Chapter One

Why Study Communication?

Communication plays a major role in nearly every aspect of life. Effective communication not
only can help us solve problems but can also improve lives. Communication experts believe that
poor communication is root of many problems and that effective communication is one solution
of these problems. Understanding the theory and principles of good communication, and putting
them into practice, can resolve disputes between friends, countries, management and labor,
teachers and students. Effective communication may not solve all the world’s problems, but it
probably can solve or avoid many of them. Clearly, communication plays a vital role in our lives.
Thus, regardless of your interests and goals, the ability to communicate effectively will enhance
and enrich your life. But learning how to communicate is just as important as learning about
communication.

Studying communication comprehensively offers a number of advantages:

 It can improve the way you see yourself. Knowing how to communicate will increase
your self-confidence.
 It can improve the way others see you. People like communicating with others who can
communicate well.
 It can increase what you know about human relationship. The field of communication
studies includes learning about how people relate to each other and about what type of
communication is appropriate for a given situation.
 It can teach your improvement life skills: studying communication involves learning
important skills that everyone will use at some point in his/her life, such as; problem-
solving, decision-making, conflict resolution, team building, public speaking, etc.
 It can help you exercise your constitutionally guaranteed freedom of speech. Few nations
have a bill of rights that invites people to convey their opinion and ideas, yet freedom of
speech is essential to a democratic form of government.
 It can help you succeed professionally. Look at a job posting in any newspapers will give
you an immediate understanding of communication just as an example.
1
What Is Communication?

Communication comes from the Latin word ‘communicare’, which means ‘to make common’ or
‘to share’.

Scholars have not agreed on their definitions of communication:

 Communication is effective self-expression.

 Communication is the exchange of messages in writing, speaking or images.
 Communication is sharing of information or providing entertainment through words or
speech or other methods.
 Communication is the transfer of information from one person to another.
 Communication is the exchange of meanings between individuals using a common
symbol system.
 Communication is the process whereby one person transmits a message through a
channel to another person, with some effects.

Working Definition

In the broadest sense, communication is the process of sharing ideas, information, and messages
with others in a particular time and place. Communication includes writing and talking as well
as nonverbal communication, such as facial expression, body language, or gesture; visual
communication (the use of images and pictures), such as; painting, photography, video or film,
and electronic communication, such as; telephone calls, electronic mail(e-mail), cable TV or
satellite broadcasts).

Characteristics of Communication

We have seen that defining communication is not an easy task, owing to its inherent complexity.
One way of alleviating such as a problem is to try to describe the features of communication.

a) Communication is the process

Unlike objects, communication is not discrete, static, or solitary. It has no beginning and no
end. As a process, communication exists in time and changes constantly. Considering
2
communication as a process rather than a product means we have to do more than look
simply at the outcome of a communication event. This shift from studying product to
studying process has occurred in number of communication fields within the last 20 years.
For example, the field of written composition has also undergone a recent paradigm shift. In
the past communication scholars and composition teachers focused on the final written
product; today, they recognize that writing is a complex process having many stages and
varying from person to person. Composition teachers now consider various stages in writing
process instead of looking only a final of a paper; such as, prewriting, revision, polishing as
well as a final product. Because communication is a process and is ongoing, it is also occurs
before and after the time when people actually talk to each other.

b) Communication is symbolic

When we say that communication is symbolic, we are referring to the nature of messages
rather than to the process of communicating because if we see communication simply as a
process then we never really get at the important issue of the exchange of meaning. Human
evolution made it possible for us to develop into complex, interesting creatures by
developing our ability to use symbols. Ideas and feelings can be shared only if they are
represented by symbols. Symbols are things that stand for something else. All of our
communication messages have represented by symbols: verbal and non-verbal. The most
familiar and widely studied symbols are linguistic – written and spoken words. Every word
in our language is a verbal symbol that stands for a particular thing or idea. We generally
agree that when we use these words we mean the same thing. For example, when we use the
word ‘chair’, we all agree it refers to something we sit on.

