Data Communication

Course No: CSE 3203

Topic 5: Analog Transmission

Julia Rahman
 Data Encoding
 Data Encoding refers to techniques of impressing data
(0s and 1s) or information onto a signal.
 The signal may be electrical, electromagnetic, or
optical.
 Ensures proper propagation through the physical
medium (e.g., copper wire, fibre optics, wireless).
 Provides a way for the transmitter and receiver to
interpret data correctly.
Data Encoding
 Data Modulation
 Modulation (shift keying) is the process of varying a
carrier signal’s properties (amplitude, frequency, or
phase) in proportion to the information/data signal.
 Why needed:
 Enables long-distance transmission
 Efficient use of bandwidth
 Allows multiplexing (multiple signals in one medium)
 Improves signal strength and reduces noise effect
 Why Modulation?
 A message signal alone cannot travel long distances
due to its low strength.
 Signal quality further degrades because of:
 Noise interference
 Physical obstacles
 Travel distance
 To overcome this, the message signal is combined
with a high-frequency, high-energy carrier signal.
 The carrier signal:
 Travels farther with less distortion
 Resists external disturbances
 By modulating the carrier with the message, we create a
strong signal that reliably carries information over long
distances.
 Relation to Data Encoding
 Data Encoding: Converts raw data (0s and 1s) into a
form suitable for transmission.
 Modulation: Maps the encoded data onto a carrier
signal for physical transmission.
 Connection:
 Encoding prepares data for communication.
 Modulation ensures the encoded data can travel
effectively over the medium.
Data Encoding and Modulation
 Data Modulation
 Carrier Signal:
 High-frequency signal used for digital-to-analog or
analog-to-digital modulation
 Generated by the sending device to carry the
information signal.
 The receiver is tuned to the expected carrier
frequency.
Types of Modulation
 Digital-to-Analog Conversion
 Digital-to-analog conversion is the process of changing
one of the characteristics of an analog signal based on
the information in digital data.

Figure 5.1 Digital-to-analog conversion

Types of Digital to Analog Conversion

Figure 5.2 Types of digital-to-analog conversion

Types of Digital to Analog Conversion
 Amplitude Phase Keying: Amplitude will be varied
according to the information in the digital data.
 Phase Shift Keying: The Phase will be varied
according to the information in the digital data.
 Frequency Shift Keying: The frequency is varied
according to the information in the digital data.
 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM): Both
amplitude and phase are varied according to the
information in the digital data.
 Digital-to-Analog Conversion
 Data Element Versus Signal Element:
 A data element is the smallest piece of information that
can be exchanged, equivalent to a bit.
 A signal element is the smallest unit of a signal that is
constant.
 Data Rate Versus Signal Rate
 Data rate, also known as bit rate, is the number of bits
transmitted per second (bps).
 Signal rate or Baud rate is the number of signal elements
per second (bauds).
 In the analog transmission of digital data, the signal or
baud rate is equal to or less than the bit rate.
S = N x 1/r bauds
Where r is the number of data bits per signal element.
Bit rate is the number of bits per second.
Baud rate is the number of signal
elements per second.

In the analog transmission of digital

data, the baud rate is less than
or equal to the bit rate.
 Data Rate vs Signal Rate
 Example 5.1: An analog signal carries 4 bits per signal
element. If 1000 signal elements are sent per second,
find the bit rate.

Solution: In this case, r = 4, S = 1000, and N is

unknown. We can find the value of N from
 Data Rate vs Signal Rate
 Example 5.2: An analog signal has a bit rate of 8000
bps and a baud rate of 1000 baud. How many data
elements are carried by each signal element? How
many signal elements do we need?

Solution: In this example, S = 1000, N = 8000, and r

and L are unknown. We find first the value of r and then
the value of L.
 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
 ASK is implemented by changing the amplitude of a
carrier signal to reflect amplitude levels in the digital
signal.
 Frequency and phase remain constant while the
amplitude changes.
 The carrier signal's amplitude varies with the message
signal's amplitude.
 Highly susceptible to noise interference since noise
usually affects the amplitude.
 Minimum bandwidth required is equal to the baud rate.
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
 Binary ASK (BASK)
 It uses only two levels, so it is also called binary
amplitude shift keying (BASK) or on-off keying (OOK).

