-making;
④ Socio-cultural capabilities: to participate as a valued member of the community with social status
and dignity; and
⑤ Protective capabilities: to prevent vulnerability from food insecurity, illness, crime, war, and conflict.

Major Causes of Poverty

(a) inherent and persistent socio-economic and political structures and
(b) government policies in support of the rural development

1. Structural causes – inherent socio-economic structures in the rural sector which have persisted and
prevented the majority of the rural population form participating in the process of rural development.
a. Occupational correlates (lower agricultural incomes than non-agricultural activities)
b. Low agricultural productivity
c. Unequal distribution of resources - (1) land ownership, (2) deteriorating peace and order
conditions, and (3) large disparity in the distribution of ownership of boats and equipment among
fishermen
d. Unequal access to resources
2. Government policies biased against the rural sector.
(a) Infrastructure, particularly the national highway and telecommunications system, have
concentrated near the urban centers.
(b) Macroeconomic policies (such as foreign exchange, tariff and taxation policies)
 RURAL DEVELOPMENT: WHAT AND HOW?

CONCEPT OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT

The concept of rural development encompasses a wide spectrum of fields of development. Rural
Development:
As a Concept, it connotes overall development of rural areas with a view to improve the quality
of life of rural people (Singh, 1999, p.18).
As a Phenomenon, it is the result of interaction between various physical, environmental,
technological, economic, socio-cultural and institutional factors in the rural areas of a nation (Mathur,
2008, p.2)
As a Strategy, it is the approach or operational design to bring about the desired positive changes
in the socio-economic and cultural life of the rural people (Mathur, 2008, p.2).
As a discipline, it is multi-disciplinary in nature, representing an intersection of agricultural,
social, behavioral, engineering and management sciences (Chamabers, 1983, p.147).

Rural development
- is planned, designed and deliberate interventions to influence the socio-economic situations to
achieve improved living standard of low-income population residing in rural areas and making the
process of their development sustainable and self-sustained.

- it is a process that enhances the capacity of the rural people to improve their lives and environment,
accomplished by wider distribution of benefits resulting from such improvement.

- it includes both agricultural and non-agricultural aspects of life. It includes economic growth as
well as development of various sections and sectors of rural society.

- a strategy aiming at the improvement of economic and social living conditions, focusing on a
specific group of poor people in a rural area. It assists the poorest group among the people living in
rural areas to benefit from development World Bank (1975).
Development
- implies a change that is desirable and it varies in a particular time, place and culture thus, it is
impossible to think of a universally acceptable definition of development.
- development in the context of society could be conceptualized as a set of desirable societal
objectives which society seeks to achieve.
 DEFINITION OF TERMS:

(1) Economic growth means sustained increase in Odisha State Open University 27
Rural Development per capita real income.
(2) Economic development is a much wider term. It includes economic growth and at
the same time encompasses other issues like pattern of production, distribution of
national income, consumption behaviour of the people and concern for
environment.
(3) Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future generation to meet their own needs
(WCED 1987, p.43).”

Sustainable development attempts to strike a balance between the demands of the

economic development and the need for protection of the environment. It seeks to
combine the elements of economic efficiency, intergenerational equity, social
concerns and environmental protection. Although, the term sustainable development
has many interpretations, it is generally refers to non-declining human well-being over
time (Government of India, Economic Survey, 1998-99, p. 156)

GOAL OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT

“Sustainable improvement of livelihood for rural people”

The final beneficiaries of development assistance are local people in both rural and urban areas.
However, their livelihoods are based on significantly different social, economic, and natural environments.
Most rural residents in many developing countries are engaged in and depend on local agriculture,
forestry, and fishery resources to make a living.

Two General Approaches to Development

(1) Poverty eradication through income generation and economic growth.

(2) Social and political transformation or mobilization processes.

Who Is to Be Developed?

It is mostly the rural labourers and their families. According to the Bureau of Rural workers this category
includes:
(1) landless rural workers;
(2) upland farmers
(3) subsistence fishermen
(4) rural women and youth (Ledesma, 1988)
(5) rural workers in mining, transport and market enterprises in agricultural, forestry and fishery areas.

What Is to Be Developed?

A thriving rural community relies on factors such as quality services, accessible education and
health care, environmental amenities, business opportunities, and strong social trust.

Countries with similar average incomes can differ substantially when it comes to people’s quality
of life such as social justice, access to education and health care, job opportunities, availability of clean
air and safe drinking water, the threat of crime, freedom of speech, life expectancy, birth-death control,
identity, culture, conservation, equal opportunities, environmental change.

Development is important as it covers a wide range process involving cultural, economic,

environmental, political, social and technological change of a country.

Participatory Development

The promotion of the development of human and physical resources in rural areas requires
recognizing the fact that local people themselves are the main implementors of development projects. In
other words, a project that the local people themselves plan and implement is given priority as local
materials and human resources are utilized effectively by the local people’s initiative and responsibility.
Local independence and sustainable development of project outcomes are enhanced by the effective use
of local resources.

A STRATEGY FOR RURAL DEVELOPMENT

In general, a strategy for rural development should have as its primary objective, the
improvement of the quality of life of the people in the rural areas. The success of government effort to
achieve this objective must be guided and evaluated by its ability to reduce the incidence and mitigate the
severity of poverty in this sector through:

(1) Increasing Employment. As the labour force increases in size, opportunities must be available to
those seeking employment not only in the rural sector but in the urban sector as well.
(2) Increasing efficiency. Increasing the efficiency of resource utilization, and consequently resource
productivity, through improved technology is a prerequisite in dealing with poverty effectively.

(3) Sustainability. In order to sustain the gains from rural development plans and programs, their design
must stem form an understanding of the environmental, social, political, and economic circumstances
of the intended beneficiaries.
(4) Equity. Requires a broader access to resources, employment opportunities, government services and
infrastructure.
(5) Empowerment. Increased participation of the rural population in determining, implementing and
directing plans/programs to achieve rural development.

Other Strategies
In order to facilitate these changes, several overlapping and complementing mechanisms need to
be initiated and mobilized. These are:
(a) Rural industrialization
(b) Efficient and effective support services and delivery systems,
(c) Human and institutional development, and
(d) Proper resource management

DEVELOPMENT OBJECTIVES

1. Improvement of Economic Capabilities (e.i. Agricultural income improvement, non-agricultural

income improvement, improvement of industries, and development of infrastructures)
2. Improvement of Human Capabilities (e.i. General health improvement and development of
educational standards)
3. Improvement of Protective Capabilities (e.i. Conservation of natural environment and natural
disaster prevention measures)
4. Improvement of Political Capabilities (e.i. Decentralization and improvement of policy-making
capabilities)
 LESSON 2

AGRO-INDUSTRIAL INTERPHASE IN RURAL DEVELOPMENT

I. What is Agro-Industry ?
Developing competitive agro-industries is crucial for generating employment and income
opportunities. It also contributes to enhancing the quality of, and the demand for, farm products.
Agro-industries have the potential to provide employment for the rural population not only in
farming, but also in off-farm activities such as handling, packaging, processing, transporting and
marketing of food and agricultural products. There are clear indications that agro-industries are having a
significant global impact on economic development and poverty reduction, in both urban and rural
communities.
The prospects for continued growth in demand for value-added food and agricultural products
constitute an incentive for increased attention to agro-industries development within the context of
economic growth, food security and poverty-fighting strategies.

Since the early 1950’s,

- The popular development strategy in the Philippines can be characterized as an essentially
industry-led, capital-intensive, import-substitution strategy. The view is that capital-intensive
import substitution would lead to faster industrialization and therefore would need to be pushed
by protective government policies. This view has been held particularly by traditional politicians,
local business elite, so called “nationalists”, and even development economists.

These policies have invariably called for the transfer of scarce resources from agriculture to
industry and for the subsidization of industrial inputs, particularly capital, and outputs. The transfer of
resources has been achieved by taxing agriculture, and market control by private and quasi-public
monopolies and oligopolies in agriculture.
This has depressed the prices of agricultural products. The subsidization of industry, on the
other hand, has involved the erection of tariff and non-tariff barriers against competitive imports, the
granting of various tax holidays on industrial investments, and the bias of public expenditures towards
the industrial sector (and against agriculture).
National economic policy
- was characterized by direct controls on imports and foreign exchange and severe overvaluation of
the domestic currency. This stimulated the production of import substituting industrial consumer
goods in the early years, but penalized backward integration and agricultural production.
 - Highly protective tariff system introduced in the second half of the 1950’s which was made
redundant at the time by direct import and foreign exchange controls, became applicable.

II. LINKAGES OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIVITY GROWTH

The slow growth of agricultural productivity in the Philippines is largely due to the low priority
afforded by the government to agriculture. As discussed earlier, pricing and investment policies of the
government over the last three decades have tended to inhibit agricultural development.

Public spending on productivity-enhancing technologies, rural education, rural infrastructure

(including rural roads, power, and communication, and ports), and forest development and management
have been low in relation to the sectors’ contribution to national income and employment. Even the
Aquino government which has adapted a Five-Year Plan emphasizing the promotion of rural development,
and the creation of employment opportunities, is failing on this count.

Fours ways to increase agricultural productivity that can facilitate industrialization:

(1) Higher Rural Incomes. Resulting from increases in productivity raise the demand for manufactured
goods along with other good, including agricultural products.

(2) Higher Farm Incomes. From increased agricultural productivity can generate additional savings,
which can then be made available for investments in industry;

(3) Rising productivity. Initially allows the absorption of new labor entrants outside of agriculture. As
industrialization proceeds, it allows labor to be released form agriculture and to be fed without sharp rises
in food prices to large and unsustainable import of foods.

(4) Rising agricultural productivity. Increases the supply of raw materials for industry.

III. MULTIPLIER EFFECTS OF RURAL GROWTH

The growth of agricultural productivity and farm income will facilitate the growth of employment.
As the total household income rises, the share of food in household expenditures falls, but the share of
manufactured goods and services rises. The supply of theses goods and services generates employment
which, at the early stage of economic development, tends to be predominantly concentrated in rural areas.

Moreover, the kinds of goods and services demanded are typically produced by small, labor-
intensive enterprises. They are, for example, focused on such sectors as light transportation, restaurants,
distributive trades, housing and residential construction, health, personal services, and entertainment.
These sectors, in turn, generate their own demand and supply linkages with the other sectors of the
economy, setting in motion a sequence of employment and income multiplier effects on the farm, rural,
regional, and national economy.

Not until lately, the received wisdom in the economic development literature has been that
agriculture has weak production linkages with the rest of the economy. The direct implication of this is
that greatest priority be given to public investment in non-agriculture. This contention, however, ignores
the consumption linkages which are the more important sources of agricultural and rural growth linkages.
The importance of agriculture in economic development has been seriously underestimated.

The key to increases in per capita income is the size of the direct and indirect employment
multipliers that result from expanding agriculture.

1. Direct Employment Multipliers

- Employment Multiplier is a concept used in Multiplier Analysis and measures the ratio of the total
economy-wide indirect/induced employment of all industries in the economy to satisfy a one-unit increase
in the company’s total employment. For each industry, the employment multipliers represent jobs created
per unit of currency of additional final use.

2. Indirect Employment Multipliers

- The indirect employment (or, employment multipliers) associated with jobs in any given industry results
from three effects: supplier effects, re-spending effects, an government employment effects.

a. Supplier effects are impacts that job-creation or destruction in an industry has on supplier industries.
For example, when an automobile plant closes, this will affect (among other things) the steel industry jobs
that supply materials to the auto plant.

b. Re-spending effects are the impacts that job creation or destruction in an industry has on those sectors
where workers spend their paychecks. For example, when an automobile plant closes, this will affect
(among other things) theapparel industry that supplies the clothes that workers from the auto plant used to
spendtheir wages on.

c. Government employment effects refers to the taxes that support jobs in federal, state, and local
government; if workers in private industries lose their jobs, this erodes the tax base that supports
government employment.
 For a small country like the Philippines, this must mean that development will have to be oriented
towards export markets. During periods of low growth in world demand for labor-intensive manufactures
and of increasing protectionist pressure in developed-country markets, this strategy is likely to be less
effective.