Symbols have freed us from the limitations of the here and now; they allow us to talk about
things and ideas in the absence of any tangible objects. The arbitrary nature of symbols
makes them particularly powerful. Symbols do not have any actual connection to what they
represent. In other words, there is no mystical connection between the word ‘horse’ and the
animal. The connection between the word and things is strictly mentalistic; i.e., the
connection is learned.

3
 Verbal symbols can be even more complicated when they are abstract rather than concrete
because abstract symbols stand for ideas rather than objects. When two people use
abstraction (such as love, beauty, or justice) they often have different meanings for these
words because they have had different experiences with the concept. For example, when
John hears the phrase “a wonderful place to live,” he immediately thinks of living in the
woods far away from any neighbors. To Erin, however, a wonderful place to live is an
apartment on Hollywoood in Los Angeles.

Nonverbal symbols are anything we communicate without using words, such as; facial
expressions, gestures, postures, vocal tones, appearance, so on. As with verbal symbols, we
all attach certain meanings to nonverbal symbols. For example:

 A yawn  we are bored or tired

 A furled brown  it indicates confusion
 Not looking someone in the eyes  we have something to hide.

Generally, it is important to use symbols in communication to imply meanings that the sender
and receiver share with a common symbol system.

c) Communication is contextual

The shared or common symbol system is part of what we refer to when we say that
communication occurs in a context. For example, all English speakers have a certain basic
understanding of the world. Other languages provide different contexts. When we learn a
language, we are learning to name and recognize all those things that our culture feels are worth
attention. Sharing the same basic language – Amharic, Afan Oromo, English, Japanese, Hebrew
– is one way that communication is contextual.

Sharing specialized languages associated with our jobs, hobbies, class and educational level is
another type of context that makes communication possible. Generally, in order for
communication occurs, parties involved have to have a shared vision of what is appropriate in
certain situations.

d) Communication is purposive
4
It is obvious that communication is done for a purpose. This characteristic is also known as
adaptation. Any process exists to achieve some outcomes. In other words, processes are
purposeful and functional. We have some motivation for communicating, even if we are not
consciously aware of it. The purpose of communication is:

 To entertain
 To relate
 To help
 To persuade
 To play
 To discover
e) Communication is two-way

The existence of both a sender and the receiver in a communication activity presupposes that
communication is two – way. Communication researchers have specific terms to describe the
two-way nature of communication exchange. These are:

 Interactive: human interactions in which a source and a receiver exchange messages in a

predictable fashion i.e. a specific message from the sender elicits a predictable response
from the receiver. For example, someone says, “how are you?” the recipient responses “ I
am fine.”
 Transactional: the impact of the first message shapes or affects the nature of the return
messages. For example, when you have conversations with close friends, the very
unpredictability of your topics and the fact that you adjust your next comment to what
your friends say no matter what the reaction of this comment to what has gone before.

By virtue of being two-way, all communication is interactive, but not necessarily transactional.
Only communication situations which allow the participants a full range of possible responses
are transactional.

Types of Communication

5
We can classify communication into three by looking the nature of message. These three primary
types are:

I. Expressive communication

II. Accidental communication

III. Rhetorical communication

I. Expressive communication involves a message that indicates a person’s emotional state,

feelings about something or someone, or well-being at a given time. For example, if a
friend borrows a car and returns it with a large dent in door, you might voice words that
cannot be written here. You might even use gestures that not match your words.

Intention or forethought may or may not be a component of expressive communication. For

example, if you want to express “liking” for another person, you might intentionally,
purposefully hug that person. On the other hand, expressive communication can be
unintentional and spontaneous. It often occurs when people are caught by surprise. Some
believes that expressive communication reveals people’s true feelings about relationships
with the other person.

II. Accidental communication involves a message that unintentionally stimulates

something in the mind of other people, sometimes a meaning the sender does not want
them to have. It occurs when individuals are not consciously and with forethought
controlling their verbal and non-verbal behaviors. Hence, those who observe the behavior
will attribute meaning to it when the sender had no intention of stimulating a meaning. It
occurs more frequently than the sender would like. People should be more conscious and
attentive to what they might be communicating/ accidentally to others.

