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Ch – 3 Operator overloading and type

conversion, Inheritance
Q -1 What is operator overloading?
 Operator overloading is an important concept in C++. It is a type of
polymorphism in which an operator is overloaded to give user defined meaning
to it.
 You can redefine or overload most of the built-in operators available in C++.
Thus, a programmer can use operators with user-defined types as well.
 Overloaded operator is used to perform operation on user-defined data type.
For example '+' operator can be overloaded to perform addition on various data
types, like for Integer, String(concatenation) etc.
 Operator Overloading Syntax:

 Return type specifies the type of value returned by the specified operation.
 Operator is the keyword. Operator should be preceded which want to be
overloaded.
 Operator function must be either member function or friend function.
 A difference between them is that a friend function will have only one argument
for unary operators and two for binary operators, while member function has no
argument for unary operator and one argument for binary operator.
 Arguments may be passed either by value or by reference.
 The operator can be classified into unary and binary operators based on number
of arguments on which they operate.
 C++ allow almost all operators to be overloaded but at least one operand must
be an instance of a class(object).

1 word Question Answer

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Sr No. Question Answer

1. Operator function must be either _____ member function, friend
or_______.
function
2. ________ is a type of polymorphism. Operator overload

3. The operator can be classified into _____ Unary, binary

and _______ operators.

Q-2 Give the rules for operator overloading.

1) Overloaded operators must perform operation similar to those defined for basic
data types. Meaning of operator can not be change.
2) Only existing operator can be overloaded. New operator can not be created like $.
3) At least one operand should be class object.
4) Operator function can be either member function or friend function.
5) In case of member function, it will take no explicit argument and return no explicit
values for unary operator. It will take one explicit argument and may be return
explicit values for binary argument.
6) In case of friend function, it will take one explicit argument which is the reference of
the relevant class for unary operator, it will take two explicit argument for binary
operator.
7) When binary operators overloaded, through a member function, the left hand
operand must be an object of the relevant class.
8) There are some operators cannot be overloaded. They are listed as follow:
. member accessing operator.
.* pointer to member operator
:: scope resolution operator
?: conditional operator
Sizeof() sizeof operator
9) Some of the operators can not be overloaded by friend function but member
function can overloaded it. They are listed as follows:
= assignment operator
( ) function call operator
[ ] subscripting operator
 Class member access operator
10) Binary arithmetic operators such as +,-,*,/ must explicitly return a value. They must
not attempt to change their own arguments.

Q-3 Explain Unary Operator.

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 Overloading without explicit arguments to an operator function is known as

unary operator overloading.
 The unary operators like unary +, unary -, increment and decrement operator.
 Syntax:
Returntype operator OP()
{
//body of operator function
}

 Where, function return type can be either from following : primitive, void, or
user defined operator is the keyword OP specifies the operator symbol to be
overloaded.
 For Ex:
Int operator – ();
Void operator ++ ();

1 word Question Answer

Sr No. Question Answer

1. Overloading without explicit arguments to unary operator
an operator function is known as _______.
overloading

Q-4 Explain Binary operator.

 The concept of overloading unary operators applies also to the binary operator.
 Syntax:
Returntype operator OP(arg)
{
//body of function
}
 Here the function takes the first object as an implicit operand and the second
operand must pass explicitly.
 The data members of first object are passed without using dot operator while
second argument members can be accessed using the object and dot operator.
 For Ex:
Void operator / (data d1)

1 word Question Answer

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Sr No. Question Answer

1. In the binary operator the function takes Implicit, explicitly
the first object as an _______ operand and
the second operand must pass________.

Q-5 Explain operator overloading with friend function.