What is Export Markets?

- a country or group of countries to which goods and services from another country are sold;

What is Export Marketing?

- is the practice by which a company sells products or services to a foreign country. Products are
produced or distributed from the company’s home country to buyers in international locations.

IV. AGRICULTURAL GROWTH AND THE DECREASING IMPORTANCE OF

AGRICULTURE IN DEVELOPMENT: A CONTRADICTION?

Critics of agriculture-led development strategy also argue that the need for rapid agricultural
growth is in contradiction with the historical record which shows agriculture declining in relative
importance as per capita income increase.

Importance of Agriculture in Development

1. Helps sustain life by providing the food we need to survive;

2. Provides opportunities for economic equity and helps people prosper;

3. Providing raw material;

4. Creating a Strong Supply Chain;

5. Encouraging Economic Development; and

6. Meeting consumer and business market demand in a world with interconnected economies.

They contend that agriculture is unimportant- that it does not require resources or a favorable
policy environment- because its relative share in the country’s labor force and total output declines, as
shows uniformly and pervasively by both time-series and cross-section samples of countries. What they
miss to point out, however, is the equally pervasive aspect of the development process-rapid agricultural
growth accompanies or precedes general economic growth. This is supported by the historical record of
the Western market-oriented economies, the recently developed economies of East Asia, and the currently
less developed economies.

Recommendations on Sustained Agricultural and Rural Development

Sustained agricultural and rural development in the Philippines demands an institution of inter-
related policy reforms and programs.

(1) The bias of economic policies, notably trade and exchange rate policies, against agriculture must
be removed. As noted earlier, trade and exchange rate policies depress production incentives in
agriculture, thereby causing the movement of much-needed capital away from the agricultural
and rural sector.
(2) Public sector spending on agriculture, particularly investments in rural infrastructure (roads, ports,
marketing facilities, electrification, communication,irrigation and drainage) must be increased to
levels commensurate with the sector’s contribution to national income and employment.
(3) Rural development requires the intensification of research and development aimed at increasing
agricultural productivity and rural incomes.
(4) The pace of land reform and the delivery of support services to farmers and rural workers need to
be accelerated.
(5) The provision of social services, including education, health, and nutrition services aimed at
promoting rural welfare and human capital development, must be increased. Human capital
development enhances the poor’s prime asset- their own labour- and, hence, their contribution to
economic development.
 LESSON 3
AGRARIAN REFORM AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT

While many view agrarian reform as a catalyst for changes in the rural sector, very few
understand how agrarian reform can serve as an instrument for rural development.

I. LAND REFORM
- Land reform schemes are geared primarily toward altering the distribution of land property rights
and the terms for working on the land

AGRARIAN REFORM PROGRAM

- Agrarian reform is broader in scope. Not only does it intend to effect changes in the terms for
land ownership and tenure but complements this with ancillary services (such as credit, extension
services, etc.) to the beneficiaries of the reform.
- It is a program designed to uplift the farmers from poverty, ignorance, and stagnation and to make
them useful, dignified, responsible, and progressive partners in nation-building.
- The program is a package of services extended to the farmers un the form of credit support,
infrastructure, farm extension, legal assistance, electrification, and the development of rural
institution.

Land and agrarian reforms are by definition, equalizing policies with the state playing a catalytic role.
In principle, these measures imply that the State intervenes in the land market, especially those lands
which exceed what it considers a viable farm size unit. This may be achieved by either the distributive or
the collective approach.

Distributive Approach

- the State may give, rent or sell equally small-sized farm units for private cultivation.

Collective Approach

- the land may be jointly formed and its benefits shared, either through cooperatives or state
(collective) farming (Lipton, 1974).
OBJECTIVES OF AGRARIAN REFORM PROGRAM

1. To establish owner cultivorship among those who live and work on the land as tillers, with
owner-cultivorship and the economic family size farm as the basis of Philippines agriculture and,
as a consequence, to divert landlord capital in agriculture to industrial development;
2. To achieve a dignified existence for the small farmers free from pernicious institutional restraints
and practices;
3. To create a truly viable, social and economic structure in agriculture conducive to greater
productivity and higher farm income.
4. To apply all labour laws equally and without discrimination to both industrial and agricultural
wage earners;
5. To provide a more vigorous and systematic land resettlement program and public land
distribution;
6. To make small farmers more independent, self-reliant, and responsible citizens, and a source of
genuine strength in our democratic society;
7. To give first priority to measures for adequate and timely financing of the agrarian reform
program;
8. To involve local governments in the implementation of the agrarian reform program; and
9. To evolve a system of land use and classification.

II. PAST PROGRAMS AND ACCOMPLISHMENTS

Land reform initiatives in the country were undertaken initially during the early years of the
American administration. This measures were motivated largely by the link between agrarian unrest and
the pattern of land ownership inherited from the Spanish colonial regime.

AMERICAN COLONIAL REGIME

- American administration decide to sold the estates, and it was purchased by Chinese and Chinese
mestizos and not the peasants (Roth, 1982)
- Tried to mitigate agrarian unrest through the resettlement of tenants on public lands following the
precedent of homesteading in the American frontier.

Rice Share Tenancy Act (1933)

- Measure to cope with mounting agrarian unrest.

 - This act provided for 50-50 sharing of the crop, an interest rate ceiling of 10 percent per crop per
year, and safeguards against arbitrary dismissal of tenants by landlords.

President Manuel L. Quezon Administration (1935-1941)

- Commonwealth period
- Focused on resettlement and tenancy regulations, anti-usury law, organized land settlement in
Mindanao for the landless of Luzon and Cebu. The forerunner of this were the National Land
Settlement Administration (NLSA).
- Issuance of free patents to homesteaders on cultivable public land and a “landed estates” policy.

LANDED ESTATES POLICY

- Provided funds for the negotiated purchase of large holdings for resale to tenants.

President Manuel Roxas (1946-1948)

- Launched full scale attack against insurgents. Elpidio Quirino, his successor, adopted a policy of
conciliation and attraction by offering the Huks amnesty and resettlement lands.

President Ramon Magsaysay

- A large-scale resettlement of rebels in Mindanao through the National Resettlement

Rehabilitation Administration (NARRA) was undertaken. They are resettled on frontier land.
- Endorsed the Agricultural Tenancy Act (Republic Act no. 1199); enforce fair tenancy practices
and the Land Reform Act (Republic Act No. 1400); expropriate and redistribute large estates.

President Diosdado Macapagal

- Agricultural Land Reform Code in 1963, amended by R.A. No. 6389 and R.A. No. 6390 in 1971
became the basic foundation of the agrarian reform program of the Philippines.
o Means in increasing agricultural productivity. The Code provided for the creation of the
Agricultural Credit Administration and the Agricultural Productivity Commission to
advance credit and technical extension services to small landholders.
o The creation of owner-cultivatorship in rice and corn land.
(a) Operational Leasehold – converted share tenancy to leasehold tenancy with rent fixed at
25% of the average harvest for three normal years preceding the operation.
(b) Operation Land Transfer – transfer landownerships to tenants.
President Ferdinand Marcos

- His Congress passed the Code of Agrarian Reform (R.A 6389), which also established the
Department of Agrarian Reform and declared the entire Philippines a land reform area, and
provided for the automatic conversion of tenancy to leasehold tenancy in all areas.
- Controlling interest rates and the sale of farm animals; conversion of agricultural land to other
uses.
- The landlord retention limit as also reduced from 75 to 7 hectares.

III. LAND REFORM UNDER MARTIAL LAW

Presidential Decree No. 2

- Declaring the entire country, a land reform area.

Presidential Decree No. 27

- “emancipation of the tiller from the bondage of the soil”

- Tenants in rice and corn areas became “deemed owners” of the land there tilling, and a system
was established whereby some tenants could begin to purchase their farmlands by instalment,
while others, who remain as tenants, would be shifted from share to fixed-rent leasehold tenancy.

Shortcomings of Land Reform under PD 27

(1) The retention limit was still too high compared with average farm size, and was often evaded by
registering excess holdings in the names of relatives and friends.
(2) The land reform applied only to tenanted ones planted to rice and corn. It did not apply to land
under the direct administration of landlords, nor to land used for cash crops.
(3) Often, collusions between the landed elite and local officials invalidated the effect of the land
reform programs. Operation land transfer was particularly slow, and its effect limited.

It was observed that the beneficiaries of land reform had been appropriating large economic surpluses
because rice yields increase significantly due to irrigation development and the use of new seed varieties
and fertilizers, while rent and amortization payments were fixed (Hayami, 1988).
IV. COMPREHENSIVE AGRARIAN REFORM LAW (R.A. 6657)
- During the Corazon C. Aquino administration, on June 10, 1988.
- Covers and includes private and public agricultural lands regardless of tenurial arrangements and
crops produced.
- Landownership ceiling is pegged at 5 hectares, except for rice and corn lands which remains 7
hectares.
- Lands owned by original homesteaders and direct heirs which can be maintained at 24 ha.
- Landowners can also allocate 3 ha each to qualified children who are 15 years as of June 15, 1988
and who are actually tilling or managing the farm.
- Lands that are exempted (parks and wildlife, forest reserves, national defense, penal colonies, burial
grounds, religious purposes, fish sanctuaries, educational purposes, research and quarantine centers,
and all land with 18 percent slope.

Land types that under reforms:

1. Rice and corn lands

2. Idle, abandoned, voluntarily offered, sequestered and foreclosed lands
3. Private land exceeding 50 ha
4. Public lands that are devoted to or are suitable for agricultural purposes,
5. Public lands under lease, growers’ or management contracts with multinational corporations
(MNCs), and private individuals and which exceed the 1,000 and 500 ha limits allowed by the
Constitution for corporations and individuals respectively.

Qualified Beneficiaries

1. Agricultural lessees and their tenants

2. Regular farmworkers
3. Seasonal farmworkers
4. Other farmworkers
5. Actual tillers or public lands,
6. Collectives or cooperatives of the above beneficiaries
7. Others directly working on the land
8. Rural women
9. Retirees of the Armed Forces of the Philippines and the Integrated National Police
10. Rebel returnees and surrendees
11. Agricultural graduates
 The Department of Agrarian Reform will monitor and fix rental ceilings for all lands that are
privately-owned, fall below the retention limit, and practice share or leasehold arrangements.

BENEFITS OF LAND REFORMS

1. Regular farm workers are entitled to a 1% share of the farms’ agricultural produce, on top of their
basic incomes,
2. Entitled to support services such as credit facilities, extension and training services,
infrastructural and physical development, and technology assistance.
3. Landowners that are affected will be entitled to services, particularly information regarding
investment ventures (investment information, financial and counselling assistance facilities,
programs and schemes for exchange and marketing of LBP bonds, as well as other investment
ventures for rural industrialization.

V. GROWTH WITH EQUITY AND CARL (Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law)

Rural equity will be difficult to achieve under the framework of CARL. The implementation of
this Act will result in a dichotomy in the agrarian structure, (i.e. large-sized agribusiness farms on one
hand and small and middle-sized farms on the other.

- A dichotomy in the agrarian structure coupled by the imperfection in the rural resource and product
markets, will also distort market services and misallocate the resources in favor of agribusiness
enterprises.
- Result in the polarization of rural classes; conflict between small and middle-sized farmworkers and
the agribusiness plantation management because of the unequal distribution and use of a fixed and
scarce resource, and unequal access to production resources.
- Conflict of interest will emerge as CARL gives preference to regular farmworkers, vis-à-vis the more
numerous contract workers, in terms of acquiring land and becoming members of rural cooperatives.
- Conflict between landowners and the rural workers for CARL’s provisions abolishing tenancy
arrangements and prioritizing tenants, leaseholders and regular farmworkers.