III. Rhetorical communication is intentional, purposeful and goal-directed. It is concerned

with stimulating a certain meaning in the mind of another, persuading or influencing another
to do something.

Principles of Communication

6
 There are seven important principles that govern how communication works and that have
important implications for communication effectiveness.

1) Communication is a package of signals.

2) Communication is a process of adjustment.

3) Communication involves content and relationship dimensions.

4) Communication is ambiguous.

5) Communication sequences are punctuated.

6) Communication involves symmetrical and complementary transactions.

7) Communication is inevitable, irreversible and unrepeatable.

1. Communication is a package of signals

Communication behaviors whether they involve verbal messages, gestures or some combination
of them usually occur in packages. Usually, verbal and non-verbal behaviors reinforce or support
each other. All parts of a message system normally works together to communicate a particular
meaning. For example, you don’t express fear with words while the rest of your body is relaxed.
Entire body of a person works together verbally and nonverbally to express thoughts and
feelings. Contradictory messages may be the result of the desire to communicate two different
emotions or feelings.

2. Communication is a process of adjustment

Communication can takes place only to the extent that the communicators use the same system
of signals. Principle of adjustment is an art of communication that communicators identify the
other person’s signals, learn how they are used and understand what they mean. If you want to
understand what another person says or does, you have to learn that person’s system of signals.

7
The principle of adjustment is especially important in intercultural communication, largely
because people from different cultures use different signals and sometimes also uses the same
signals to signify quite different things.

Eg. Family  to their child

Teachers  to their student

3. Communication involves content and relationship dimensions

Communications, to certain extent at least, refer to the real world – something external to both. It
also refers to the relationships between the two parties. Communication has both content and
relationship dimensions.

Content message: refers to the expected behavioral responses.

Eg. A teacher may say to a student “see me after class”

The student sees the teacher after class

Relationship message: tells how the communication is to be dealt with; use of the simple
command indicates the presence of status difference between two parties. Teacher can command
student by saying “go in the class.” But if you imagine the student gives this command to the
teacher, it would be awkward and out of place, because it violates the expected communications
between teacher and student.

 Content dimension can be the same, but relationship aspect may vary.

For example:

“You had better see me after the class.”

“May I please see you after the class?”

 Content message can be different, but relationship dimension may be the same.

For example:

8
“May I go away this weekend?”

“May I use the car tonight? “ (Both sentences can be shown us super-inferior relationship in
which permission to certain things must be secured)

4. Communication is ambiguous

Ambiguous messages are messages with more than one potential meaning. It occurs because we
use words that can be interpreted differently. A more interesting forms of ambiguity is
grammatical ambiguity. For example:

They are flying planes.

 Those people are flying planes.

 Those planes for flying.

Some degree of ambiguity exists in all communication: all messages are ambiguous to some
degree. When you express an idea, you never communicate your meaning exactly and totally
rather you communicate your meaning with some reasonable accuracy – enough to give the other
person a reasonably clear sense of what you mean.

Example:

Do you understand me? (Reduce uncertainty)

5. Communication sequences are punctuated

Communication events are continuous transactions. You divide up this continuous circular
process into causes and effects or stimuli and responses. That is you segment this continuous
stream of communication into smaller pieces you label (named) some of these pieces causes or
stimuli and others effects or responses. The tendency to divide up the various communication
transactions in sequences of stimuli and responses is referred to as punctuation of
communication. People punctuate the continuous sequence of events into stimuli and responses
for ease of understanding and remembering. If you understand what the other persons mean you
are engaged in punctuation.
9
 6. Communication involves symmetrical and complementary transaction.

Relationships can be described as either symmetrical or complementary.

a) Symmetrical Relationship

This form of communication transaction has occurred when two individuals mirror each other’s
behavior of the other. The behavior of one person is reflected in the behavior of the other. The
relationship is one of the equality with the emphasis on minimizing the differences between the
two individuals.

Eg. A – Nags B – will be nag

C – Jealousy D – will be jealous

b) Complementary Relationship

This form of communication transaction has occurred when the two individuals engage in
different behaviors. The behavior of one serves as the stimulus for the complementary behavior
of the other. In complementary relationships the difference between the parties are maximized.