 The operator function can also be used to overload operator.
 It provides a flexibility to use object of different class.
 The difference between a friend function and member function is that friend
function require the arguments to be passed explicitly to the operator function
while member function consider the first argument implicitly.
 Friend function can be used for both unary and binary operators.
 Syntax:
Friend returntype operator OP(arg1, arg2)
{
//body of function
}
 According to above syntax the friend function must be prefixed with keyword
friend.
 The body of the friend function can be either inside class or outside the class.
 When the definition of friend function is outside class then it defined as normal
function and not prefixed with the friend keyword.
 It can return and data type wither or following: void, primitive or user defined.
 OP is the operator symbol to be overloaded and prefixed with operator keyword.
 For Ex:
Friend data operator + (data d1,data d2);

1 word Question Answer

Sr No. Question Answer

1. OP is the operator symbol to be overloaded Operator
and prefixed with ________ keyword.

2. _______ function can be used for both Friend

unary and binary operators.

Q-6 Explain this pointer (*this).

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 Normally the member function of a class is invoked, by some object of the class.
 C++ has keyword this pointer to represent an object that invokes a member
function. Thus, member function of every object has access to a pointer named
this, which points to the object itself. It represented as *this.
 This pointer can be treated like any other pointer to an object.
 Using this pointer, any member function can find out the address of the object of
which it is a member.

1 word Question Answer

Sr No. Question Answer

1. C++ has keyword ______ pointer to This
represent an object that invokes a member
function.

2. ________ pointer can be treated like any This

other pointer to an object.

Q-7 Explain Type conversion.

 The assignment operator assigns the contents of a variable, the results of an
expression, or a constant to other variable.
 There are three types of data conversion
1) Basic type to class type
2) Class type to basic type
3) One type class to another class type
1) Basic type to class type
 To convert data from a basic type to user defined type.
 The conversion function should be defined in user defined object class in the
form of constructor.
 The constructor can take a single argument whose type is to be converted.
 The syntax:

Constructor (basic type)

{
//body for conversion
}
 Where constructor specifies the same name as class in which it belongs.
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 It has only one argument of basic type.

 Conversion from basic type to class type is possible in following two ways.
 1. Using Constructor
 2. Using Operator

1. Using Constructor

 We can use constructor to perform type conversion during the object creation.
 To achieve that we have implemented one constructor function which accepts
 one argument.

2. Using Operator Overloading

 We can also achieve type conversion by operator overloading. We can overload

assignment operator for this purpose.
 By using overloaded assignment operator we can perform the type conversion at
any place in program.
2) class type to basic type
 Constructor function does not support the operation of class to basic type.
 In case of user defined data type conversion.
 The operator function is defined as an overloaded basic data type which has no
any arguments.
 It returns converted data member object to basic data type.
 Syntax:
Operator basictype ()
{
//code for conversion
}

 According to above syntax the operator is the keyword.

 Basic type specifies any primitive data type such as int, char, float double etc.
 The conversion function must satisfy the following conditions :-
 It must be a class member.
 It must not specify the return value even though it returns the value.
 It must not have any argument.
3) One class to another class type
 The c++ compiler does not support data conversion between object to two user
define classes.
 However the conversion of class type to basic type and basic type to class type
can be performed either by operator conversion function or constructor.
 Ex:
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Classa obja;
Classb objb;
Obja=objb;
 Where obja is the object of classa and objb is the object classb.
 The class classa type is converted to the class classb and converted value is
assigned to the obja.
 In this type of conversion both the type that is source type and the destination
type are of class type. Means the source type is of class type and the destination
type is also of the class type. In other words, one class data type is converted into
the another class type.
 Conversion from one class to another class can be performed in following two
ways

1. Using constructor
2. Using type conversion function

1. Using constructor

 Following is the example to show how constructor is used for conversion from
one class type to another class type.

2. Using type conversion function

 Following is the example to show how type conversion is used for conversion
from one class type to another class type.

1 word Question Answer

Sr No. Question Answer

1. The conversion function should be defined Constructor
in user defined object class in the form
of________.

2. Constructor function does not support the class to basic type

operation of_________.

3. The c++ compiler does not support data object to two user
conversion between _______.
define classes
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Q-8 What is inheritance?

