Chemical Engineering Insights

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ChemE
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CONCEPTS
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MADE EASY!

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 Chemical Engineering Insights

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WHAT ARE
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FLUID
O

FLOW
OPERATIONS ?

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FLUID FLOW OPERATIONS

Fluid Flow Operations involve the study and application of how fluids (liquids
and gases) behave under various conditions of flow. It’s a core concept in
chemical engineering and mechanical operations, used in designing and
analyzing processes involving transportation, pumping, mixing, and pressure
control of fluids.

With the understanding of FFO, you can :

Design efficient pumping and piping systems

Optimize fluid transport in industries (oil & gas, water treatment, chemical plants)
Predict pressure drops, flow rates, and energy requirements
Analyze and troubleshoot flow-related equipment like valves, compressors, and
turbines
Model multiphase flows, like gas-liquid or solid-liquid systems

FLUID MECHANICS
Fluid Mechanics is the scientific study of fluids and the forces on
them. It forms the theoretical foundation for all fluid flow operations.

FLUID DYNAMICS FLUID STATICS

Branch of fluid mechanics Branch of fluid mechanics that
that studies fluids in motion. deals with fluids at rest. It
It examines how fluids flow, focuses on understanding how
the forces that affect them, pressure is distributed in a fluid
and how they interact with and how that pressure acts on
their surroundings during surfaces in contact with the
movement. fluid.

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WHY FLUID FLOWS?

PRESSURE DIFFERENCE!
Fluid flow occurs because of a pressure difference. Fluids always move from
a region of higher pressure to a region of lower pressure. This pressure
gradient creates the driving force for movement, and the flow continues until
the pressure becomes uniform.

HIGH PRESSURE
-: A COMMON EXAMPLE :-
Water flowing from a tap—inside the
pipe, the pressure is higher, and once
the tap is opened, water moves toward
the lower-pressure region (the open air)
and flows out.
LOW PRESSURE

WHAT IS PRESSURE?
Pressure is the force exerted per unit area, and “ As you go deeper into a fluid, the
in fluids, this force acts equally in all directions. pressure increases due to the
weight of the fluid above.“

P= F
-: A COMMON EXAMPLE :- |
When someone dives
deeper into a swimming A
pool, the pressure on their
body increases, which is Formula for pressure is force
why they might feel it in divided by area, indicating how
their ears. concentrated that force is over
a specific surface.

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 Chemical Engineering Insights

UNDERSTANDING :

FLUID
FLOW
BEHAVIOUR

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FLUID FLOW BEHAVIOUR

Fluid flow behavior refers to how fluids respond when
subjected to external forces, particularly shear forces.

NEWTON’S LAW OF VISCOSITY

Fluid Flow Behavior is fundamentally described by Newton’s law of viscosity.
According to this law, the shear stress (𝜏) in a fluid is directly proportional to the
shear rate or velocity gradient (du/dy), and the proportionality constant is the
dynamic viscosity (𝜇). Mathematically, it is expressed as:

is the shear stress in Pascal (Pa)

is the viscosity in Pa·s
represents the velocity gradient
perpendicular to the direction of flow.

NEWTONIAN FLUIDS STRICTLY FOLLOW THIS RELATIONSHIP, MAINTAINING A

CONSTANT VISCOSITY REGARDLESS OF HOW FAST OR SLOW THEY ARE DEFORMED.

NON NEWTONIAN FLUIDS

Non-Newtonian fluids deviate from
this law, and their flow behavior is
often described by the power-law is the flow consistency index
model, which is given by: is the flow behavior index

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NON NEWTONIAN FLUIDS

Non-Newtonian fluids are fluids whose viscosity is not constant and changes with the
applied shear rate or shear stress. They exhibit a more complex flow behavior, their
resistance to flow can increase or decrease depending on how much force is applied.

n=1 Newtonian Fluid

n<1 Pseudoplastic
(shear-thinning)

n>1 Dilatant
(shear-thickening)

Bingham Plastic Fluid

Behave like a solid until a certain

yield stress is exceeded.

Thixotropic Fluid Rheopactic Fluid

(time-thinning) (time-thickening)

Decrease in viscosity over time when Increase in viscosity over time under
subjected to constant shear stress. constant shear stress.