The intervention strategy used by the Philippine Department of Agrarian Reform (DAR) has evolved
over the years. The real benefit from agrarian reform depends on assistance/interventions beyond land
distribution to enhance tenure. Because agrarian reform beneficiaries are faced with isolation within the
community, necessary supports to uplift their living conditions should be community-based, e.g., rural
infrastructure. Therefore, the strategy of DAR was to launch community-building interventions where the
beneficiaries come from agrarian reform communities (ARC), including but not limited to agrarian reform
beneficiaries.
 LESSON 4
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY FOR SUSTAINED RURAL DEVELOPMENT
In rural development intervention, direct provision of amenities has been used for improvement of
living conditions or to enhance production. The strategy can provide an easy remedy within the highly
vulnerable segment but the effect is non-sustainable and short-lived. The emerging paradigm shift from
direct provision to facilitating access of such, and from universal intervention to targeting requires a clear
understanding of the spatial and possibly temporal dynamics of rural development and infrastructure
provision. (Source: Dynamics of Development in Rural Communities, ADB Institute Discussion Paper No. 73, Erniel B.
Barrios, August 2007)

What is Science?

- is a strict systematic discipline that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable hypotheses
and predictions about the world.

What is Technology?

- the application of scientific knowledge for practical purposes, especially in industry.

- is the application of conceptual knowledge to achieve practical goals, especially in a reproducible way.
The word technology can also mean the products resulting from such efforts, including both tangible tools
such as utensils or machines, and intangible ones.

- refers to methods, systems, and devices which are the result of scientific knowledge being used for
practical purposes.

Technology for Development

Technology has made it possible for people from all walks of life to have access to different
resources. Further, technology is also being used to equip people who need a certain type of assistance to
improve their quality of life and help them avail opportunities that would otherwise be inaccessible.

Issues and Problems in Technology Development and Utilization

(1) Inadequacy and lack of focus of our technological base.
- Capacity for meeting the technological innovations needed for conserving and enhancing our
resources, improving the efficiency and reducing the management risks of agri-industries, providing
technical support for policy implementation, monitoring and reorienting technology for more
flexibility is inadequate.
(2) Institutional Constraints.
- Institutional issues such as who owns specific resources, who governs their uses, how the prices
and amounts of inputs and outputs are determined and other sanctions and controls on production
systems, also having high tariffs.
(3) Organization issues.
a. Competing, overlapping or frequently changing mandates of agencies involve in rural
development;
b. Lack of managerial and regulatory capabilities of agencies entrusted with basic resources
control and management;
c. Manpower and financial resources limitation of concerned agencies;
d. Ineffective rural development plans and programs;
e. Highly centralized system of governance;
f. Highly fragmented efforts of the agencies concerned.
(4) Very low of funding for research and development and centralized research and development systems.
(5) Ineffective mechanisms for technology transfer.
(6) Lack of political commitment and a system if accountability;
(7) Lack of a system for monitoring the impact of rural development projects;
(8) Inability to involve academic institutions, NGO’s and farmers in the various stages and aspects of
rural development;
(9) Lack of national and local levels technical information and training centers in critical areas of subject
matters of concern;
(10) Lack of national and regional level plans or frameworks for rural development.

Action Program and/or Legislation for the Application of Mature Technology

1. Increasing agricultural productivity and enhancement of resource base through the development of
village type irrigation.
2. Introduction of improved primary, secondary, and tertiary processing facilities for farm products and
by products processing.
3. Improving capability to manufacture (for domestic and local markets) machines and hand tools (i.e.
hand tools, agricultural machines and simple industrial machines or machine parts)
4. Improving production support systems
a. Seed farm for every district
b. One extension agent for every 200-400 farmers
c. Training and information center in every district
 d. Development of feeder and farm to market roads
e. Village kiosks for inputs distribution and outputs marketing
f. Farm mechanization and improved post-harvest systems popularization
g. Need analyses for agricultural and industrial tools and machines.
h. Decentralized planning and implementation of support services
i. Retraining or re-orientation of middle and upper level executives.
j. Credit facilities
5. Piloting and introduction of non-conventional energy generating plants or machines for energy self-
reliance in remote villages (e.g. windmills, biomass digesters, mini-hydropower, small
dendrothermal plants and solar energy collectors for specialized operations like fish and food grains
drying.
6. Development of rural water supply systems.
7. Programs to replenish dwindling resource base of some agro-industries (rattan and hardwood for the
furniture industry, fiber crops for the garment industry)
8. Lower import tariffs and taxes for parts and raw materials of rural manufacturing industries.
9. Increased research and development subsidies on the development of farm and simple industrial
machines and lower levy on imported farm machines
10. Programs or Legislation aimed at (a) strengthening organization of municipal fishermen for greater
access and control to near shore areas and provision of improved fishery support services; (b)
training small fishermen on habitats, life cycles of and environmental hazards to aquatic biological
resources, (c) decentralized implementation of rules and regulations for development programs.

TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENT AND TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER

Applied science is critical for development. However, science by itself does not lead to progress.
Rather, it is strategies in applying scientific knowledge that can contribute to progress. Effective science
and technology (S&T) policy can only be achieved if possible applications and implications of scientific
and technological development are well understood.

What is Technology Assessment?

From the Layman’s point of view, Technology Assessment (TA) means :

- “knowing what you have to do before doing it”.

 - It is comprehensive examination of a future technological change to determine, in socio-
economic, environmental, technical, legal, institutional and political terms, the implications of
that change.

What is Technology Transfer ?

- “the spread of innovations to the members of a social system” (Wood, 1984). Such innovation
emerges mainly from (Research and Development) or technology generation. Technology includes either
intellectual technology (concepts or procedures such as Integrated Pest Management) or material products
(modern rice variety).

Technology Transfer Services

Much technology already exists in a wide variety of forms, such as test analyses, manuals,
drawings, etc. Only little is a technology offered in the form of demonstration project and process that can
be simply copied. The solution is a local advisory organization which can translate technical information
and conduct demonstration/training and assist in commercialization—what GTZ (German Agency for
Technical Cooperation, calls a “Technical Innovation Advisory Services” (Vogt, 1988).

TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT AND APPLICATION

The availability of technologies for the development of the countryside is not a problem, given
worldwide research and development expenditures. What matters is the capacity of rural communities to
adapt the technologies available.

The concept of appropriate technology has grown out of the problems encountered in transferring
technology from one-socio economic environment to another. The problems include differing capital and
labor costs, raw material qualities, market facilities, and resultant social and economic dualism, (Gandour,
M., 1977). The concept, simply stated that the design of all technologies should fit the economic and
social conditions prevailing at their point of used (Stapeneck, 1974). This implies that technologies can be
mixed, high, low, intermediate) in a given area depending upon specific tasks and conditions (Stomer,
1989).

I. INSTITUTION FOR RURAL DEVELOPMENT TECHNOLOGIES

In developing rural areas, the role of social institutions, whether formal or informal organizations, cannot
be overemphasized. Institutional support systems for rural development, such as extension services, credit
and financial assistance, cooperative operations, marketing and training and information ate vital to rural
development.

a. Non-Government Organizations (NGOs)

b. Commercial Institutions (i.e. banks) – financial system
c. Government Organizations (SUCs’- State, Universities and Colleges, Department of Science and
Technology, Technology & Livelihood Resources Center)
 LESSON 5

CREDIT COOPERATIVES FOR RURAL DEVELOPMENT

I. What and Why Cooperatives?

The word cooperative was derived from French word “cooperari” which means to “work
together”. The ultimate social objective of cooperative is community building or community development.
Both use the principle of self-help and involvement in their methods of solving community problems.
Depend on cooperation and teamwork in attaining their goals.
Cooperatives have long been recognized as democratic institutions for development. They have
also been considered as the most effective socio-economic organizations whose members have limited
resources, such as the agrarian reform beneficiaries.
Cooperatives are institutions primarily of small producers and/or consumers who band
themselves to achieve common social and economic ends.

Nature and Character of Cooperatives

Cooperatives as association of people and as business enterprises are distinguished form other
organizations by their nature and character.
1. Cooperative are service-oriented
Cooperatives are organized to serve their members by providing them the goods and services they
need at cost. Members contribute to the capital of the cooperative in the sense that they do not
invest their money in a capitalist enterprise. Their motto is: “COOPERATIVES ARE NOT FOR
PROFIT, NOT FOR CHARITY BUT FOR SERVICES”.
2. Cooperatives are community-oriented
Cooperatives enhances the people’s welfare by helping increase the productivity of their members
and that of the communities in which they are located.
3. Cooperatives are people-oriented
Cooperatives are not merely economic instruments concerned with dividends and related
economic and financial returns. It is the instrument of the total human development (economic,
social, political, cultural, and spiritual).
4. Cooperatives are owned, man-aged, and patronized by their members (member-owned, -
controlled and -used)
Members have full authority to manage and control their cooperative. Cooperative must depend
on the patronage of their own members and not from non-members although in certain cases a
 limited patronage by non-members may be allowed mainly for reasons of business viability and
service to community.
5. Cooperatives are business enterprises
Cooperatives should be able to generate net savings to be allocated to their members at the end of
each year. Therefore, it must serve and perform as efficiently as the other financial and business
institutions operating in the country today. However, they should not operate solely for profit nor
for charity.
6. Cooperatives develop best thru self-help and mutual help
Assistance from outside, whether technical r financial, must not stifle but stimulate initiative, self-
help, and self-reliance. The role of government and non-government organizations in the
development of cooperatives should be one of assistance and not for dominance.
7. Cooperatives serve best when they answer the real and felt needs of the members
Proper approaches and techniques are employed in order to ensure that the real needs of the
members are identified and recognized before any cooperative is organized.
8. Cooperatives develop best from bottom to top
Being mass-based organizations, cooperatives develop best from the bottom to the top.
Organizationally, their development should be from the primary level to the secondary and then
to the tertiary and up to the apex. Geographically, they should develop form the barangays to the
municipal, provincial, city regional and to the national levels.
9. The development of cooperatives is enhanced thru a multi-sectoral approach
Multi-sectoral approach can ensure that all aspects of the development process are considered and
thereby enhance the sooth and continuous development of cooperatives. This approach involves
the participation of all sectors from the planning stage to the implementation, evaluation, and
monitoring of all activities.
Here are possible areas where the government can help in accelerating the growth of cooperatives in the
Philippines.
1. Legislation, regulation, and registration.
Representatives and senators can make laws to provide a favorable atmosphere for the
development and growth of cooperatives.
(e.g. Cooperative Code of the Philippines approved by President Cory Aquino which encourages
the formation of cooperatives through the principal efforts of the private sector.
In support of legislation, appropriate regulations should be formulated in order to guide the
directions and operations of cooperatives. Regulations should be used to protect the people from
misuse or mismanagement of cooperatives. In the case of registration, it should be affordable,
 attractive and convenient in order to encourage the poor and less schooled to organize their
cooperatives.
2. Education and Training.
The key to the success of cooperative organization. Officers and members if cooperatives should
undergo continuous education and trainings. Right values, skills, and knowledge are obtained
through education and training.
3. Supervision, audit, and liquidation
The basic purpose of supervision is to help the cooperative move towards the right direction such
as correcting errors and suggesting proper procedures. Supervision should use as a form of
friendly help or guidance.
In the case of liquidation of cooperatives, the Cooperative Development Authority provides the
implementing guidelines to still make possibilities to save the cooperative.
4. Research and evaluation
Used in planning and policy making as for its relevant and adequate data. It is the responsibility
of the government to engage in meaningful research for the sustainable growth of cooperatives
since it has vast resources in man-power, facilities, and funds. Cooperatives must be active
participants in such research programs because they are the beneficiaries and it creates
meaningful, effective and productive experiences.
5. Technical assistance
Technical assistance should be based in the real needs of cooperatives, and within the ability and
comprehension of the members. Cooperative Development Authority is the in charge with the
task of ensuring the viability and growth of cooperatives.
6. Management takeover
It is the responsibility of the CDA to take over management to protect the interest if the members
as well as the creditors in case of becoming bankrupt due to mismanagement or corruption. The
government reduces its interference as soon as the cooperative become viable.
7. Financial assistance
At present, there are various government financial institutions, such as GSIS, SSS, PNB, DBP,
LBP, and others, which extends loans to cooperatives at reasonable terms. The government
should offer a financial scheme or package to cooperatives in a manner that does not destroy their
self-reliance.
8. Material assistance
As provided for in the Cooperative Code of the Philippines, agrarian reform cooperatives are
granted land for collective ownership; facilities and equipment in constructing roads, bridges,
 irrigation system and other agricultural infrastructures, together with technical assistance and
financial assistance; preferential right in the grant of franchise to operate public utilities and
services, and provision of electric service.
9. Incentives and privileges
It government should provide the necessary incentives and privileges to cooperative to fortify
their economic power and accelerate their growth.
10. Promotion and organization
In the 1970’s, the government was very enthusiastic in promoting the cooperative movement,
using the Samahang Nayon program as the stepping stone. The government should focus its
resources on the creation of awareness among the poor consumers and producers with regard to
the importance of cooperatives through a massive information campaign, and through the
inclusion of cooperatives as subject in both high school and college.