 Inheritance is the process of creating new classes, called derived classes, from
existing classes, which are often called base classes.
 The derived class inherits all the capabilities of the base class and it can also add
new features of its own. But here base class remain unchanged.

variable A

variable B

variable
C

Derived
Class
variable D

variable A

variable B

variable
 As shown in above figure the base Cclass has there features (A,B,C). The derived class has
three features of base class and adds its own features (D). The arrow represents the
direction of derivation.
 Here, its direction from the derived class towards the base class. It represents that
derived class access features of the base class not vice-versa.
 This inheritance mode is used mostly. In this the protected member of Base class
becomes protected members of Derived class and public becomes public.
 class derivedclass: public baseclass

Access specifier Access specifier when Access specifier when Access specifier when
in base class inherited publicly inherited privately inherited protectedly

Public Public Private Protected

Protected Protected Private Protected

Private Inaccessible Inaccessible Inaccessible

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 Derived class of Derived Classes: If we are inheriting a derived class using a public
inheritance as shown below
 class B : public A
 class C : public B
 then public and protected members of class A will be accessible in class C as public and
protected respectively.
 There are different types of inheritance:
1) Single Inheritance
2) Multiple Inheritance
3) Multilevel Inheritance
4) Hierarchical Inheritance
5) Hybrid (Virtual) Inheritance
1. Single Inheritance
 Single inheritance represents a form of inheritance when there is only one base class and
one derived class. For example, a class describes a Person:

2. Multiple Inheritance
 Multiple inheritance represents a kind of inheritance when a derived class inherits
properties of multiple classes. For example, there are three classes A, B and C and derived
class is D as shown below:
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3. Multilevel Inheritance
 Multilevel inheritance represents a type of inheritance when a Derived class is a base class
for another class. In other words, deriving a class from a derived class is known as multi-
level inheritance. Simple multi-level inheritance is shown in below image where Class A is a
parent of Class B and Class B is a parent of Class C

4. Hierarchical Inheritance
 When there is a need to create multiple Derived classes that inherit properties of the same
Base class is known as Hierarchical inheritance

[Link] Inheritance
 Combination of Multi-level and Hierarchical
inheritance will give you Hybrid inheritance.

B C
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 Virtual Inheritance
 We can avoid Diamond problem easily with Virtual Inheritance. Child classes in this case
should inherit Grandparent class by using virtual inheritance:
 Constructor in derived class
 When a default or parameterized constructor of a derived class is called, the default
constructor of a base class is called automatically. As you create an object of a derived class,
first the default constructor of a base class is called after that constructor of a derived class
is called.
 When multiple inheritance is used, default constructors of base classes are called in the
order as they are in inheritance list. For example, when a constructor of derived class is
called:
 Destructor in derived class
 Deleting a derived class object using a pointer to a base class that has a non-virtual
destructor results in undefined behaviour. To correct this situation, the base class should be
defined with a virtual destructor. For example, following program results in undefined
behaviour.
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 Making base class destructor virtual guarantees that the object of derived class is
destructed properly, i.e., both base class and derived class destructors are called.

1 word Question Answer

Sr No. Question Answer

1. ________is the process of creating new Inheritance
classes, called derived classes, from existing
classes, which are often called base classes.

2. ________ inheritance represents a form of Single

inheritance when there is only one base
class and one derived class.

3. ________inheritance represents a kind of Multiple

inheritance when a derived class inherits
properties of multiple classes.

4. ________inheritance represents a type of Multilevel

inheritance when a Derived class is a base
class for another class.

5. When there is a need to create multiple Derived Hierarchical

classes that inherit properties of the same Base
class is known as ________ inheritance.

6. Combination of Multi-level and Hierarchical Hybrid

inheritance will give you ________ inheritance.

Topic: Virtual base class

 Virtual base classes are used in virtual inheritance in a way of preventing multiple
“instances” of a given class appearing in an inheritance hierarchy when using multiple
inheritances.
 Need for Virtual Base Classes:
Consider the situation where we have one class A .This class is A is inherited by two other
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classes B and C. Both these class are inherited into another in a new class D as shown in
figure below.