Eg. A – Superior B - inferior

C – Active D – passive

7. Communication is inevitable, irreversible and unrepeatable

7.1 communication is inevitable

Communication messages are always being sent. Communication takes place even though an
individual doesn’t think he or she is communicating or doesn’t want to communicate. You can’t
avoid communicating.

7.2 communication is irreversible

Communication is an irreversible process. The process can go in only one direction. For
example, you can turn water to ice and ice to water. You can turn grapes to wine, but you can’t

10
turn wine to grapes. Once a message has been sent and received it can’t be reversed again. Once
you say something, once you press the send key on your e-mail, you can’t uncommunicate it.

7.3 communication is unrepeatable

You can never recapture the exact same situation, frame of mind, or relationship dynamics that
defined a previous communication act. Everyone and everything is constantly changing. For
example, you can never repeat meeting that you had for the first time.

Language and other systems

Language is a code, a collection of symbols, letters, or words with arbitrary meanings that are
arranged according to the rules of syntax and are used to communicate. It consists of words or
symbols that represent things without being those things. Syntax is the way in which words are
arranged to form phrases and sentences.

Language was a tremendous factor in the advance of early civilization. Language helped develop
conceptual thinking and provided a means to manipulate ideas, transmit culture, and deal with
abstractions. Nobody knows for sure how exactly language developed. But there are some
speculations as:

Telegraphy/
motion pictures
Language

Computer
telephone
Photography /

Radio/ TV
Printing
Writing

200,000 – 100,000 BC 3500 BC AD 1500 AD1800 AD 1900

Some theories that emerged to explain how language developed are:

11
a) The Bow-Wow Theory

The theorists have stated that human beings have developed language by imitating the sounds
of animals. For example, a cow might have been called a “moo – moo.” However, they can’t
answer how inanimate objects had got their names. For example, TV, bed, etc.

b) The Pooh-Pooh Theory

The theorists have stated that words or language in general came from the sounds we make
when we are experiencing various emotions. For example, when we were angry – a growl –
or scared – a scream. However, it can’t explain how words such as “head” or “water”, with
no emotional attachment, came to be.

c) The Grunt Theory

Language grew out of the sounds humans make during physical exertion, such as; “Aaargh”
or “yow”. Words such as, dancing, pushing, talking, etc for example. However, it doesn’t
explain words that have no physical connections, such as; think, beauty, etc.

d) The Play Theory

It was first driven by Charles Darwin. It states that humans thought language when it was fun
to make sounds while they went about their lives. Overtime, some of these more or less
random sounds got connected to certain objects or actions. It seems the most plausible of the
bunch.

In general, it is known that our ancestors communicate using gestures and body movements
(sign language), and eventually develop verbal communication - using spoken language.
Why didn’t humans continue to depend on nonverbal communication? It is also questioned
by many scholars, but the following will be the main reasons.

1) Sign language is not very effective in the dark.

2) Language left both hands free to work with tools or handle weapons.

12
It is also recognized that language was a tremendous factor in the advance of civilization. For
example:

 Hunting become more efficient since directions could be given to coordinate the hunt.

 More defined social power structure emerged – as the strong could issue commands to
the weak.

 Instructions for making tools or utensils could be passed on others, and so on.

Do Animals Communicate?

Animals do communicate. They have different means of communication which lack the
structural complexity of human language. They exchange signals and signs that help them find
food, migrate or reproduce. They can express their own feelings or instincts; however, they
cannot “speak” for others or describe them. Darwin showed that the ability of a species to
exchange information or signals about its environment is an important factor in its biological
survival. For examples:

 Honey bees dance in specific patterns that tell other members of the hive where to find a
food.

 Insects regularly use pheromones, a special kind of hormone, to attract mates.

 Elephants emit very low-pitched sounds, below the level of human hearing, that call other
members of the herd over many miles.

 Whales and dolphins make vocal clicks, squeals, or sing songs to exchange information
about feeding and migration.