HOW TO ORGANIZE COOPERATIVES

The following essential requirements should be observing before establishing a cooperative in a
community:
1. Felt-need. The reason for organizing a cooperative (people need a cooperative for the solution of their
problems).
2. Availability of qualifies officers. Management constitutes the most important factor in the success of
a [Link] any rate, the Cooperative Development Authority has a management program for
improving the competence of cooperative officers through trainings and education.
3. Adequacy of facilities. Availability of adequate facilities is important to ensure the efficiency of the
business operations of the cooperative and be good enough to start any cooperative operations.
4. Opportunities for growth. Cooperative has to be dynamic in order to be able to meet effectively
changing needs and problems of its members and the community. Organizers must have a good
feasible plans for business expansion and must survive and be successful for a long time.

REQUIREMENTS FOR REGISTRATION

The Board of Directors with the help of the Documents Committee shall prepare all the documents
necessary for the registration of the cooperative, and shall forward said papers to the Cooperative
Development Authority through channels. This documents are:
1. Four copies of Economic survey with a general statement describing the:
a. Structure
b. Purpose
 c. Economic feasibility
d. Area of operation
e. Size of membership
f. Other pertinent data
2. Four copies of Articles of Cooperation, together with bond of accountable officers
3. Four copies of Bylaws
4. Registration fee of two hundred and fifty pesos payable to CDA.
The Cooperative Development Authority, after evaluating the document, shall issue the Certificate of
Registration or shall return the documents stating the reasons for its denial. A registered cooperative
acquires a juridical personality separate and distinct from its members.

COOPERATIVE LAWS
The cooperative movement in the country today is governed by four different laws.
1. P.D. 175 (1973)
- As implemented by the Bureau of Cooperatives Development, now the Bureau of Agricultural
Cooperatives Development (BACOD), governs the operations of Samahang Nayons (SNs’), Area
Marketing Cooperative (AMCs’), Cooperative Rural Banks (CRBs’), credit, consumers,
industrial, and other types of Service Cooperatives.
2. P.D. 775
- As implemented by the Sugar Regulatory Administration (SRA), covers the operation of Sugar
Marketing Cooperatives (SMC’s)
3. P.D. 169
- Is implemented by the National Electric Administration (NEA) and governs Electric Cooperative.
4. E.O. 898
- On the other hand, governs the operations of transport cooperatives. It is implemented by the
Office of Transport Cooperatives (OTC) of the Department of Transportation and
Communication (DTC).

What are the types of Cooperatives?

Cooperatives may fall under any of the following types:

(a) Credit Cooperative: is one that promotes and undertakes savings and lending services among its
members. It generates a common pool of funds in order to provide financial assistance and other related
financial services to its members for productive and provident purposes;
(b) Consumer Cooperative: is one the primary purpose of which is to procure and distribute
commodities to members and non-members;

(c) Producers Cooperative: is one that undertakes joint production whether agricultural or industrial. It
is formed and operated by its members to undertake the production and processing of raw materials or
goods produced by its members into finished or processed products for sale by the cooperative to its
members and non-members.

(d) Marketing Cooperative: is one which engages in the supply of production inputs to members and
markets their products;

(e) Service Cooperative: is one which engages in medical and dental care, hospitalization, transportation,
insurance, housing, labor, electric light and power, communication, professional and other services;

(f) Multi-Purpose Cooperative: combines two (2) or more of the business activities of these different
types of cooperatives;

(g) Advocacy Cooperative: is a primary cooperative which promotes and advocates cooperativism
among its members and the public through socially-oriented projects, education and training, research and
communication, and other similar activities to reach out to its intended beneficiaries;

(h) Agrarian Reform Cooperative: is one organized by marginal farmer’s majority of which are agrarian
reform beneficiaries for the purpose of developing an appropriate system of land tenure, land
development, land consolidation or land management in areas covered by agrarian reform;

(i) Cooperative Bank: is one organized for the primary purpose of providing a wide range of financial
services to cooperatives and their members;

(j) Dairy Cooperative: is one whose members are engaged in the production of fresh milk which may be
processed and/or marketed as dairy products;
(k) Education Cooperative: is one organized for the primary purpose of owning and operating licensed
educational institutions, notwithstanding the provisions of Republic Act No.9155, otherwise known as the
Governance of Basic Education Act of 2001;

(l) Electric Cooperative: is one organized for the primary purpose of undertaking power generation,
utilizing renewable sources, including hybrid systems, acquisition and operation of sub transmission or
distribution to its household members;

(m) Financial Service Cooperative: is one organized for the primary purpose of engaging in savings and
credit services and other financial services;

(n) Fishermen Cooperative: is one organized by marginalized fishermen in localities whose products are
marketed either as fresh or processed products;

(o) Health Services Cooperative: is one organized for the primary purpose of providing medical, dental,
and other health services;

(p) Housing Cooperative: is one organized to assist or provide access to housing for the benefit of its
regular members who actively participate in the savings program for housing. It is co-owned and
controlled by its members;

(q) Insurance Cooperative: is one engaged in the business of insuring life and property of cooperatives
and their members;

(r) Transport Cooperative: is one which includes land and sea transportation, limited to small vessels, as
defined or classified under the Philippine maritime laws, organized under the provisions of RA 9520;

(s) Water Service Cooperative: is one organized to own, operate and manage waters systems for the
provision and distribution of potable water for its members and their households;

(t) Workers Cooperative: is one organized by workers, including the self-employed, who are at the same
time the members and owners of the enterprise. Its principal purpose is to provide employment and
business opportunities to its members and manage it in accordance with cooperative principles; and
(u) Other types of Cooperatives: as may be determined by the Authority.

Advantages of a Cooperative Organization:

1. A cooperative organization is owned and controlled by members.

2. It has a democratic control: one member, one vote.

3. This type of organization has a limited liability.

4. Profit distribution (surplus earnings) to members is carried on in proportion to the use of service;

surplus may be allocated in shares or cash.

Disadvantages of a Cooperative Organization:

1. A cooperative organization entails longer decision-making process.

2. It requires members to participate for success.

3. Extensive record keeping is necessary in this form of organization.

4. It has less incentive, and there’s also a possibility of development of conflict between members.
 LESSON 6
MARKETING AND INFRASTRUCTURE FOR RURAL DEVELOPMENT

The inability of farmers to translate higher production activities into profitable opportunities has
been traced to inefficiencies in the marketing system. Farmer-producers receive the wrong economic
signals resulting in mis-utilization or underutilization of scarce resources. There conditions are inimical to
the development process. Farm products pass through several market agents before reaching consumers.
Economic activities between production and marketing have been recognized, although only recently, to
be a critical element in most development strategies. The link, however, is still weak. There is still much
to desire in improving the marketing systems. Market inefficiencies still persist due to the failure of the
traditional marketing system to adjust to the dynamics of economic development. But adjustments must
be made. This implies the transformation of rural, agriculturally-based economies into more urban,
industrially-based ones (Harrison, 1984).

According to the PDP 2017-2022, fostering links with the industry and service sectors for more
efficient value-adding processes and more effective commercialization will expand opportunities in
agriculture. For this to happen, productivity in agriculture will need to be raised. In the medium term, the
agriculture, forestry and fishery sectors will seek to expand economic opportunities for those who are
currently engaged in producing agricultural products, and increase access to economic opportunities for
small farmers and fishers, who are typically subsistence producers and have limited market participation.
These measures will be beneficial to existing producers, marginalized farmers and fishers, including
women, the elderly and indigenous peoples.

I. Rural Infrastructure

Researches have underscored the importance of rural infrastructure in development directly by

reducing marketing costs and indirectly by spurring input-output mobility in the rural sector. But rural
infrastructure in the Philippines has deteriorated in the past decades.

i. Road Network System

ii. Railway and Waterway System
iii. Communication system

II. Post-harvest Facilities

Inefficiency in the post production operations cause losses in quantity and value of agricultural
production. Some 10 to 37 percent of the total paddy and almost 30 percent of the fruits and vegetables
harvested are lost due to poor and inefficient post production methods. The value lost comprises a sizable
portion of marketing cost and rural income. Losses as the product leaves the farm en route to the
consumers should be minimized.

Availability of Post-harvest Facilities

Modern post production practices alone are not a sufficient condition to guarantee sustained
support to rural development unless farmer producers and traders have access to those technologies.

Philippine Fisheries Code of 1998, RA 8550

The State is to “provide support to the fishery sector, primarily to the municipal fisherfolk, including
women and youth sectors, through appropriate technology and research, adequate financial, production,
construction of post-harvest facilities, marketing assistance, and other services”, through mechanisms
such as the:

• Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (BFAR) which should coordinate with local government
units (LGUs) and other concerned agencies to enable women in fishing communities to engage in other
fishery/economic activities; and

• Municipal/City Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Management Councils (M/CFARMCs) and Integrated
Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Management Councils (IFARMCs), which should include women and
youth representatives.

The Philippine Center for Postharvest Development and Mechanization (PhilMech)

An attached agency of the DA, has been active in the design, fabrication and commercialization
of gender-friendly technologies in order to provide both male and female farmers with access to machines
that will help them increase their productivity. Examples include cassava diggers, whole cashew nut
shellers, charcoal-fired ovens, multi-commodity solar tunnel dryers, manual coffee pulpers, coffee hullers,
compact corn mills, soybean grinders and brown rice hullers. The equipment and machinery are designed
to be compact to facilitate mobility, and improve ease of operation and maintenance. Some parts may also
be adjusted or customized for men and women’s use without sacrificing efficiency

III. Constraints in the adoption/ use of post-production technologies

1. Technical Constraint
(a) the design and construction of these facilities do not fit the needs of the users in their environment
 (b) Inadequate knowledge on the proper operation and management of the facility discourages
potential users.
(c) The location of the facility is not signed with the regional patterns of production and consumption.
(d) There is inadequate supply of agricultural products to continuously run the facility at capacity.
2. Socio-Economic Constraints
(a) The values and attitudes of farmer-producers.
(b) The long-established institutional arrangements in post-production activities also hinders the
adoption of the post-production technologies.
(c) The issue on labor-displacement as a result of employing capital-intensive facilities remains to be
a major concern not only for the farmer but also to the policy makers.
(d) The economic conditions of the farmers also influence the acceptance of post-production
technologies. Because farms are small, production is low, a portion of the produce are retained for
home consumption, and farm households are large, it is increasingly difficult for a farmer to
afford the new post-production technologies

IV. The Market Information System

Economic information is vital in marketing as it links the production sector to the consumption sector.
The collection, interpretation and dissemination of a large variety of data are necessary for the smooth
operation of the marketing system. An efficient marketing system cannot operate in an information
vacuum as an effective pricing mechanism depends on how well-informed buyers and sellers are.
Incorrect production decisions can also be traced to the lack of reliable and timely market information.
The decision when, where, and how to produce or sell depends much on the market information available.