 As we can see from the figure that data members/function of class A are inherited twice to
class D.
 One through class B and second through class C. When any data / function member of
class A is accessed by an object of class D, ambiguity arises as to which data/function
member would be called?
 One inherited through B or the other inherited through C. This confuses compiler and it
displays error.

Example: To show the need of Virtual Base Class in C++

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

class A {
public:
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void show()
{
cout << "Hello form A \n";
}
};

class B : public A {
};

class C : public A {
};

class D : public B, public C {

};

int main()
{
D object;
[Link]();
}
Compile Errors:
[Link]: In function 'int main()':

[Link]:9: error: request for member 'show' is ambiguous

[Link]();

[Link]:8: note: candidates are: void A::show()

void show()

[Link]:8: note: void A::show()

 How to resolve this issue?

To resolve this ambiguity when class A is inherited in both class B and class C, it is declared
as virtual base class by placing a keyword virtual as :
 Syntax for Virtual Base Classes:

Syntax 1:

class B : virtual public A

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};

Syntax 2:

class C : public virtual A

};

 Note: virtual can be written before or after the public. Now only one copy of
data/function member will be copied to class C and class B and class A becomes the
virtual base class.
 Virtual base classes offer a way to save space and avoid ambiguities in class
hierarchies that use multiple inheritances.
 When a base class is specified as a virtual base, it can act as an indirect base more
than once without duplication of its data members.
 A single copy of its data members is shared by all the base classes that use virtual
base.

1 word Question Answer

Sr No. Question Answer

1. _______ classes are used in virtual inheritance Virtual base
in a way of preventing multiple “instances” of a
given class appearing in an inheritance
hierarchy when using multiple inheritances.

Topic: Abstract Classes

 Abstract classes act as expressions of general concepts from which more specific classes can
be derived. You cannot create an object of an abstract class type; however, you can use
pointers and references to abstract class types.
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 A class that contains at least one pure virtual function is considered an abstract class.
Classes derived from the abstract class must implement the pure virtual function or they,
too, are abstract classes.
 Consider the example presented in Virtual Functions. The intent of class Account is to
provide general functionality, but objects of type Account are too general to be useful.
Therefore, Account is a good candidate for an abstract class:

// deriv_AbstractClasses.cpp
// compile with: /LD
class Account {
public:
Account( double d ); // Constructor.
virtual double GetBalance(); // Obtain balance.
virtual void PrintBalance() = 0; // Pure virtual function.
private:
double _balance;
};

 The only difference between this declaration and the previous one is that Print Balance is
declared with the pure specifier (= 0).

Topic: Constructor in derived class

 The derived class need not have a constructor as long as the base class has no-argument
constructor.
 However, if the base class has constructors with arguments (one or more), then it is
mandatory for the derived class to have a constructor and pass the arguments to the base
class constructor.
 When an object of a base class is created, the constructor of the base class is executed first
and later the constructor of the derived class.
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1 word Question Answer

Sr No. Question Answer

1. You cannot create an object of an abstract abstract class
class type; however, you can use pointers
and references to _______ types.

Topic: Containership
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 We can create an object of one class into another and that object will be a member of the
class.
 This type of relationship between classes is known as containership or has_a relationship as
one class contain the object of another class.
 And the class which contains the object and members of another class in this kind of
relationship is called a container class.
 The object that is part of another object is called contained object, whereas object that
contains another object as its part or attribute is called container object.
 Difference between containership and inheritance
 Containership
-> When features of existing class are wanted inside your new class, but, not its interface
for eg->
1) computer system has a hard disk
2) car has an Engine, chassis, steering wheels.
 Inheritance
-> When you want to force the new type to be the same type as the base class.
for eg->
1)computer system is an electronic device
2)Car is a vehicle

1 word Question Answer

Sr No. Question Answer

1. class which contains the object and container class
members of another class in this kind of
relationship is called a _________.

2. We can create an object of one class into containership

another and that object will be a member of the
[Link] type of relationship between
classes is known as _________.