Other Communicative Systems

Language is not the only code which can be used in communication. There are two basic groups
of signs which used to communicate:

A. Natural signs

13
 They are characterized by a transparent link to the entity they stand for in the world. There
are two types of natural signs:

i. Icons

They reflect the essential features of the individual they represent. They copy the entity
they represent and are thus easy to interpret; for example, maps of buildings, photo of a
person, or monument of a person.

ii. Indices (plural form of index)

More loosely related the thing they represent in the sense that the relationship is less
evident, yet accessible to interpretation. For example, cloud may indicate that rain / snow
is approaching. Smoke can be taken as a natural sign for fire.

B. Conventional signs

Contrast with the natural signs in that the relation they have with the entity in the real world
is not transparent and it is a matter of convention. The meaning of conventional signs has to
be learned i.e. it is not immediately accessible to the user of the respective code.

E.g. White dove symbolize peace

Red light at roads symbolize “don’t walk”

Red Cross symbolizes charity, etc.

Difference between language and other communicative systems

1. Messages based on signs from any other system can always be translated into language.

2. Messages encoded in language are highly complex and express a variety of situations
which have no parallel in other systems. Some are of these are:

 Referring time: now, before now (past), after now (future)

 Comparing things: like, seem, look

14
  Expressing an attitude: want, need, love, hate

 Describing how others feel: said, told, thought

 Expressing a request for information: what, how, which

3. Signs systems are highly limited in their expressive power and are employed for a
specific purpose.

4. In language worlds can be combined in numerous different ways to convey meaning but
signs are not supposed to be combined.

5. Language has multiple functions where as sign systems are mono functional and limited
in performing a specialized function.

6. The only function by language and some other communication systems is the phatic
function – used for social purpose.

Chapter Two
15
 The Communicative Situations

Elements of Communication

We have noted that communication is systematic and that systems have component parts. A
typical communication situation has the following elements/ components:

1. People

People are involved in the human communication process in two roles. They serve as either:

i) Sender (source or addresser)

The source is the component that originates a message. Normally, in communication it is an

individual person, although it could be a group or an organization. More specifically, the human
brain may be thought of as the source of all messages we send.

- The one who initiates a message/ individuals who give messages

- During communication the role of sender doesn’t belong exclusively to one

person rather the process of sending and receiving are constantly changed.

ii) Receiver (addressee)

As with the source, the receiver is usually an individual person. The receiver takes the
communication signal or code from the channel, decodes the message, interprets it or gives it
meaning, and responds.

- The individuals who take messages (who are intended the target of a message)

- Deborah Tannen explains that communication is a continuous stream in which

everything is simultaneously a reaction and instigation, and instigation and
reaction. This indicates that receiver can be sender at a time and vice versa.

2. Message

16
 In the simplest sense, a message may be thought of as an idea, concept, emotion, desire,
or feeling that a source desires to share with another human being. It is the verbal and
nonverbal behavior used to evoke meaning in another person. It is the content of the
interaction. It includes words and phrases, as well as facial expressions, bodily
movements, gestures, touch, tone of voice and others. It intends to convey information
and meaning.

3. Channel

It is a means by which a message moves from the source to the receiver of the message.
Message moves from one place to another, from one person to another, by traveling
through a medium, or channel. E.g. Air waves, sound waves, glass fibers, cables, etc are
communication channels. We human beings are multi-channel communicators. For
example, we hear the sounds of priests. We see how someone looks. We taste the flavor
of food.

4. Code

It is a systematic arrangement of symbols used to create meanings in the mind of another

person or persons. Words, phrases and sentences become “symbols” that are used to
evoke images, thoughts and ideas in the mind of others. There are two types of codes
used in communication.

i) Verbal codes

They consist of symbols and their grammatical arrangement. All languages are codes. For
example, if someone says “stop” as you approach to a street the word stop has become a
symbol that you are likely to interpret as a warning danger.

ii) Nonverbal codes

They consist of all symbols that are not words, including body movements, your use of
space and time, your clothing, etc. It also includes oral codes as well such as duration of
speech, rate of speech and sounds like en and ah.