To establish an efficient marketing system that performs assembly, processing, analysis, storage
and retrieval, evaluation and dissemination of information requires considerable investments which a
small farmer cannot possibly afford. It is, therefore, the task of the government to provide the necessary
market information not only to the farmer but also to the traders and consumers. Having well informed
market participants enhances competition in the market system.

Structural transformation strongly associated with the formation of diverse and thriving value chains for
marketing and processing farm output Lack of structural transformation in the Philippines could be partly
attributed to government failure (wrong, biased policies).
However, market failure also impedes transformation government intervention still be needed for:

 Agricultural transformation
 Provision of public goods
 Coordination

Constraints

1. Insufficient provision of public goods

 lack of provision of investments in R&D and extension activities

 insufficient allocation to major (e.g. rice, coconut and sugarcane) and high value-added
commodities
 inadequate transport infrastructure

2. Inadequate support for farmers

 lack of: access in technologies, technical knowledge and quality inputs

 Exclusion from formal financial system

3. Coordination failures

 Inaccessibility of markets and inadequate support

 Affects both farmer’s engagement and participation of SMEs in the supply chain

4. Weak regulatory system

 Poor quality of regulatory services

 No comprehensive competition law

5. Defective property rights regime

 Security of property rights remain dubious in the uplands

 Infirmities in securing titles and transfers deter investments especially long-term projects

In the Philippines, the marketing system of agricultural commodities faces several issues and challenges
that indicate inefficiencies, which are becoming even more challenging as the economy approaches the
ASEAN economic integration this 2015. Of all the market actors in the agricultural marketing chain, the
small farmers are often the most affected by these problems.
Some of the common issues are:

(i) the low prices received by farmers for their produce;

(ii) the multiple layers of market intermediaries in agricultural supply chains; and
(iii) the limited access to profitable markets (e.g., institutional and export markets).
About 91% of more than 5 million farmers in the country are small farmers, who usually belong
to the marginalized rural sector and are vulnerable to the rapid changes in the market environment and
marketing conditions. Because most of them experience poor economies of scale and bargaining power,
limited capacity and resources, and lack of access to market information, small farmers are often
exploited by dominant groups and constrained from having significant participation and good market
position in the supply and value chains of agricultural products. This is not to mention other socio-
economic, cultural and political factors that also affect farmers’ marketing efficiency. Their weakness as
individual small-scale farmers prevents them from expanding their operations, accessing markets beyond
their localities, and generating better and fairer income for their families.

Due to their limited resources and capacity, small farmers generally lack access to physical infrastructure
(e.g., roads, postharvest facilities, ICT, etc.) and institutions, which are critical elements for reducing
transaction costs and marketing risks in the exchange process between producers and consumers.
particularly in terms of producing adequate volume of commodity that meet the food safety and quality
standards, as a result, “market efficiency gap” or the “difference between what markets are actually
achieving under current conditions and what they could achieve if markets where working correctly” is
often experienced by small farmers (Torero 2011). They struggle in participating in dynamic markets and
their opportunities to maximize their returns are inhibited.
 LESSON 7

COMMUNICATION IN RURAL DEVELOPMENT

I. Idea behind Communication in Development

Communication

- It is a process in which two or more persons create and share information with one another in
order to reach a mutual understanding, mutual agreement and subsequent understanding.
- Quebral (1971), the pioneer of development communication, defined the concept as “the art and
science of human communication applied to the speedy transformation of a country and the mass
of its people from poverty to a dynamic state of economic growth that makes possible greater
social equality and the larger fulfilment of the human potential.

Rural communication

- is an interactive process in which information, knowledge and skills, relevant for development are
exchanged between farmers, extension/advisory services, information providers and research
either personally or through media such as radio, print and more recently the new “Information
and Communication Technologies” (ICTs). In this process all actors may be innovators,
intermediaries and receivers of information and knowledge. The aim is to put rural people in a
position to have the necessary information for informed decision-making and the relevant skills to
improve their livelihoods. Communication in this context is therefore a non-linear process with
the content of data or information.

In Communication for Development approaches, rural people are at the center of any given development
initiative and view planners, development workers, local authorities, farmers and rural people as
“communication equals”, equally committed to mutual understanding and concerted action.

Communication for development is used for:

1. people’s participation and community mobilization,

2. decision-making and action,
3. confidence building,
4. for raising awareness,
5. sharing knowledge and changing attitudes, behavior and lifestyles;
6. for improving learning and training and rapidly spreading information;
 7. to assist with program planning and formulation; and
8. to foster the support of decision-makers.

If people are to be develop, they must be informed (mainly by mass media), motivated (mainly by
extension workers), moved to accept new ideas and technology (technology transfer), and participate in
deciding their future (empowerment). All these is boil down to communication.

II. Problems that develop communication can help to overcome?

Development communication rests on the premise that successful rural development calls for the
conscious and active participation of the intended beneficiaries at every stage of the development process;
for in the final analysis, rural development cannot take place without changes in attitudes and behavior
among the people concerned.

To this end, Development Communication is the planned and systematic use of communication, through
inter-personal channels, audio-visuals and mass media:

 to collect and exchange information among all those concerned in the planning a development
initiative. with the aim of reaching a consensus on the development problems being faced and the
options for their solution.
 to mobilize people for development action, and to assist in solving problems and
misunderstandings that may arise during development plan implementation.
 to enhance the pedagogical and communication skills of development agents (at all levels) so that
they may dialogue more effectively with their audience.
 and last, but by no means least, to apply communication technology to training and extension
programs, particularly at the grassroots level, in order to improve their quality and impact.
1. Problems of designing projects that take into account the perceptions and capacities of the intended
beneficiaries.

Development communication can help to ensure that the design and action plan of a development
project take into account the attitudes, perceived needs and capacities of the people which the project
is trying to help. Many projects have failed in the past because assumptions were made about the
willingness and capacity of rural people to absorb new technology and development infrastructures
into their way of living and working. Abandoned irrigation schemes and settlement programs, broken
down equipment, and the slow adoption of improved crop varieties, are example that bear witness to
this failure to bring about attitudinal and behavioral change.
2. Problems of mobilizing rural people for development action and ensuring an information flow among
all concerned with a development initiative.
If a rural development project has been planned with its beneficiaries, their participation and
mobilization are almost certain to follow quite naturally. However, in any event, communication
support during project implementation keeps people informed, helps to mobilize them, and to
stimulate the more conservative to action. This is especially so when communication, (in the form of
audio-visual presentations for example) is used to spread knowledge of successful development
action taken by some communities and individuals in other communities and individuals that have not
yet mobilized.
3. Problems of improving the reach and impact of rural training programs

Training at the grassroots level had become a major priority in recent years. At the same time,
communication technology has been improving and becoming even cheaper and easier to use in rural
areas. Audio-visual media make it possible to:

 help overcome the barriers of illiteracy and incomprehension (by conveying ideas and practices in
an audio and visual form);
 illustrate new ideas and techniques more effectively than by word-of-mouth alone, and this
improve the impact of extension and training;
 compress time (a whole crop cycle can be shown in a short presentation);
 compress space (events and practices in distant locations can be transferred to other places where
they can be useful testimonials);
 standardize technical information (by creating audio-visual materials that illustrate the best
available advice to farmers and having these materials used throughout the extension and farmer
training chain, thereby ensuring that the technical information will not become distorted during its
passage from its source to the smallest and most remote farmer).

III. Communication Campaigns

What are so-called “Communication Campaigns”?

Campaigns bring together all the communication functions we have discussed into an intensive and
relatively short period of time, usually a few months. They aim to promote a few clearly defined
objectives. These might be, for example, improved cultivation techniques for a certain crop, or control of
a pest.
Indispensable preconditions for a campaign are that the proposed technology package be truly appropriate
to the socio-economic needs of the people, and that the required farm inputs and services be readily
available.

Campaigns are based on a careful analysis with the rural people concerning their knowledge, attitude, and
practice in respect of the proposed innovations, the information channels they sue and find credible, other
groups of people who may influence them, and so on.

The campaign itself uses a variety of different communication channels to reach its audience with the
same basic messages, but in slightly different forms. Specially trained and motivated field agents play a
key role in interpersonal communication for the campaign, and they are backed by a well-orchestrated use
of group and mass media. Campaign activities are constantly monitored for their impact and any errors in
approach put right, thereby fine-tuning the messages and their delivery.

Campaigns of this sort, which draw heavily on marketing techniques, have proven remarkably successful
in providing people with the information they need as a basis for attitudinal and behavioral change.

IV. Types of Development Initiatives that Require Communication Inputs

Any development initiative which, if it is to be successful, depends on rural people modifying their
attitudes and behavior, and working with new knowledge and skills, will normally benefit from
communication support. So also will projects that have a multi-disciplinary nature, that is to say those
which involve a number of subject-matter ministries and authorities, and which are therefore inherently
difficult to manage. Communication can provide the linkages that will ensure coordinated management.

V. Planned Development Communication Activities

Are development communication activities always planned as part of a development project?

Not necessarily. There are also development communication projects per se. This is the case when, for
example, assistance is being provided for institution building such as creating or strengthening an
agricultural or rural development communication unit, or providing assistance to a number of agricultural
and rural development projects in a country.
VI. Overall Considerations in Planning Communication Inputs

What are the overall considerations when planning communication inputs?

Successful development communication calls for a well-defined strategy, systematic planning and
rigorous management. Experience has shown all too clearly that ad hoc communication inputs such as the
provision of some audio-visual equipment, or the stand-alone production of some audio-visual or printed
material has seldom made any measurable impact.

At has also become clear that communication activities require a certain critical mass-- of resources,
intensity, and duration-- if they are to realize their full potential in mobilizing people for development
action and becoming self-sustaining in their role. This explains the scanty results when lip-service has
been paid to development communications by the inclusion in the project of some token equipment and
expertise.

A communication plan must always be tailored to the particular conditions being faced. There are so
many variable of a human, cultural and physical nature that a communication plan that worked for, say,
irrigation development in an arid zone of one country can never be transferred lock, stock, and barrel to
another country, for even if the principles may remain the same, the details will almost certainly call for
differences.

Challenges to Rural Communication

The situation concerning communication in rural areas of developing countries is characterized by:

1. A dearth of information (absence of providers and of local communication content);

2. Conflicting messages (difficult to know what is relevant/correct information);
3. A fragmented market for information with many individual clients or client groups;
4. Relatively few clients scattered over a large area;
5. Structural transformations leading to constantly changing channels and content and a lack of the
necessary skills for communication; and
6. A lack of well-developed ICT infrastructure and low levels of ICT skills.
VII. Individual that plans Communication Inputs
Who should plan communication inputs?

Communication planning is a specialized field and calls for people who, in addition to a knowledge of
communication processes and technology, also have an understanding of development issues and a
familiarity with conditions in developing countries.

 International development agencies (staff/consultants)

 Universities and Institutions
 NGO’s (Non-Government Organizations)

Possible Actors / Clients Actors for effective participatory communication

 advisory services and research organizations,

 private advisory services,
 NGO’s,
 local and central governments
 farmer and rural people organizations
 media companies or organizations
 colleges and universities
 training institutes

Summary Guidelines for Project Formulators

If you are responsible for formulating an agricultural and rural development project, you may like to pose
the following questions during the course of your work as a means of checking on the possible need for
communication inputs and ion how they might be implemented.