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ANALOGY BETWEEN

MASS
HEAT &

MOMENTUM
TRANSFER

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ANALOGY BETWEEN TRANSPORT PHENOMENON

MOMENTUM MASS HEAT
TRANSFER TRANSFER TRANSFER
Newton’s law of Viscosity Fick’s Law of Diffusion Fourier’s law of Conduction

- Sheer Stress - Molar Flux - Heat Flux

- Viscosity - Diffusivity - Thermal Conductivity
- velocity - Concentration - Temperature
- Net Movement in - Net Movement in - Net Movement in
Momentum Molecular direction of Diffusion Thermal
direction of fluid flow direction of Heat Transfer
Diffusivity Diffusivity Diffusivity

DRIVING FORCE & RESISTANCE TERMS

Velocity Gradient Concentration Temperature Gradient

between coordinates Gradient between two between two points in
in spacial directions differernt materials a body

VISCOUS RESISTANCE DIFFUSIONAL RESISTANCE THERMAL RESISTANCE

Due to analogous behavior the material balance, momentum balance and energy balance on complex
geometries can be performed easily by understanding in depth only one system.

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IMPORTANT DIMENSIONLESS NUMBER

Re Reynolds
Number Fr Froude
Number

Ma Mach
Number Eu Euler
Number

We Weber
Number

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UNDERSTANDING :

FLUID FLOW
EQUATIONS
CONTNUITY BERNOULLI
NAVIER–STOKES

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CONTINUITY EQUATION
The Continuity Equation is a fundamental principle derived from the conservation of
mass in a fluid system. It states that mass cannot be created or destroyed as a fluid
flows through a control volume or along a streamline. This applies to both compressible
and incompressible fluids, under steady or unsteady conditions.

General Form ( Compressible Flow ) - ρ(x,y,z,t): fluid density

- (u,v,w): velocity vector

- divergence of mass flux

- local rate of change of density

Expanded Form (in Cartesian Coordinates)

Simplified Form (Incompressible Flow)

For steady, incompressible flow in a pipe or duct:

- Cross-sectional area - Average velocity

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BERNOULLI’S EQUATION
Bernoulli’s Equation is a statement of the conservation of mechanical energy for a
flowing fluid. It assumes that the sum of pressure energy, kinetic energy, and potential
energy per unit weight of fluid remains constant along a streamline, under ideal
conditions.

Ideal Bernoulli Equation :

Pressure Kinetic Grav.

Head Head Head

Energy Form :

With Head Loss (Real Fluids) :

head loss due to

viscous friction
or fittings

Common in pipe flow analysis (Darcy-Weisbach relation)

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NAVIER–STOKES EQUATION
The Navier–Stokes Equation represents the application of Newton's Second Law to fluid
motion, incorporating the effects of viscous forces, pressure forces, and external body
forces. It describes how the velocity field of a fluid evolves over time and space.

General Vector Form (Incompressible Flow) :

Pressure Viscous force Body

Total ( local + convective ) force per (momentum force
unit volume diffusion) (gravity)
acceleration

Assumptions :
Newtonian fluid (linear
relationship between stress
and strain rate)
Constant viscosity μ
∇
Incompressible flow ( v=0)
Continuum approximation
valid
Body forces typically due to
gravity

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FLUID FLOW EQUATIONS

APPLICATIONS AND DERIVATIONS

HAGEN–POISEUILLE EQUATION
Derived from Navier–Stokes for fully developed,
steady, laminar flow in a circular pipe.

VENTURIMETER
From Bernoulli + Continuity:

➤ Assumptions:
Steady, incompressible, laminar flow
Newtonian fluid
Axisymmetric flow Used for measuring flow rate based on
No-slip condition at wall pressure difference between two pipe
Flow is driven by pressure gradient sections

TORRICELLI’S THEOREM DARCY–WEISBACH EQUATION

Derived from Bernoulli's equation for flow from a Derived using Bernoulli + empirical
tank (no velocity at top, open to atmosphere) correction for viscous loss

This equation quantifies how much mechanical

energy per unit weight (head) is lost due to
frictional dissipation as fluid flows through a pipe.

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UNDERSTANDING :

FLOW THROUGH
PIPE PLATE & FLAT

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BOUNDARY LAYER
The Boundary Layer is the thin layer of fluid near a solid surface where the effects of
viscosity are significant, and fluid velocity (or temperature) transitions from the value at
the surface to the value in the free stream.

There are two types of boundary layers:

THERMAL BOUNDARY LAYER
The thermal boundary layer is the region near
HYDRODYNAMIC
the wall where temperature changes from the
BOUNDARY LAYER wall temperature to the fluid temperature.
The hydrodynamic
boundary layer is the
thin region near a solid
surface where fluid
velocity changes from
zero (due to the no-slip
condition) to the free-
stream velocity.

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FLOW THORUGH PIPE

HYDRODYNAMIC BOUNDARY LAYER

THERMAL BOUNDARY LAYER

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FLOW THORUGH A FLAT PLATE

HYDRODYNAMIC BOUNDARY LAYER

THERMAL BOUNDARY LAYER

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REYNOLDS NUMBER
FOR PIPE FOR FLAT PLATE

- pipe flow velocity - inviscid flow velocity

- diameter of the pipe - distance from boundary layer

separation point

Transition Re Range : 2100 - 4000 Transition Re Range : 105 - 3 x 106

ENTRY LENGTH
Entry length is the distance from the pipe inlet required for the flow to fully develop
(velocity and/or thermal profile becomes stable).