17
5. Noise

It is anything that interfere with the delivery of the message and that reduces the clarity of a
message. It is anything that distorts the message and which prevents the receiver from
receiving the message freely. It can be anything that interferes with receiving, interpreting, or
providing feedback about a message. Noise may occur anywhere along the communication
line, and there are different types of noise. These are:

i) Semantic

Semantic noise occurs when different people have different meanings for different words or
phrases. It also refers uncertainty about what the other person’s words are supposed to mean.

ii) Mechanical

It occurs when there is a problem with a machine that is being used to assist communication.
For example: A pen running out of ink, or a mobile phone which encounters network
connection problem.

iii) Environmental

It refers to the source of noise that are external to communication process but nonetheless
interfere with it. It means unfavorable communication environment (a hot, poorly ventilated
room, dim lighting, or poor seating arrangement); extraneous distractions (background
noises, the shuffling of chairs, people passing outside a door or window). It might be out of
the communicator’s control.

iv) Physical

It occurs due to physical objects. Illegible hand writing and ‘garbage’ or dust on the screen of
computers, for example.

v) Psychological

It refers mental or memorial interference during communication. E.g. day dreams about a
loved one, or thinking of past pains
18
vi) Physiological

It occurs when there are physiological disabilities and abnormalities.

E.g. Visual impairment, hearing impairment, or mental disorder

NB. As noise in communication increase, message fidelity goes down. Message fidelity
means proper, clear and free transmission of message from one place to other, from one
person to other.

6. Feedback and feed-forward messages

Feed-forward messages are information you provide sending your primary messages. It
reveals something about the message to come. It includes preface or table of contents in a
book, opening paragraph of a chapter, movie previews, magazine covers and introductions to
public speaking.

Feedback message is the receiver’s verbal and nonverbal response to the source’s message.
It is a message sent back to the speaker reacting what is said. It tells the speaker what effects
he/she is having on the listener(s). Even no response or silence is a feedback.

Dimensions Feedback

a. Positive Negative

It tells the speaker that the message is It tells the speaker that something is wrong
being well received and that he or she and that some adjustments need to be made.
should continue speaking in the same E.g. Frowns, boos, puzzled looks, etc
general mode. Eg. Head nodes, smiles,
etc

b. Person-focused Message-focused

Feedback that centers on the person. Feedback that centers on the message.

E.g. Your argument is a good one.

19
 E.g. You are sweet. You have a great
smile. You look smart.

c. Immediate Delayed

In intra and interpersonal In other communicative situations like mass

communicative situations mostly media feedback may come after a long period
of time.
feedback is conveyed immediately
after the message is received.

d. Low-monitored High monitored

Allowing responses to show without Carefully constructed response designed to

any monitoring. Spontaneous and serve a specific purpose.
totally honest reaction. E.g. student E.g. teacher to student communication.
with student communications.

e. Supportive Critical

Confirming the good of the person It is evaluative feedback. Judge another’s

and what that person says. Encourage performance. E.g. evaluating the speech and
commenting the weak side of a person.
the receiver to talk more or making
affirmation. Offering and suggesting
positive comments.

N.B. Feedback can be either supportive or critical at a time. The categories are not exclusive.

7. Context

All communication takes place in a context that has at least four dimensions:

20
a) Physical context

It’s the tangible or concrete environment in which communication takes place, E.g. Room,
park, etc. The context exerts some influence on the content of your messages (what you say)
as well as on the form (how you say).

b) Social-psychological context

It includes the status relationships among the participants and the roles or responsibilities of
people.

- Friendliness or unfriendliness

- Formality or informality

c) Temporal (time) context

It includes the time of day as well as the time in history in which the communication takes
place.

- Homosexual – recognized recently but not in the past

- Slave trade – condemning today but it existed in the past

d) Cultural context

Beliefs, values and ways of behaving that are shared by a group of people and passed down
from one generation to the next. It affects every interaction and influence what you say and
how you say it.

8. Encoding and decoding

Encoding:

- It is the act of producing messages, or acting of putting an idea or a thought into

code, e.g. speaking, writing, showing something, etc.