1. Will the project depend for its success on the intended beneficiaries making considerable changes
in the way they live and work?
2. Has research been done among the intended beneficiaries, or put more simply, have they been
systematically consulted regarding their knowledge, attitudes and practice, and their capacity to
carry out the changes foreseen for them?
3. Will there be a need for people, especially of a low educational level, to acquire new knowledge
and skills on a wide scale?
4. Apart from the immediate project beneficiaries, are there other sectors of society whose informed
and positive action could contribute to the success of the project? Typical examples are the
religious and educational authorities, but there may be others with influence over the beneficiaries.
Might it be possible to enlist the support of these influential groups by communicating with them
about the need for their help.
5. Is the government staff who will be responsible for implementing the project at all levels
sufficiently informed, motivated, and well-trained

If it emerges from the answers to these first five questions that there is a need for communication
inputs, further questions need to be asked concerning how these inputs might be planned and
implemented.

6. Is there any prior in-country experience of development communication? If there is, and it was
successful, who planned it, and could the same organization or institution be called in to help plan
the present communication activities?
7. Is there an agricultural or rural development information or communication unit that could do the
communication planning for the project?
8. Are there any institutions such as university schools of communication, private
communication/advertising organizations, or NGOs that could be called in to help with the
planning? (Be cautious when considering journalists and media people with a primarily urban
focus in their work; they may not have the feel and insight for development communication.)
9. If you locate a suitable communication planner, make sure s/he is briefed to look into the
following aspects:
a. What could be the institutional framework for communication activities for the project?
 Is the project so big, and are its communication needs such, that it warrants its
own development communication unit?
 If the project is relatively small, what existing communication facilities in the
Courtney could service its needs?
 Might it be possible to group several rural development projects together and
create a unit to service them all?
b. What existing communication resources are there that could be called upon to assist, and
do they need strengthening?
c. Who, or what institution, could help with audience research and evaluation?
d. Will there be a need for external communication expertise, and if so, of what nature and
duration?
 e. What communication equipment, and vehicles, will be required, for producing material
and for using them in the project area?

(Bear in mind the advantages of choosing equipment that is compatible with existing
equipment in the country, especially because of the related maintenance and repair issue).
f. What operating budget will be required?
g. What, if any, are the training needs for national communication staff who will be working
with the project?
10. If you cannot locate a communication planner in-country, and if you are still at the stage of
project identification-- rather than detailed formulation-- can you obtain the services of an
external communication planner in time for the detailed formulation? (The Communication for
Development Group, SDRE, in FAO HQ, will be able to help you).
11. If you have reached the stage of a detailed formulation before the need for communication has
been identified, can you leave enough budget flexibility to allow for the communication
component to be formulated later?

Source: [Link]
 LESSON 8
AGRICULTURE EDUCATION AND MANPOWER TRAINING FOR RURAL DEVELOPMENT

One of the requirements for rural development is a new breed of Filipino farmer entrepreneurs
who are productive enough to sustain rural employment, livelihood and rural welfare. This means that the
training of an agricultural/farm entrepreneur (one engaged in the practice of agriculture) must receive
high priority.

INSTITUTIONS AND OTHER ORGANZIATIONS FOR RURAL DEVELOPMENT

1. FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization)

FAO’s work in the Philippines Having been established in 1977, the FAO Representation in the
Philippines celebrated 40 years of working together with the Government of the Philippines towards the
eradication of hunger and poverty in 2017. During the last six years, FAO assistance in the Philippines
focused on the four following priority areas:
• improving food and nutrition security;
• enhancing agricultural production and productivity and ensuring efficient and streamlined supply chains;
• promoting sustainable management of natural resources; and
• promoting agricultural adaptation, climate change mitigation and disaster risk reduction.

FAO’s major assets are the international staff, their technical competence, language capability, and
global experience available to assist countries in any aspect of extension development within the
agricultural sector, including agriculturally related components of rural development.
One of FAO’s special advantages in rendering advice on any aspect of extension is the possibility of
providing alternatives, drawn from worldwide experiences, for consideration. The orientation is towards
problem solving based on objective analysis of a particular situation and towards devising locally
appropriate solutions by drawing one experience from all relevant sources.

2. DA (Department of Agriculture)
A similar initiative by FAO and the DA in the Philippines implemented the Farmer Business Schools
(FBS) which enhances women and men farmers’ entrepreneurial and management skills. Operating on a
group-based ‘learning by doing’ model, the FBS is designed to address ‘supply chain issues’ faced by
smallholder farmers by:
• providing a comfortable group-learning environment to conduct small-scale experiments to improve
crop production and quality; and
• educating smallholder producers on market practices.
The objective is to increase the socioeconomic benefits associated with participation in agricultural
and market activities. FAO supported the Agricultural Training Institute of the DA to develop FBS
modules, hand-outs and facilitators that are being used in some of its projects.

3. Department of Trade and Industry (DTI)

The DTI’s mission is to develop innovative, competitive, job-generating and inclusive industries that
will create employment and income opportunities, address inequality and bring prosperity for all. The
DTI has identified 12 priority sectors, one of which is agribusiness, specifically food and resource-
based processing of commodities like bamboo, bananas, cacao, coconuts, coffee, mangoes, nuts, palm
oil, and other high value crops.

4. The Philippine Department of Communications and Information Technology (DICT)

Advances digital literacy and ICT skills training among Filipino talents and freelancers to boost
opportunities for high-value online jobs in rural areas in the country. In particular, a collaboration
between the Technology for Education, Employment, Entrepreneurs, and Economic Development
(Tech4ED) Project and Rural Impact Sourcing aims to bridge digital gap by providing digital access
and informal skills training to unserved and underserved communities.
The collaboration aims to increase access to digital markets and business process outsourcing
(BPO) in far-flung communities with high unemployment rates. As of February 2018, Tech4ED has
established 2 146 centers nationwide, 68 percent of which are in rural areas. Two of its seven
platforms are eAgri and eMarketPlace, which contain online content on agriculture and fisheries, and
online business transaction tools, respectively, to enable rural development through ICTs.
5. Women’s Action Network for Development (WAND)
WAND is a national and multi-sectoral network of women NGOs and producer organizations that
provide gender-sensitivity training, livelihood projects for women and advocacy programs affirming the
need to mainstream gender concerns in development agenda, and building the capacity of grassroots’
women in particular.
WAND’s area of expertise, which FAO may tap, includes gender-responsive and results-based
budgeting at the local level, GAD (Gender and Development) planning, gender-sensitivity training related
to micro-finance, sustainable agriculture, ending violence against women and children, women in
governance, gender analysis, and advocacy and campaign management.

II. Present State of Agriculture Education and Training

Agricultural education institutions in the country particularly the state supported

colleges/universities have a three-fold function of “providing effective instructions promoting research
and providing community service (or extension) to the farmers, out-of-school youth, rural women, etc. in
their service areas” (Lasap, 1987).

Agricultural research, extension and education complement each other in their contribution to
agricultural development. Improvements in technology result from agricultural research; when these new
technologies have been tested they are shared with farmers through extension services; extension workers
are trained in an agriculture education system.

ATI (AGRICULTURAL TRAINING INSTITUTE)

Extension services continue to evolve. With the challenges that extension workers and farmers
face, the Agricultural Training Institute (ATI) continues to explore various strategies to improve
its efforts as the extension and training arm of the Department of Agriculture. In over 30 years,
the ATI has celebrated various successes and learned from the lessons during hard times.
Nonetheless, we are proud to be standing the test of time through the support of our partners and
the clientele themselves. This is the ATI Today, more committed to bring extension services
beyond boundaries.
To strengthen the competitiveness of the agriculture and fisheries sector, the ATI develop,
implement and monitor training, education and advisory services for our stakeholders involved
in different commodities and industries such as:

1. Training Programs on Good Agricultural Practices (GAP)

They ensure continuous learning among our farmers in terms of applying GAP methods and
techniques in the production of cacao, banana, mango, highland vegetables, lowland vegetables
and other high value crops.

2. School-on-the-Air
They offer season-long training courses aired through radio to enhance the skills and knowledge
of farmers on the various production technologies for high value crops.
3. Training of Trainers
They provide training programs for AEWs who will capacitate high value crop farmers on
various production processes including mechanization and postharvest technology.

4. Extension Management
Through the provision of training, they equip the staff from Local Government Units (LGUs)
with working knowledge and skills to become effective leaders and extension managers in
adapting to change, overcoming resistance and adopting innovative and efficient management
techniques to remain high performers.

5. Soft Skills Development

They intend to help Municipal Agriculturists enhance their soft skills, which are their personal
attributes that enable them to interact effectively and harmoniously with other people. Through
training, they aim to improve their proficiency in understanding perceptions and personalities;
building influence; improving teamwork and collaboration; and expanding their skills in
communication, facilitation, and negotiation.

6. Farm Business School

They capacitate small-scale farmers through training and seminars on entrepreneurship
development and market access funded by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations.

7. Agri-Mechanization
By virtue of Republic Act 10601 or the Agriculture and Fisheries Mechanization (AFMech) Law,
they provide support services to promote the development and adoption of modern, appropriate,
cost-effective and environmentally safe agricultural and fisheries machinery and equipment.
They train farmers, fishers, manufacturers, extension workers, agricultural engineers, technicians
and operators on agri-fisheries mechanization for productivity and efficiency enhancement.
8. Gender and Development
Pursuant to Republic Act 7192 or Women in Development and Nation Building Act of 1992,
they provide learning opportunities for women in agriculture.
9. Early Child Care Development Program
As an effort to remind and make parents understand the roles and responsibilities in shaping their
children's future, they also conduct capability-building activities to agriculture extension workers
and rural women about the value of discipline and responsibilities as well as practical tips on
child rearing.

10. Special Concerns Program

Recognizing the contribution of the persons with disabilities, senior citizens, and indigenous
people in nation building, they conduct a series of lectures and training on sustainable agriculture
and livelihood improvement.

Source: [Link]
 LESSON 9
SOCIAL SERVICES AND NUTRITION FOR RURAL DEVELOPMENT
Malnutrition and food or water borne diseases are often more dependant on knowledge or the lack
thereof, rather than on actual food and water limitations.
According on the Philippine Development Plan (PDP) 2017-2022, health Efforts will be made to
help parents determine their family’s size such that they will be able to adequately care and provide for
their children. Age-appropriate sexuality education will be integrated into the school curriculum. Full
information and orientation programs on responsible parenthood and reproductive health will be made
widely available. Access to services will be made easier in order to fully meet the need for modern family
planning methods. This will be complemented by measures to increase the labor market participation of
women, to defer childbearing and attain healthy birth spacing. In addition, social policy needs to expand
beyond the current range of services to include social protection for uncovered sectors and disaster risk
mitigation, among others, as well as access to quality healthcare.
According to the 2013 National Nutrition Survey (NNS), the proportion of households that were
considered food secure increased only slightly from 30.7 percent in 2011 to 34.1 percent in 2013. The
ARMM was the least food-secure region (11.5 percent) and also had the least varied food intake. It was
followed by Eastern Visayas and other provinces in Mindanao. On the other hand, NCR was considered
the most food secure (51.3 percent) (FNRI, 2013).
In terms of malnutrition, women between the age of 13 and 59 years face significantly higher
prevalence of anaemia40 than men in the same age group (Figure 6). The prevalence of anaemia among
women is from 1.5 times (age group of 40-59 years) up to 3 times (age group of 20-39 years) higher than
that of men in 2013. The prevalence of anaemia is particularly acute among pregnant and lactating
women (25.2 and 16.6 percent respectively) based on data from the 2013 Philippine National Nutrition
Survey (FNRI, 2013).
In the Philippines, close to one in four (24.8 percent) pregnant women were found to be
nutritionally at risk (underweight, overweight and obese) in 2013 (FNRI, 2013). It is worth mentioning
that the prevalence of nutritionally at-risk pregnant women in the Philippines in 2013 remains close to
that of 2003 at 26.6 percent. The sharpest decrease in the share of nutritionally at-risk pregnant women
occurred between 1998 (30.7 percent) and 2003 (26.6 percent) (FNRI, 2013). Data from 2013 reveals that
prevalence of nutritionally at-risk pregnant women is particularly high for pregnant teenage girls (below
20 years of age) while it is lowest for the 30-39 age group.
In terms of health and nutrition of children, about 35 percent of children in the Philippines are
stunted or short for their age, due to poor nutrition and bad habits in childcare. Boys were found to have
higher rates of underweight and stunting compared to girls during their younger years, but the rates are
similar for both by the time they reach 4 to 5 years of age (FNRI, 2013).