Laminar flow:

Hydrodynamic Thermal
B.L. Length B.L. Length
Turbulent flow:

Entry lengths are much shorter due to rapid mixing.

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UNDERSTANDING :

FLOW
RESISTANCE
AND

RICTION
FACTOR

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SHEAR STRESS IN PIPE FLOW

Shear stress is the tangential force per unit area exerted by a fluid as it moves along a
surface. In pipe flow, it is highest at the wall and zero at the centre. It represents the
internal friction within the fluid due to viscosity.

SHEAR STRESS VELOCITY

DISTRIBUTION DISTRIBUTION

For a Laminar flow in a Pipe :-

VELOCITY PROFILE
SHEAR STRESS PROFILE

AVERAGE VELOCITY

Velocity at
Centre

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FRICTION FACTOR
The friction factor is a dimensionless number that quantifies the resistance to flow due
to friction within a pipe or conduit. It is used in fluid dynamics to estimate pressure drop
or head loss caused by the interaction between the moving fluid and the pipe walls.

DARCY/MOODY FANNING
FRICTION FACTOR FRICTION FACTOR
It is used to represent resistance to flow due The Fanning friction factor is another form
to friction inside a pipe. It quantifies how of friction factor that expresses shear
much pressure loss occurs due to wall shear stress per unit dynamic pressure. It is
stress in fully developed flow. commonly used in chemical engineering
and heat transfer literature.

FOR DIFERRENT FLOW REGIMES: Relation to Darcy Factor:

DIFFERENT EQUATIONS &

DIFFERENT TRENDS
Fanning’s Definition in Terms of Shear Stress:

IT APPEARS IN :-

DARCY–WEISBACH EQUATION

Head Loss in terms of

fluid characteristics,
flow characteristics &
Friction Factor

NOTE : Always check which friction factor definition is being used (Darcy
vs Fanning), as using the wrong one can lead to incorrect pressure drop or
design calculations.

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MOODY CHART
The Moody Diagram (also called the Moody Chart) is a graphical tool that helps
engineers determine the friction factor for fluid flow in pipes — a key parameter for
calculating pressure drop and head loss using the Darcy–Weisbach equation.

Turbulent Flow
Laminar Flow Transition Flow (Re > 4000)
(Re < 2000) (4000> Re > 2000)
Unpredictable, not
well-defined.
Moody Chart
Colebrook–White Equation (implicit)
Can be predicted using.
Swamee–Jain Equation (explicit approximation)

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UNDERSTANDING :

FLUID FLOW
REAL
IN

SYSTEMS
EXPANSIONS ,
BENDS & LOSSES

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WHY ARE REAL SYSTEMS DIFFERENT?

In fluid mechanics, many introductory problems assume ideal conditions—smooth,
straight pipes with uniform cross-sections, steady flow, and fully developed velocity
profiles. Under these assumptions, flow behavior can be predicted fairly accurately
using classical equations like Darcy-Weisbach for head loss due to friction.

REAL PIPING SYSTEMS are far NOT ALWAYS

more COMPLEX because: APPLICABLE

PIPE GEOMETRY VARIES

TURBULENCE & FLOW SEPARATION

EXPANSIONS, CONTRACTIONS,
Bends and fittings generate
BENDS, VALVES, REDUCERS,
turbulence and secondary
TEES, AND OTHER FITTINGS.
flows, increasing friction
These geometric changes create flow and pressure drop.
disturbances, eddies, separations, and
secondary flows that increase energy loss.
OPERATIONAL
NON- VARIATIONS
UNIFORM
VELOCITY Flow rates may
PROFILES fluctuate & Temperature
and pressure changes
affect fluid properties
Because of this non-uniformity, and flow behaviour.
average velocity doesn’t fully represent
kinetic energy or momentum carried by
the fluid, requiring correction factors.
Pipe walls are never perfectly smooth;
surface roughness adds to resistance.
SURFACE ROUGHNESS
& MATERIAL EFFECTS Corrosion, scaling, or deposits can
worsen flow conditions.