Decoding:
21
 - It is the act of receiving messages, or assigning meaning to the sender idea or
thought. It is translating sound waves or words one’s received into a code, e.g.,
listening, reading, visiting, etc.

9. Ethics

Communication has a question of ethics of right and wrong. It might be temporarily effective
to exaggerate or even lie in order to sell a product or get elected; it would not be ethical to do
so. Ethical responsibilities need to be considered as integral to any communication act. The
decisions you make concerning communication must be guided by what you consider right as
well as by what you consider effective.

10. Effects

Communication always has some effect(s) on one or more persons involved in the
communication act. For every communication act, there is some consequence.

E.g.

- Gaining knowledge and learning how to analyze, evaluate and synthesis something have
intellectual effects.

- Acquiring or changing attitudes, beliefs, emotions or feeling have affective effectives.

- Learning new body movements, painting pictures, or throwing a ball are psychomotor
effectives.

Means of communication (Reading Assignment)

1) Early Methods

22
Early societies developed systems for sending and receiving simple messages or signals that
could been over a short distance, e.g. drumbeats, fire, smoking, or lantern beacons. Most of the
authors mention some form of fire signals. Other forms of signaling narrated include the use of
flags and pennants, trumpets, horns and drums, burnished shields, carrier pigeons, runners and
pony riders, smoke signals and lights. Messages were attached to the legs of carrier that were
released to fly home until World War II. The megaphone was one of the earliest devices for
transmitting intelligible speech over a distance.

2) Paper and Writings

- The first lightweight medium was papyrus that used by Egyptians.

- Second A.D Chinese wrote on silk fabric instead of wood, and developed early
form of paper made from reeds grasses and silk fabric.

- Second B.C Europeans wrote thin layers of tanned and scraped animal skins
called parchment or vellum. It is not as light as papyrus but very durable.

- 18th century block printing had already been developed by Buddhist monks in
china.

- 1450, the German printer Johannes Gutenberg perfected movable metal type that
was key invention in the development of printing. At this time books were started
to print in the local or vernacular languages. As more books became available,
more people learned to read.

3) Postal services

- Courier – type services: messengers carried memorized or written messages from

one person to another and returned with the replay.

- 1789 in USA modern postal service was established for the first time.

4) Telegraphy

23
 The first truly electronic medium was the telegraphy which sent and received electronic
signals over long distance through wires. It was developed in 1837 and became more
sophisticated, especially after competitors were introduced.

5) Telephone

Alexander Graham Bell developed it in 1876. He titled and contained the design that
could transmit the human voice over wires. It transmitted sound vibrations and even
human speech.

6) Radio

Earliest system for sending electrical signals through the air via electromagnetic waves
was called wireless later radio. James Clerk Maxwell was developed radio technology in
1864. But Gugliemo Marconi invented a true wireless radio in 1895. It enabled message
sent and received a signal at distance of close to 3km.

7) Television

Inventors (Frans Worth, Zworykin) developed transmitting sounds and pictures together.
First decade of 20th (1910), basic ideas of television technology were understood. In
1950, many improvements have been made in television technology – introduction of
color television.

Types of communication

24
 Communication can be classified into different categories based on different bases. The
bases of classification may resin on either:

a. Nature of message or

b. Their channel of transmissions/ signals

a) According to their nature of the message, communication can be classified into three. These
are:

1. Expressive communication

2. Accidental communication

3. Rhetorical communication

(See them in unit one)

b) According to channel of transmission, communication can be classified into two. These are:

1. Verbal communication: includes spoken and written codes.

2. Nonverbal communication: includes the full range of human communication; such as,
tone of voice, gestures, postures, body movement, facial expression, etc.

It falls into eight categories:

a. Paralanguage (vocal nonverbal e. Tactile communication

communication)
f. Space communication
b. Sign language
g. Time communication
c. Gesture and body language
h. Silence
d. Object language

Paralanguage
25
It refers to the manner in which words are spoken, such as; tone of voice, emphasis or inflections
given to certain words, pauses inserted in the sentence are the main ones. It is also referring to
the nonverbal vocal phenomena i.e. intonation, emphasis, stress, etc. Increasing loudness often
expresses anger, hostility or alarm is also vocal communications. Increasing softness is often
used to express disappointment. It may also contain crying, laughing and breaking.