Bit 1- Amplitude same as carrier signal

Bit 0 – Amplitude 0
 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
 After modulation, we get a non-periodic composite signal
whose bandwidth is proportional to the signal rate S.
B = (1+d)S.
Where “d” is due to modulation and filtering, lies
between 0 and 1.

Figure 5.3 Binary amplitude shift keying

 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
 Example 5.3: We have an available bandwidth of 100
kHz, spanning from 200 kHz to 300 kHz. What are the
carrier frequency and the bit rate if we modulate our
data by using ASK with d = 1?

Solution: The middle of the bandwidth is located at 250

kHz. This means that our carrier frequency can be at fc =
250 kHz. We can use the formula for bandwidth to find the
bit rate (with d = 1 and r = 1).
 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
 The digital data stream changes the frequency of the
carrier signal, 𝑓 .
 Frequency is varied to represent a 1 or 0.
 The frequency during the bit duration remains constant.
 Amplitude and phase remain constant.
 Avoids most of the noise problems of ASK; can ignore
voltage spikes.
 Limited by the physical capabilities of the medium.
 The required bandwidth equals the baud rate plus the
frequency shift.
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

Bit 1 - Frequency same as carrier-1 signal

Bit 0 - Frequency same as carrier-2 signal
 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
 Binary FSK (BFSK)
 Binary FSK (or BFSK) uses two carrier frequencies 𝑓 and 𝑓 .
 Use the first carrier if the data element is 0; use the second if it
is 1.
 However, note that this is an unrealistic example used only for
demonstration purposes. Normally, the carrier frequencies are
very high, and the difference between them is very small.
 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
 Bandwidth of FSK
 If the difference between the two frequencies (f1 and f2) is
2f, then the required bandwidth B will be:
B = (1+d) ×S +2f

 Multi-level FSK:
 FSK can use multiple bits per signal element.
 That means we need to provision for multiple frequencies,
each representing a group of data bits.
 The bandwidth for FSK can be higher
B = (1+d)×S + (L-1)/2f = L×S
 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
 Example 5.5: We have an available bandwidth of 100
kHz, spanning from 200 kHz to 300 kHz. What should
be the carrier frequency and the bit rate if we modulate
our data by using FSK with d = 1?

Solution: This problem is similar to Example 5.3, but we

are modulating by using FSK. The midpoint of the band is
at 250 kHz. We choose 2Δf to be 50 kHz; this means
 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
 The phase of the carrier signal is varied to represent data.
 Peak amplitude and frequency remain constant
 Phase remains constant during each bit duration
 Today, PSK is more common than ASK or FSK.
 Not as susceptible to noise degradation as ASK or to
bandwidth limitations of FSK
 PSK is much more robust than ASK because it is less
vulnerable to noise that changes the signal's amplitude.
 The bandwidth requirement, B, is:
B = (1+d)×S
Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

Bit 1- Phase 0 degree

Bit 0 – Phase 180 degrees
 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
 Binary PSK (BPSK)
 The simplest PSK is binary PSK, in which there are only two
signal elements: one with a phase of 0° and the other with a
phase of 180°.
 Binary PSK is as simple as binary ASK, with one significant
advantage: it is less susceptible to noise.
 In ASK, the criterion for bit detection is the signal's amplitude;
in PSK, it is the signal's phase. Noise can change the
amplitude more easily than it can change the phase.
 In other words, PSK is less susceptible to noise than ASK.
PSK is superior to FSK because it does not require two carrier
signals.
Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

Figure 5.9 Binary phase shift keying

Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

Figure 5.10 Implementation of BASK

 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
 Quadrature PSK (QPSK)
 It is a form of PSK where two bits are modulated at once.
 In QPSK, we parallelise the bit stream so that every two
incoming bits are split and modulated onto a carrier
frequency using PSK. One carrier frequency is phase-
shifted 90 ° from the other - in quadrature.
 It selects one of four possible carrier phase shifts 0, 90, 180
and 270 degrees.

00 Phase 0 degree
10 Phase 90 degree
01 Phase 180 degree
11 Phase 270 degree
 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
 Quadrature PSK (QPSK)
 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
 Quadrature PSK (QPSK)

Figure 5.11 QPSK and its implementation

 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
 Example 5.7: Find the bandwidth required for a QPSK
signal transmitting at 12 Mbps. The value of d = 0.