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KINETIC ENERGY CORRECTION FACTOR (𝛼)

Due to the non-uniform velocity profile in a pipe, the average velocity squared (vˉ^2)
does not accurately represent the average kinetic energy per unit volume of the fluid.

for Perfectly Laminar

Highly turbulent flow

MOMENTUM CORRECTION FACTOR (𝛽)

Similarly, the momentum correction factor β accounts for the fact that momentum flux,
which depends on velocity squared, is not uniform across the pipe cross-section.

for a fully turbulent flow

for Laminar flow

for deviation of velocity

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SUDDEN EXPANSION / CONTRACTION

Sb TOTAL HEAD LOSS

Sa
va vb

form friction /
skin friction
A B

coefficient of coefficient of
applying continuity eqn.; sudden expansion sudden contraction

applying Bernoulli's eqn.;

for laminar flow;

for Expansion :

velocity is
about
Vena Contracta
EXPANSION

d D d

CONTRACTION

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LOSSES DUE TO FITTINGS IN PIPING

In real piping, minor losses caused by fittings, valves, bends, and other components
contribute significantly to total energy loss.

To account for these, engineers use the equivalent length method:

Every fitting’s loss is converted into an equivalent length of straight pipe that would
cause the same friction loss.
The total pipe length for friction loss calculations becomes:

Elements in Piping HEAD LOSS DUE TO

PIPE FRICTION

Add along with

pipeline length
- PIPE FRICTION FACTOR
Tees, Bends, Valves & Strainers and evaluate
overall pipe length - PIPE DIAMETER

Equivalent Length (L eq) - EFFECTIVE PIPE LENGTH

- VELOCITY

Already
FRICTION
Tabulated Data
FACTOR Turbulent Flow Regime
from text

Laminar flow Regime

DATA IN SUBSEQUENT PAGES >>

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REFERENCE
BOOK

Rules of thumb for

Chemical Engineers
CARL BRANAN

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UNDERSTANDING :

FLOW
METERS

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MEASUREMENT OF
FLOWING FLUIDS
Why Measure Flow? TYPES OF FLOW
MEASURED
In process industries and fluid systems, accurate
measurement of fluid flow is essential for: Volumetric
Flowrate
Mass/energy balance calculations Velocity
Inferred from
Process control and optimization
pressure / force /
Billing and custody transfer Mass Flow temperature
Leak detection and maintenance scheduling Rate changes or
directly measured

Flowmeters can be classified based on design and measurement approach:

FULL-BORE INSERTION
FLOWMETERS FLOWMETERS
These occupy the full cross-section of the
pipe and are suitable for all fluids in the line These measure flow rate or velocity at a
(liquids, gases, slurries). They give a specific point (usually near the centerline)
totalized and averaged flow measurement. and are inserted into the pipeline or duct.

Examples: Examples:
Venturimeter Turbine meter Pitot tube Vortex shedding
Orifice meter Coriolis meter Thermal mass probe insertion type
V-Cone meter Ultrasonic (transit- Insertion MAG meter Paddlewheel or
Magnetic flow meter time or Doppler) propeller probe
(MAG)

NOTE: For non-uniform velocity profiles, insertion meters may require multiple-point measurements or calibration.

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SELECTION CRITERIA
APPLICABILITY RANGEABILITY
(FLUID TYPE & CONDITION) (TURNDOWN RATIO)
This is the ratio between the maximum
Clean Liquids → Turbine, Ultrasonic, Magnetic
and minimum measurable flow rates.
Dirty/Viscous Liquids→ Coriolis, Target, Vortex Flowmeter Type Rangeability
Slurries/Pulp → Magnetic, V-Cone
Gases → Orifice, Vortex Orifice ~3 :1 (practical)

~20–30 :1 (usable
Magnetics ≈10 :1 practice)
INSTALLATION Rotameter 5–12 :1
CONSIDERATIONS

- Straight pipe length availability

Venturi-meters and vortex meters require ACCURACY
more upstream/downstream lengths REQUIREMENTS
- Accessibility and size
Insertion meters are easier to retrofit on large Choose based on how critical the flow
pipelines measurement is:

Flowmeter Type Accuracy

- Orientation (horizontal/vertical)
Some meters (rotameters, turbine) have Orifice ±2–4 %
orientation limitations
Rotameter ±1.6–5 %
- Maintenance
Full-bore meters (esp. ultrasonic, magnetic) For custody transfer or chemical
have fewer moving parts dosing, higher accuracy (e.g., Coriolis)
is needed.

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VENTURIMETER

Coeff. of
Discharge

A Venturimeter is a device with a gradually narrowing throat, installed in a pipeline.

As fluid enters the throat, velocity increases and pressure decreases.
By measuring this pressure difference, flow rate can be calculated.

Bernoulli's Equation for Incompressible fluids;

FLOWRATE
EQUATION

: throat area
Venturi
:
Coeff.
for to account
for pressure
losses

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ORIFICEMETER
An orifice meter is a
differential pressure flow
meter that measures fluid
flow rate by introducing a
sharp-edged orifice plate into
the flow path, causing a
measurable pressure drop.