Problems and Issues Affecting Nutritional Status of Rural Population

An understanding of the food system provides a good starting point for identifying the major
factors affecting nutritional status. The system is composed of stages namely, production, distribution,
consumption and biological utilization of food. Each stage represents possible areas where interventions
can be introduced to improve nutritional status.

MODIFIED MODEL OF FOOD SYSTEM (Pacey and Payne, 1985)

- A framework in analyzing the constraints in improving the nutritional status of the Philippine
rural population and for identifying needed interventions.

INSTITUTIONS AND ORGANZATIONS FOR PHILIPPINES NUTRITION STATUS

National Nutrition Council

In 1971, the Nutrition Food and Agricultural Council under the Department of Agriculture was
created and tasked to coordinate all nutrition and food activities of both the government and the private
sector. The Nutrition Act of the Philippines in 1974 was a milestone in the history of Philippine nutrition.
This law made nutrition a priority concern of the government and mandated that the nutrition program be
implemented by all agencies concerned in nutrition in an integrated fashion. The law also created the
National Nutrition Council (NNC), the highest policy-making and coordinating body for nutrition.

The NNC has a governing board composed of 10 of the President’s cabinet members and 3
private-sector representatives appointed by the President. Until recently, the chairman of the governing
board has always been the Secretary of the Department of Agriculture. The chairmanship has been
transferred to the Secretary of Health by a presidential executive order.

The NNC formulates policies and strategies; coordinates the planning, monitoring, and evaluation
of the nutrition program; and facilitates the release of funds, as well as requests for grants and loans by
governmental and nongovernmental organizations.

The Philippine Plan of Action for Nutrition is the blueprint for an integrated program of nutrition
interventions, formulated under the leadership of the NNC, which serves as the coordinating body for the
implementation of nutrition-related programs and projects and has responsibility for monitoring and
evaluation.
 The plan features eight nutrition-specific programs devised to address the immediate causes of
malnutrition such as inadequate food and nutrient intake (particularly of infants and pre-school children,
pregnant women and lactating mothers), poor caregiving and parenting practices, and infectious diseases.
The Governing Board of the NNC is chaired by the Secretary of Agriculture and nine cabinet
Secretaries, and the heads of three private- sector institutions sit as members.

National Nutrition Council (NNC)

The Philippine Plan of Action for Nutrition is the blueprint for an integrated program of nutrition
interventions, formulated under the leadership of the NNC, which serves as the coordinating body for the
implementation of nutrition-related programs and projects and has responsibility for monitoring and
evaluation.
The plan features eight nutrition-specific programs devised to address the immediate causes of
malnutrition such as inadequate food and nutrient intake (particularly of infants and pre-school children,
pregnant women and lactating mothers), poor caregiving and parenting practices, and infectious diseases.
The Governing Board of the NNC is chaired by the Secretary of Agriculture and nine cabinet
Secretaries, and the heads of three private- sector institutions sit as members.

Nutrition Center of the Philippines

The Nutrition Center of the Philippines (NCP) was established in the same year as the NNC. The
NCP is a private, nonprofit organization whose mandate is to mobilize nongovernmental resources,
conduct research, and develop nutrition program models in support of the Philippine nutrition plan and
program. The NCP is not funded by the government. Income-generating subsidiary corporations help
sustain the NCP. The Philippine Nutri-Foods Corporation (PNFC) develops and sells micronutrient-
fortified complementary and supplementary foods and nutrition-related items used by government
agencies and nongovernmental organizations in food assistance programs.

Local nutrition organizations

The strategy of the national nutrition program is the establishment of an active organizational
structure at all levels of operation. Whereas the NNC is responsible for national-level planning, there are
regional, provincial, municipal, and barangay nutrition committees composed of individuals from
government and the private sector. These committees are headed by the highest political leaders in the
respective LGUs. On the premise that the solution to malnutrition should begin in the home, the
organizational effort starts with the policy maker closest to the family, the barangay captain. The
barangay captain is vested with two vital powers, executive and legislative. These can be used at the
village level to facilitate the implementation of the nutrition program.

Department of Social Welfare and Development (DSWD)

DSWD implements various programs and services for disadvantaged women that pertain to the
development, implementation and management of social protection programs and services. These include
the 4P’s (Pantawid Pamilyang Pilipino Program), Sustainable Livelihood Program, Kapit-Bisig Laban sa
Kahirapan-Comprehensive and integrated Delivery of Social Services (Kalahi-CIDSS), and Protective
Services Program.
(i) Pantawid Pamilyang Pilipino Programme (or 4Ps).
Apart from cash transfers, the program also helps build confidence, self-esteem, knowledge and
skills through increased social interaction and family development sessions. It also encourages women to
invest in livelihood activities. Thus, the 4Ps increases women’s access to financial resources (in the form
of cash grants) in exchange for their compliance to certain conditions, for example ensuring that their
children are attending school 85 percent of the time, bringing their children to health centers for check-
ups and attending family development sessions (ADB, 2015).

ABS-CBN Lingkod Kapamilya Foundation, Inc. (ALKFI)

In September 2017, the ABS-CBN Lingkod Kapamilya Foundation, Inc. (ALKFI) and the NNC
launched Dok Ricky, Pedia (Pedia ng Barangay), a television show that aims to educate mothers on
proper nutrition and childcare. Malnutrition can be prevented in the first 1 000 days of the child’s life, a
period when parents are best able to bring out their child’s full potential (FNRI, 2013).

STEPS TO IMPROVE THE DELIVERY OF SOCIAL SERVICES AND HEALTH WELFARE

PROGRAM
1. Manpower development: education and training)
This is necessary in order to provide trained health personnel (professional/non-professional) to serve
the people in the rural communities. Such training provides adequate knowledge and skills and the
credibility to undertake his/her assigned tasks in health prevention and care.
2. Institutionalization of Local Autonomy
This will enable the local government to respond to the needs of their constituents directly, the local
government should be given a free hand in implementing its programs for they know better their own
situations.
3. Establishment of and strengthening linkages
Establish linkages with project actors (political leaders, the line agencies, public or private, and
program beneficiaries). Linkages can also be built with people organizations, health programs and
other health related organizations, NGO’s.
4. Logistical support and incentive
 Provide funding support for training, implementation and assessment of social development services
and programs in rural communities.
 Appoint and train indigenous health leaders as “para-professionals” in health programs and social
services.
 Offer scholarship grants and provide continuous in-service training program, for deserving medical
personnel and “para-professional” workers.
 Increase salaries of medical personnel in areas and improve their facilities.
 Provide adequate information materials and other communication aids for field personnel and health
program beneficiaries.
5. Emphasis on community participation
The principle of self-reliance in community level activities should be emphasized. It is
the responsibility if a development worker/ the agency he/she represents to multiply himself by
teaching the indigenous worker and the people themselves how to carry in his tasks when he leaves
the scene, and in so doing make himself dispensable and the people more responsible.
6. Promote the use if traditional medicine for purpose if health care particularly in rural areas.
7. Provide the conditions for a healthy environment in the rural areas.
 Potable drinking water
 Sanitation
 Regular immunization against communicable diseases
 Networks of health services
 Road network in rural area
 LESSON 10
INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK FOR RURAL DEVELOPMENT

What is a framework?

- The framework reflects the accumulated experience and consensus on a comprehensive set of
necessary success factors and strategies for effective and efficient communication between
agricultural research, rural advisory services and farmers’ organizations in rural development.
- Can be used as a basis for a comprehensive or a factor analysis of the existing overall situation
concerning communication or on the level of the performance of each specific factor.
- It also highlights the main entry points for targeted interventions. In this respect, it is also useful for
evaluating projects as for planning them.
- It is divided into a set of six generic success factors based on a breakdown of the development
components necessary for effective communication in rural areas.
 A rationale;
 An objective in the form of the ideal situation;
 Information on the main actors;
 The challenges to be overcome; and
 The outline of a development strategy

SOCIAL PROTECTION OPERATIONAL FRAMEWORK AND STRATEGY OF THE

PHILIPPINES

The Social Protection Operational Framework and Strategy of the Philippines, which was adopted in
2012, has four components:

 labor market interventions,

 social insurance,
 social welfare, and
 social safety nets.

Collectively, these components seek to address social risks and vulnerabilities at the individual,
economic, environmental and political/ governance level through preventive, mitigating, coping and
adapting responses (Villar, 2013). The Philippines social protection system remains riddled with gaps,
despite some progress in recent years mainly due to heavy government subsidies, such as the conditional
cash transfer program (social welfare) and the expansion of PhilHealth, (social insurance), and the
country’s universal health insurance program, which now benefits over 44 million Filipinos.
Institutional Deficiencies and Rural Poverty

1. the organizations that provide services, facilities, technical inputs financial resources and political and
administrative support are either missing altogether or found only in traditional forms. The traditional
arrangements are usually inadequate for diversifying and accelerating economic growth and have limited
flexibility in adapting to changing problems and needs.

2. The more “modern” institutions that do exist may not serve the majority of the population, especially
the poorest.

3. existing institutions generally are not effectively linked into a network or “hierarchy” of supporting
institutions in such a way as to provide continuous, reliable and efficient flows of services and inputs.

4. Scarcity of financial resources, ineffective linkages, lack of skilled manpower, weak political support,
inefficient managerial procedures, lack of clientele participation and the unwillingness of personnel to
serve the poor-existing institutions may have low levels of administrative capacity to deal with the
complex problems plaguing rural regions.

5. New institutions introduced into rural areas by national governments or international assistance
agencies are frequently so incompatible with traditional practices, customs, and behavior that they not
only fail to serve, but may further alienate rural people. In each case, the institutional structure is
inappropriate for rural development.