Solution: For QPSK, 2 bits are carried by one signal

element. This means that r = 2. So, the signal rate (baud
rate) is S = N × (1/r) = 6 Mbaud. For d = 0, we have B = S
= 6 MHz.
 Constellation Diagram
 A graphical representation of phase and amplitude in
digital-to-analog modulation.
 Commonly used in QAM and PSK schemes.
 Uses two carriers: in-phase (X-axis) and quadrature (Y-
axis).
 Shows signals as points on a 2D scatter plot:
 Distance from origin → amplitude
 Angle from X-axis → phase shift
 The angle of a point, measured counterclockwise from
the horizontal axis, represents the phase shift of the
carrier wave.
 Constellation Diagram

Figure 5.12 Concept of a constellation diagram

 Constellation Diagram
 Example 5.8: Show the constellation diagrams for an
ASK (OOK), BPSK, and QPSK signals.
Solution: Figure 5.13 shows the three constellation
diagrams.

1- Phase 0 degree 00- Phase -135 degree

0- Phase 180 degree 10- Phase -45 degree
01- Phase 135 degree
Figure 5.13 Three constellation diagrams 11- Phase 45 degree
Quadrature amplitude modulation is a
combination of ASK and PSK.
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)
 Quadrature amplitude modulation is a combination of
ASK and PSK.
 The concept behind QAM is using two carriers, one in
phase and another in quadrature, with different
amplitude levels for each carrier.
 x number of variations in phase and y variations in
amplitude
 The number of phase shifts is always larger than the
number of amplitude shifts due to amplitude
susceptibility to noise
 QAM is therefore less susceptible to noise than ASK
 Same bandwidth is required for ASK and PSK
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)
Figure 5.14 Constellation diagrams for some QAMs
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)
 Analog to Analog Conversion
 Represents analog information using an analog signal.
 Why is modulation needed for an analog signal when it
is already analog?
 When the medium is bandpass in nature (only allows a
limited frequency range).
 To shift low-pass signals into different frequency bands.
 Example: Radio broadcasting
 Each station produces a low-pass analog signal.
 The government assigns a unique frequency band to
each station.
 Modulation shifts signals to their assigned frequencies,
allowing receivers to tune in separately.
 How is Modulation Performed?
 Key idea: The message signal is added to the carrier signal by
changing certain characteristics of the carrier.
 The message signal carries information. The carrier signal has
no information but can travel long distances.
 In modulation, we modify one or more carrier characteristics:
 Amplitude → Amplitude Modulation (AM)
 Frequency → Frequency Modulation (FM)
 Phase → Phase Modulation (PM)
 Only the carrier’s characteristics are changed, not the
message signal. The information in the message signal
remains intact.
 At the destination:
 The message signal is recovered (used).
 The carrier signal is discarded (wasted).
Analog to Analog Conversion

Figure 5.15 Types of analog-to-analog modulation

 Amplitude Modulation
 Amplitude modulation is a type of modulation where the
amplitude (signal strength) of the carrier signal is varied in
accordance with the amplitude (signal strength) of the
message signal.
 Only the amplitude of the carrier wave is changed while the
frequency and phase of the carrier wave remain constant.
 Amplitude Modulation
 Bandwidth is twice the bandwidth of the modulating signal,
covering a range centred on the carrier frequency.
 The signal components above and below the carrier frequency
carry exactly the same information.
 Frequency Modulation
 Frequency modulation is a type of modulation where the
information (message signal) is transmitted over a carrier wave
by varying its frequency in accordance with the amplitude of
the message signal.
 Frequency Modulation
 The total bandwidth required for FM can be determined from
the bandwidth of the audio signal: 𝐵 = 2(1 + β)B. Where β is
usually 4.
 Phase Modulation
 Phase modulation is a type of modulation where the phase of
the carrier signal varies as per the amplitude variations of the
message signal.
 Phase Modulation
 The frequency of the oscillator changes according to the
derivative of the input voltage, which is the amplitude of the
modulating signal.
 The total bandwidth required for PM can be determined from
the bandwidth and maximum amplitude of the modulating
signal: 𝐵 = 2(1 + β)B. Where, β = 2 most often.
Pulse Amplitude Modulation
Pulse Width Modulation
Pulse Position Modulation