The fluid’s pressure drops as it passes

through the orifice due to an increase in
Coeff. of
velocity, and this pressure difference is
Discharge used to calculate the flow rate.

V-ELEMENT
METER
FLOWRATE
EQUATION
A V-element/Cone Meter is like a venturimeter but has
a cone in the center instead of a narrow throat. Creates : throat area
a stable, low-pressure area downstream of the cone.
Orifice
:
Coeff.
to account
for pressure
losses

Coeff. of Distances of Manometer Tapings from orifice plate

Discharge

Needs less straight pipe length; good for dirty or Distance of Distance of
turbulent flows. Upstream Tap DownstreamTap

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ROTAMETER
(VARIABLE AREA METER)

A Rotameter has a vertical tapered tube with a float

inside. Flow lifts the float till the upward force (drag)
equals the float’s weight.

Flow rate is proportional to the float’s height.

ΔP Constant Area Varies

Coeff. of
Discharge

A target meter is a type of flow meter that

measures the flow rate of fluids (liquids or gases)
by measuring the force exerted on a target placed
within the flow stream

Good for: Slurries or dirty fluids.

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VORTEX SHEDDING METER

A vortex shedding flow meter, is a
device used to measure the flow
rate of fluids (liquids, gases, and
steam) in a pipe by utilizing the
phenomenon of vortex shedding.

When a fluid flows around a bluff

body (an obstruction in the flow
path), it creates a series of
swirling vortices (eddies)
downstream.

TURBINE FLOW METER

Turbine flow meters use
the mechanical energy of
the liquid to rotate a rotor
within the flow stream.
The rotational speed is
directly proportional to
the velocity of the fluid
traveling through the
meter.

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POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT METER

Positive displacement (PD) flow meters are volumetric flow meters that measure fluid flow
by directly measuring the volume of fluid passing through the meter in discrete segments.

*(Relatively Expensive)
e.g. Nutating Disk, Oscillating Piston, Sliding Vane etc.

MAGNETIC METER
A Magnetic flow meter's sensor is
placed inline and measures an
induced voltage generated by the
fluid as it flows through a pipe. The
transmitter takes the voltage
generated by the sensor, converts
the voltage into a flow measurement
and transmits that flow
measurement to a control system.

Conducting fluid moves through a magnetic field → induces voltage across electrodes.

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CORIOLIS FLOW METER

The Coriolis flow meter works based on the Coriolis effect, which arises when a mass
moves within a rotating or vibrating system. In this meter:

Fluid flows through one or more vibrating tubes.

The tubes are vibrated at a natural frequency by an external driver.
When fluid flows through these vibrating tubes, the Coriolis force acts on
the moving fluid particles, causing a measurable twisting or phase shift in
the tube vibrations.

This twisting effect is directly related to the mass flow rate of the fluid.

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 Chemical Engineering Insights

UNDERSTANDING :

FLUID
FLOWING
MACHINERIES
PUMPS, COMPRESSORS,
FANS & BLOWERS

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FLUID FLOWING MACHINERIES

Fluid flowing machineries are mechanical devices designed to handle the movement of
fluids (liquids or gases) by adding energy to the system, either to transport the fluid or to
increase its pressure, velocity, or both.

WHY THEY ARE USED?

- Transportation of fluids - Increasing system pressure
moving fluids from one location to another raising pressure or energy levels in a fluid system

WHEN TO USE WHAT?

PUMPS
Mainly used
for Pressure
Increase

Mainly used for

Transportation
BLOWERS
Liquid Application

FANS

Gas/Vapor
Application

Mainly used for

OMPRESSORS
Pressure Increase C

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FANS BLOWERS
A fan is a fluid machinery device that moves A blower is a device that moves air or gas
air or gas at low pressure to create airflow. with a moderate pressure increase, higher
than a fan but lower than a compressor.
It operates by imparting mechanical energy
(typically using rotating blades) to the air, It provides airflow at higher velocity and
causing it to move. moderate pressure, suitable for
applications like pneumatic conveying or
combustion air supply.
PRESSURE OFFERED :
few mm PRESSURE OFFERED :
Mainly used for
or inches few mm
Transportation Mainly used for
of water inches of
column Transportation
EXAMPLES : Hg
Draft fans for column
EXAMPLES :
induced/forced draft in
cooling towers & Forced air delivery, small
Furnaces, Industrial compression, Air Blowers
Exhaust fans etc. for Dryers etc.
C.R.

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COMPRESSORS
A compressor is a fluid-flow machine that increases the pressure of a gas significantly by
reducing its volume. It is used for applications where high-pressure gas or air is needed.

Mainly used for PRESSURE OFFERED :

Pressure Rise
C.R. (Compression
Ratio ) hundreds of
thousands
of Pascals
Pout T out
atmospheric n times
COMPRESSOR
pressure atmospheric
pressure Vout
T ~ 34-35 °C T > 200 °C

Pin Tin C.R.