The Problem Areas Internal to the Extension System

External constraints apart, there is abundant scope for improvement through addressing problems within
extension systems and their programs. FAO has identified and is helping governments find solutions to
such problems.
1. Establishing the policy framework and legal basis for the provision of agricultural extension
services.
Failure of governments to provide unambiguous policy directives and legislative authority for
extension systems makes the job of the extension administrator extremely difficult and leads to
disappointing extension results. Lack of consistent policy direction and funding may force the
provision of extension on an ad hoc basis, rather than the institutionalized basis needed to ensure the
uninterrupted flow of extension guidance to farmers. The lack of specific guidance for the extension
administrator is particularly serious because there may be no basis for accountability or for knowing
and fulfilling the expectations of agriculture, planning, and finance policy.
2. Choosing the approach(es) and organizational structure for establishing or improving the
extension system.
Government officials contemplating establishment of an extension system, as well as newly appointed
administrators considering comprehensive change in an existing system, need help in improving the
understanding of extension and in exploring alternative approaches to its provision. The advantages and
disadvantages of possible approaches need to be explored in the settling of government policies, structure,
resources and purposes to be achieved.
3. Planning and managing implementation of the program (including monitoring and evaluation)
Weakness to be addressed include inappropriate program content because of programming exclusively by
passing down orders from the top rather than by planning that also involves extension staff, farmers, and
researchers at lower administrative and field levels; lack of specific tasks and program goals to permit
measurement of performance; weak or non-existent technical backstopping and supervision of field staff;
inappropriate allocation of resources; and the almost complete absence of systematic monitoring and
evaluation. This state of affairs has its origin in the lack of training in management of those assigned
managerial and supervisory responsibilities and in the failure to provide for discharge of planning,
monitoring, and evaluation functions in the extension organizational structure and staffing pattern.
4. Choosing effective and affordable extension methods
Too few extension organizations have made provision for developing, testing, and producing extension
and teaching materials and for guidance in the use of modern educational, instructional, and
communication technology. In practical terms, what the individual fieldworker knows and has the
resources to apply are the determinants of the methods employed. There may be methods that are not
effective either in producing learning and motivating farmers or in terms of cost. Another unfavorable
result may be that too few of those who most need help are being reached.
5. Staff selection, training, support, and conditions of service
Attracting and retaining quality staff in extension, particularly at the field level, is a major problem.
Salaries, opportunities for career advancement, and other conditions of service are often not sufficient to
support a family, let alone to compensate for the difficult living conditions in rural areas. Even for capital
or provincial city-based staff, conditions of service compare unfavorably with those in alternative
employment opportunities.
Education in technical fields is frequently lacking in the practical orientation and field experience so
essential in preparing effective extension staff. All of these deficiencies in pre-service education are
compounded by the lack of quality of in-service training, which should be provided on a systematic basis
to keep staff abreast of developments in technology and in training and educational methodology. Both
pre-service and in-service training are adversely affected by the shortage of locally relevant teaching
materials.
6. Establishing linkages with other services and facilities for agricultural and rural development.
In the absence of the much discussed two-way flow between farmer, extension worker, and research
scientist, there are insufficient numbers of economically attractive and locally adapted technologies to
extend.
Linkage with cooperatives, farmers’ associations, and other rural organizations, potentially one of the
most fruitful, is little pursued. Reaching the largest numbers of people and achieving educational impact
demands working with groups. These ready-made groups are ideal for the purpose, and they can also help
solve the problems of credit, farm supply, and market linkages.

Characteristics of Appropriate Institutions

Appropriate institutions, like appropriate technology, should be highly adaptable to the wide variety
of problems and conditions found in developing nations. The development and transfer of institutions,
like technology transfer and development, must blend adaptation, innovation and creativity with an
intimate knowledge of local capabilities and constraints. The past decade's experiences with rural
development provide some clues as to the vital characteristics of appropriate institutions for service and
technology delivery in rural areas such as:
(1) Appropriate institutions for rural development must be complementary and integrated;
(2) They should be vertically linked into an organizational network, both to provide a "hierarchy" of
services and to increase the quality and reliability of service delivery;
(3) Appropriate institutions build on traditional and culturally embedded arrangements, practices and
behavior;
(4) They are designed to transform traditional practices and behavior into more suitable instruments for
economic growth and social progress;
(5) They are sensitive to and flexible in meeting highly varied needs of differentiated rural clientele;
(6) Appropriate institutions adapt service delivery arrangements to rural conditions and constraints,
modifying the "central service point" bias of large-scale organizations;
(7) They are open to and encourage participation of client populations in various aspects of program
design and implementation;
(8) They are simplified planning and managerial. techniques and procedures suited to local administrative
capacity and operational decision-making; and
(9) Appropriate institutions are spatially differentiated, specialized and integrated, organized to meet the
needs of communities with different population thresholds, market characteristics and development
potential.
 LESSON 11
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT FOR SUSTAINED DEVELOPMENT

Alamar and Murali [13] noted that for sustainable development to be meaningful, over- consumption has
to be brought under control. Today there is an obsession with economic expansion. Growth should be
defined not only in terms of the financial side but also in terms of societal and cultural parameters. The
application of technology for the pursuit of profit has resulted in the overexploitation and the excessive
utilization of natural resources. Developing countries, and notably the least developed, are expected to be
the most vulnerable to the impacts of global climate change, although their current contribution to the
problem is minimal. The interrelationship between economic progress, environmental management and
individual wellbeing is a complicated process, affecting both the quality and sustainability of the society
in which we live.
COMPONENTS OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
1. Social/Human Component
2. Economic Component
3. Ecological Component

DEFINITIONS:
1. SOCIAL/ HUMAN COMPONENT
Assuming that viable alternatives have been identified to maintain ecological balance, and
authorities everywhere so converting raw materials purchasing in material goods to be made in
accordance with the requirements for efficiency and optimality, quality of life and labor standards is the
prerequisite fulfillment and satisfaction professional, social or otherwise. Human sustainability has regard
to social interactions, relationships, behavioral patterns and values of humanity (Dempsey et al., 2011).
Human component aimed at socio-cultural stability, achieve fairness both at the same time a generation is
concerned maintaining cultural diversity "world village", as the prevention or cure of "social ills" of
contemporaneity.

2. ECONOMIC COMPONENT
Economic development desired to produce a maximum flow of income in terms of rational use,
resource efficiency, particularly scarce resources. As a manifestation of macroeconomic dynamics,
economic development requires a set of quantitative transformations, structure and quality, both in
economic and in scientific research and manufacturing technologies in organizational structures and
mechanisms of economic functioning in thinking and people's behavior (Becker, 2001). It is shown that
rapid economic growth with obtaining maximum benefits, especially for developing countries, creates a
heavy burden on the ability of the planet to support.
Therefore, development must be conceived as a process multidimensional, involving major
changes in social structures, attitudes popular and national institutions, aiming at accelerating economic
growth, reducing inequality and poverty eradication. On the one hand, the economic dimension aims to
ensure a balanced and sustainable economic environment by producing goods and services continuously
to maintain manageable levels of government and external debt and avoid extreme sectoral imbalances
affecting agriculture and production industrial, and in order to achieve needed training a competitive
industry, diversification of industrial production and attracting investment

3. ECOLOGICAL COMPONENT
Ecological development is closely correlated growth and interrelation with environmental laws, the
ecological balance. In other words, in an area environmental development is the capacity to grow and to
bring the environment and its peculiarities, while ensuring the protection and renewal of natural resources
and environmental heritage. Environmental protection is considering physical and biological system
stability, developing their capacity to adapt to change and less conservation status considered ideal (Bran,
1991). It requires caution in ecologically; stimulates the development of knowledge based on
consumption, but subordinate planning opportunities; expected a harmonious development, cautious, in
full agreement with the possibilities at a time and in a particular place.

Education for sustainable development should be obligatory for all young people, as this represents the
primary vehicle available for catalysing the cultural changes required for survival. Bioethics ought to
serve as a platform for education about sustainability. Gabaldón and Aguilera [18] reported that it is
essential to apply a framework of values and principles to guide the conduct of decision-makers, scientists,
and technologists.

WHAT IS ENVIRONMENT MANAGEMENT AND ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT?

Environment Management
- EM is the optimum utilization of finite resources.
- Management means protecting the available resources from degradation
- It is the process of taking steps to have a positive effect on the environment;
- It involves the wise use of activity and resources to have an impact on the world and the
environment.
Environmental Management
- Administrative functions that develop, implement, and monitor the environmental policy of an
organization.
- Is a decision-making process which regulates the impact of human activities on the environment
in such a manner that the capacity of the environment to sustain human development will not
impaired.

Importance of Environmental Management

1. Improve management of environmental impacts

2. Set targets to reduce energy use, water use and waste to landfill
3. Initiate and maintain procedures to improve efficiencies
4. Define key responsibilities for achieving targets
5. Monitor and measure environmental performance against key indicators
6. Regularly assess progress towards achieving set objectives
7. Ensure due diligence and ongoing consideration of legal and other environmental requirements

Major Environmental Problems in the Philippines

1. Climate Change and the Philippines
- Recent scientific studies reveal that human activities have contributed significantly to the
increase of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere that causes climate change. The Philippines is a
hotspot for climate change disasters particularly the risk for agriculture and food security due to
extreme El Nino and severe tropical cyclones. The spread of infectious diseases is influenced by
fluctuations in climate variables, temperature, relative humidity and rainfall.
2. Decline of Natural Resources and Biodiversity
- The Philippines is suffering from degradation of the natural environment. It has fifty major
rivers now polluted due to abuse and neglect. Approximately two-thirds of the country's original
mangroves have been lost. A hundred years ago, the Philippines had close to 22 million hectares
of old growth forest. At the start of 2000, we had less than 600,000 hectares of old-growth forest
left.
3. Alarming Waste Problem in the Philippines
- The Philippines is looming with garbage problems despite the passage of the Ecological Solid
Waste Management Act or the Republic Act (RA) 9003. Environmentalists stress that Republic
Act 9003 calls for the adoption of the best environmental practices in ecological waste
management and explicitly excludes waste incineration as an ecological option. These polluting
disposal facilities are major sources of greenhouse gas emissions to the atmosphere which adds
to global warming. Landfills and open dumps, according to studies, account for 34 percent of
human related methane emissions to the atmosphere, a global warming gas that has 23 times
more heat-trapping power than carbon dioxide. These landfills and open dumps are illegal under
RA 9003.
4. People’s Behavior towards Waste
- Recognizing the importance of the environment’s immediate recovery and effects of improper
waste management to the Philippines, there is a need for understanding and reformation of
attitudes and concern towards the protection of environment. The impending garbage crisis can
be prevented if we only practice waste segregation at source, recycling, and composting as what
the law requires. An intensive social marketing program has to be established on a long-term
scale within a barangay – the smallest unit of the local government.
The Resources, Environment and Economics Center for Studies, Inc.’s (REECS) 2002 study on
household waste management systems and the attitudes and behavior showed that:
a. Waste management is still perceived by many as the responsibility of government.
b. Public participation in waste management, especially in segregation at source, remains limited.
c. More extensive awareness- raising activities and training on ecological waste management are
needed, together with stricter enforcement of the Law and local ordinances must be observed.
d. There is lack of community empowerment and political will to resolve the problem.

SUGGESTED ACTIONS TO BE UNDERTAKEN

1. Participatory Communication for Development
• Social Capital/ Community Empowerment
• Developing Community Leaders
• Engaging multi-sectoral participation (youth, schools, businesses, church, etc.) in community
design and planning
2. Community Immersion
• Immersion and Research on Community’s sociographic and psychographic profile
• Community Interaction with women, youth, and local community officials
• Environmental Education Workshops and Demos
• Environmental Education lessons to be familiar with a variety of ways in understanding the
environment and the ecological crisis
• Exploration of local Biodiversity
• Evaluation of Stakeholders’ Available Skills and Resources
• Evaluation of community’s existing level of environmental awareness
3. Community IEC Campaigns
• Development of local environmental campaigns
• Distribution and Exhibit of created IEC materials
• Flyers and Posters
4. Environmental Management Capacity Building Workshops for Community
• Hands-on Household Ecological Solid Waste Management Trainings
• Training on Creating Ordinances for local community officials
• Establishment of Materials Recovery Facilities in Local Schools and Community Center/s •
Appointment of stakeholder representatives – women sector, youth sector, etc.
5. Environmental Management Capacity Building Workshops for local School
• Environmental Education Facilitator’s Training for Teachers – Project Learning Tree, Water
Education for Teachers, Watershed Box and Ecological Solid Waste Management
• Developing Creative and Environmentally relevant modules and classroom activities

Trade Union’s Recommendations in Promoting Environmentally Sustainable Development

• Workers can be an asset for environmental protection. They can undergo training on
environmental legislation, the environmental commitments of the company, and general
environmental standards.
• Workers should be recognized in future environmental impact assessments as stakeholders.
• Workers should bargain for the right to stop work on the basis of unsound environmental
conditions.
• Workers can set up a structure such as: safety circles, where workers can speak freely on the
environmental impacts of mining operations.
• Workers should bargain for an economic displacement fund or environmental guarantee fund to
be provided for in case of a similar event in the future.
• Workers should be aware of environmental management tools and work for their adoption.
These tools include multi-partite monitoring teams and environmental audits, among others.

Trade unions are engaged in environment policy discussions, particularly and mostly with the
Department of Labor and Employment (DOLE).