Vin
Positive displacement
moves fluid by trapping a fixed volume in a chamber and
then forcing (displacing) it out to the discharge pipe
TYPES : ( e.g. piston, screw )
Dynamic
imparts kinetic energy to the fluid
using a rotating impeller or blades.
( e.g. centrifugal, axial )

Applications: Refrigeration, gas pipelines, pneumatic tools, SCBA tanks etc.

Note: Compressors operate on the principle of gas compressibility — as

volume decreases, pressure increases (Boyle’s Law).

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PUMPS
A pump is a machine used to transfer liquids by increasing their pressure or elevation
(head), enabling them to move through a system.

Mainly used for PRESSURE OFFERED :

Pressure Rise +
DENSITY OF THE FLUID DOESN’T CHANGE
hundreds of
Liquid Transport
thousands
of Pascals
Discharge
Pressure
Suction PUMP
Pressure Pout

Pin

Positive displacement
moves fluid by trapping a fixed volume in a chamber and
then forcing (displacing) it out to the discharge pipe
TYPES : ( e.g. gear, piston)
Dynamic
imparts kinetic energy to the fluid
using a rotating impeller or blades.
( e.g. centrifugal, axial )

Applications: Water supply, oil transport, chemical dosing, sewage systems etc.

Note: Pumps add energy (usually mechanical) to liquid to

overcome system resistance, not to compress it.

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 Chemical Engineering Insights

UNDERSTANDING :

PUMPS

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WHAT IS A PUMP ?
A pump is a mechanical device designed to move fluids (liquids,
slurries, or mixtures of liquids and solids) by mechanical action.

It converts mechanical energy from a motor, engine, or other

prime mover into hydraulic energy (pressure energy, kinetic
energy, or both) in the fluid.

Why are they used ?

- Transport fluids from one point to another.
- Increase fluid pressure to meet process requirements.
- Overcome system resistance due to friction, elevation, or equipment.

Where are they used ?

- Oil & Gas POSITIVE

- Chemical Processing
DISPLACEMENT
- Water Treatment
- food & beverage PUMPS
- pharmaceuticals

INDUSTRY What are the types?

SPECIALIZED
- Water supply SYSTEMS
- Wastewater treatment - Firefighting DYNAMIC
- Marine ballast
- HVAC systems
- Irrigation PUMPS
INFRASTRUCTURE

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POSITIVE ROTARY PUMPS internal or external

DISPLACEMENT Pump that uses rotating
elements (gears, lobes, vanes, or
gears, oils, fuels

PUMPS screws) to trap fluid and move it VANE

from the suction side to the
These pumps move a discharge side.
PUMP
LOBE GEAR PUMP
fixed volume per cycle.
PUMP
Flow is independent of system
pressure (up to relief valve setting).
Best for high viscosity fluids or fuel handling,
food industry,
applications requiring precise hygienic applications automotive

dosing. SCREW PUMP

low-pulsation flow,

RECIPROCATING lubricating oils

PUMPS Pump where a piston or

plunger moves back and forth

PS
(reciprocates) in a cylinder, sucking fluid in
during the suction stroke and discharging it REGENERATIVE

M
during the delivery stroke PLUNGER TURBINE PUMP
PUMP

PU
very high pressure,
PISTON PUMP small flow
CENTRIFUGAL
A pump that uses PUMPS
F
O
a rotating impeller to impart velocity
to a fluid, converting this velocity
S

industrial high- into pressure head through a volute

PE

pressure services or diffuser casing

MIXED FLOW
TY

DIAPHRAGM PUMP AXIAL FLOW

S
N
ER

very high flow, low balance of head and flow,

corrosive or
TT

head, flood control irrigation, cooling water

abrasive fluids,
PA

slurries,
W

chemicals These pumps impart

O
FL

kinetic energy, which is

converted to pressure
RADIAL FLOW
most common, water
services, process fluids DYNAMIC
PUMPS

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WORKING PRINCIPLE OF PUMP

POSITIVE DYNAMIC
DISPLACEMENT

1 Fluid enters an expanding chamber

(suction stroke).
Impeller blades accelerate
the fluid radially outward. 1
Chamber volume decreases
2 (discharge stroke), pushing
fluid out.

Velocity energy is
converted into
pressure energy in
2
the volute/diffuser

ADVANTAGES: ADVANTAGES:
Handles viscous fluids, precise metering, Simple construction, continuous flow, good
self-priming, can handle entrained gases for large volumes.
(some designs)

LIMITATIONS: LIMITATIONS:

Requires relief protection to prevent Less efficient with viscous fluids, requires
overpressure priming, sensitive to suction conditions

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SELECTION OF A
RIGHT TYPE OF PUMP
✔ If handling water-like fluids → Centrifugal pump
✔ If handling highly viscous fluids → Gear or screw pump
✔ If precise dosing is needed → Reciprocating or peristaltic pump
✔ If high-pressure applications → Reciprocating pump
✔ If continuous smooth flow is needed → Screw pump

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PUMP CURVE
Pump manufacturers provide a pump curve, which is essential for pump selection.

HEAD VS FLOW EFFICIENCY

How to Read a PUMP Curve?
(H-Q CURVE) CURVE
- Choose a pump that operates near
Head decreases as Shows efficiency at BEP → minimal vibration, longer life, and
flow increases. different flow rates. higher efficiency.
"Best Efficiency Point Max efficiency
(BEP)" is the sweet usually at BEP. - Avoid running too far left (low flow,
spot. recirculation) or right (overload,
Power required cavitation).
POWER CURVE: increases with flow.

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PUMP INTERNALS

SHAFT &
VOLUTE CASING IMPELLER BEARINGS
Spiral-shaped casing that Closed: High efficiency, used in clean fluids.
collects fluid from the Open: Better solids handling. Transmit torque
impeller and converts Semi-Open: Compromise between efficiency and maintain
velocity to pressure. and solids handling. alignment.

Series of stationary vanes around MECHANICAL SEALS

DIFFUSER impeller for smoother conversion
Prevent leakage along the shaft.
of velocity to pressure.

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PUMP OPERATION
STARTUP SHUTDOWN
CHECKLIST: PROCEDURE:
Confirm correct Gradually close
rotation direction. discharge valve.
Ensure priming is Stop pump.
done (centrifugal Close suction
pumps must be valve if required.
air-free). Depressurize and
Check lubrication drain if idle for
systems (bearings, long periods.
seals).
Open suction
valves fully before
starting. MONITORING IN SERVICE
Partially open discharge valves To ensure reliable and efficient operation,
for centrifugal pumps to avoid centrifugal pumps must be continuously monitored
overloading motor on start. during service. Some key parameters to watch are:

BEARING TEMPERATURE
Rising temperatures suggest lubrication failure, overloading, or
VIBRATION misalignment. Keep within manufacturer limits.

Excess vibration
indicates
misalignment,
NOISE FLOW & PRESSURE
imbalance, or High-pitched noises Compare against pump Several
cavitation. can indicate cavitation; curve. Deviations may instrumention in
rattling may indicate reveal cause operation place for monitoring
loose components. issues. PT, VT, TT etc.

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UNDERSTANDING P&ID OF A PUMP

FC
L

PRV

Vessel

MCF LINE
LT

HPV
I LI
L
LL
PG
FE FC
FE L

PG

M
P-01A

PG

PG

P-01B
Drain
Valve
System

LPD

A Generic P&ID of a Centrifugal Pump

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MINIMUM CIRCULATION FLOW LINE

Minimum Circulation FC
L
Flow (MCF) is the
lowest flow rate at
which a pump can
operate continuously
without overheating,
cavitation, or
mechanical damage.

MCF LINE
Vessel
Running below this limit
can cause excessive
wear and reduce pump
lifespan.
FE

WHAT IS THE
CONTROLLER
LOGIC?

If the flow drops below the MCF setpoint, the controller opens a
recirculation control valve (typically an automatic bypass valve or a
modulating control valve) to divert flow back to the pump suction or
recirculation line.
Once the main discharge flow recovers above
MCF, the controller closes or modulates the
recirculation valve accordingly.

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 Chemical Engineering Insights

UNDERSTANDING :

NPSH
NET POSITIVE SUCTION HEAD

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 Fluid Flow Operations

WHAT IS NPSH ?
NPSH is the measure of the absolute pressure head at the pump suction compared to the
liquid’s vapor pressure. It determines if the liquid will stay in liquid phase inside the pump.

- PIPE FRICTION FACTOR - EFFECTIVE PIPE LENGTH

- PIPE DIAMETER - VELOCITY

Typically includes:
All together cause a
Elbows &
lot of frictional Strainer
Bends Blinds
losses, How to
Add along with pipeline length and
evaluate overall pipe length
calculate them ? Isolation
Reducer
Valve
Equivalent Length (L eq)
Instrumentation taps
What all is at a
(pressure gauge /
Pump Suction ?
Already transmitter)
Tabulated Data
from text for all Pump
pipe fittings
Suction
why is Pressure
Side written as ‘Head’?

NPSH : NET POSITIVE SUCTION HEAD Pressure is often

expressed as an equivalent
Energy/Volume or liquid column height:
(+) & > Vapor Pressure
Pressure
in terms of
What is Vapor Height Difference.
Pressure?

The pressure at which a

This makes pump
liquid starts boiling (turns
calculations/equations
into vapor) at a given
independent of liquid type
temperature.
(just meters of head).
If pressure < vapor pressure → liquid flashes

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HOW TO CALCULATE NPSH ?

The general Bernoulli equation is:

For NPSH calculation,

it is expressed as
pressure head above
vapor pressure

For a pump taking suction from a tank, NPSH available can be calculated as :

- Atmospheric pressure head Static head (liquid level height

-
above pump centerline) (m)
Pressure on liquid surface in Friction head losses
-
tank (if closed tank, else = 0) - - Vapor pressure head of
in suction piping (m) liquid at temperature

Two Possible Cases :

TANK AT AN ELEVATION PUMP AT AN ELEVATION

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PUMP SELECTION CRITERIA

Always ensure:

Typical margin: 0.5 – 1 m (water service) or

~20–30% for hydrocarbon service.

NPSH Available
(Based on Calculation)
What to do when :

If NPSHa < NPSHr → Cavitation risk

SOLUTIONS:
NPSH Required
Lower pump location (increase static
(Pump-Specific, from
Manufacturer Curve)
suction head).
Reduce friction losses (larger suction
- Determined by pump tests
(usually when 3% head drop line, fewer bends).
occurs due to cavitation). Lower liquid temperature (reduces
- Depends on pump design vapor pressure).
(impeller type, speed, flow). Use inducer impellers or booster
pumps.
- Always given in pump
performance curves.

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 Chemical Engineering Insights

UNDERSTANDING :

STEAM
JET EJECTOR

AN APPLICATION OF
FLUID MECHANICS

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HOW VACUUM IS GENERATED

IN THE PROCESS INDUSTRY?
In chemical, petrochemical, and refining plants, many operations require pressures below
atmospheric. For example, vacuum distillation of crude oil reduces boiling points to avoid
thermal cracking.

Here are the common ways to generate vacuum:

Mechanical Jet Ejectors

Vacuum Pumps (EDUCTORS)

Positive displacement High-pressure motive fluid entrains vapor and non-

(enclosing a volume → expanding → expelling). condensables → accelerates → expands in diffuser →
converts velocity head back into pressure head.
CAN REACH LOW PRESSURES (~1
→ MBAR) BUT MOVING PARTS MEAN
NO MOVING PARTS, HANDLES DIRTY GASES, CAN
RECURRING MAINTENANCE COSTS. →
CREATE VERY DEEP VACUUM (<1 MMHG).

Common Types;
Rotary vane, liquid ring, MOST WIDELY USED IN REFINERIES !!!
screw pumps, roots blowers.

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WHAT IS A JET EJECTOR?

A jet ejector is a device that uses high-pressure motive fluid to create a vacuum by
entraining and compressing low-pressure gases or vapours.
It has no moving parts, making it reliable, simple, and easy to maintain.

CONSTRUCTION OF A JET EJECTOR

Body
Suction
Nozzle
Chamber
Convergent Divergent
MOTIVE Section Section

FLUID

STEAM

Diffuser

DIFFUSER
SUCTION
The mixed stream (steam
A typical steam jet ejector has three sections: + vapours + gases) enters
diffuser.

NOZZLE SUCTION CHAMBER Kinetic energy is

High-pressure motive steam expands Process vapours + non-condensable reconverted into
through a converging-diverging gases at low pressure are entrained pressure.
nozzle. by the high-velocity steam jet.
Discharge pressure is
Converts steam pressure into high Momentum transfer happens → higher than suction, but
velocity jet (supersonic velocity suction fluid gets accelerated. still lower than motive
possible). steam.

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 Fluid Flow Operations
SELECTION How it should be?

OF A MOTIVE Non Reactive to reactor Vapours INERT GAS || STEAM

Less Viscous/ Less Dense
FLUID Easily Pressurizable ₹₹₹ Very Expensive HP Steam readily
available in plants
⟶ Steam Boilers
The small nozzle orifice causes a sharp
pressure drop and a corresponding rise
in velocity.

STEAM P

→
P

→
P KE

→
→
KE

→
P
→

Higher
Further Pressure outlet
Drop due to a pressure
High Venturi/Diffuser
Pressure
Steam
Air is drawn out from
the reactor/vessel and HOW
DOES IT
carried upward with the
motive fluid as a result
of the low-pressure
SUCTION zone created.
WORK?

WORKING PRINCIPLES

➤ Conservation of momentum
P KE
→
→

(steam transfers velocity to entrained fluid)

High/Normal Pressure due ➤ Thermodynamics of expansion

to stagnant vapor/air in
(steam expands rapidly through nozzle)
vessel

➤ Fluid mechanics of entrainment & mixing

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