Sign language

It includes all those forms of codification in which words, numbers and punctuation have been
supplanted by gestures, e.g. sign language of hearing impaired individuals. However, it has
limitation because it is difficult to communicate in the dark time, and there is also the difficulty
of symbolizing all words with signals. Sign language gestures are believed to had been used by
primitive man long years ago before oral systems of language were developed.

Action language

It includes all gestures, posture, facial expressions and body movements that are not used
exclusively as substitutes for words. E.g. eating rapidly can communicate something about the
person’s hunger, upbringing or emotional state. Avoidance of eye contact may indicate escaping,
hiding and dislike. Pace, length of stride and walking posture vary with the emotional state and
the personality of the individual.

Object language

It comprises the display of material things; such as, art objects, clothes, the decoration of a room,
hair style and human body. One’s dresses and closing styles, for example, shows:

- Sexual attraction and sexual interest

- Expression of self-concept

- Group identification

- Status

26
Wedding rings are indication of just married individuals, and wearing eye glasses may refer to
judgment of intelligence and industriousness, just as one more examples.

Tactile communication

It is communication by touch. It is the first form of communication experienced by the infant,

and it is known that these early tactile experiences are crucial in the later development of
symbolic recognition and response. Parental care and love through infancy and childhood are
largely matters of tactile communication – tactual contacts that comfort, give encouragement,
express acceptance, and build confidence in the child. Sometimes a small child will transfer
tactile communication to objects other than his mother e.g. blanket, toy, tame animals, and etc.
Tactile experiences, as emotional and attitudinal messages and responses, are powerful, clear and
capable of amusing variety of transformations in human communication. Through the touch of a
hand one can feel fear, coldness and anxiety or love, warmth and security as example.

Space communication

Space or distance between persons in communication is related to the nature of the messages as
anthropologists Edward T. Hall has pointed out. He has identified eight distances that may be
indicative of certain types of messages. They include:

1) Very close: 3 – 6 inches, soft whisper, and top secret or intimate information.

2) Close: 8 – 12 inches, audible whisper, very confidential information.

3) Near: 12 – 20 inches, soft voice, confidential.

4) Neutral: 20 – 36 inches, soft voice, personal information.

5) Very neutral: 4 ½ - 5 feet, full voice, non-personal information.

6) Public distance: 5 ½ to 8 feet, full voice.

7) Stretching the limit of distance (up to 100 feet): leaving and departure.

Generally, we can constitute all the above into four categories; such as,

27
 a) Intimate zone

b) Personal zone

c) Social zone and

d) Public zone

Time communication

Time speaks. In American, punctuality communicates respect, and lateness can be an insult.
Telephone call you received at 9:00 night may indicate you some sense of urgency and
importance. Time is also used to communicate role relationships and status.

Silence

We have been told “clearly by someone through his silence, his avoidance of eye contact, and his
lack of response that wished to be left alone, that he told”. It can be used to communicate. It can
influence others.

28
 Chapter Three

Models of Communication

What is a model?

In the broadest sense, a model is a systematic representation of an object or event in idealized

and abstract form. Models are somewhat arbitrary by their nature. The act of abstracting may
eliminate certain details to focus on essential factors. The key to the usefulness of a model is the
degree by which it conforms to understand determinants of communicative behaviors.
Communication models are merely pictures. They allow us to see things clearly. They are
heuristics, or strategies, for guiding students and researchers through complicated processes by
pointing out key elements for considerations. They help us by providing concrete representation
of what we think is going on during communication activities.

Advantages of Models

Models have the following some significance:

i. They allow us asking questions. A good model is useful in providing both the general
perspective and particular vantage points from which to ask questions and to interpret the
raw stuff of observation.

ii. They clarify complexity. Models clarify the structure of complex events into simple and
familiar terms.

iii. They lead us to new discoveries. They provide new ways to conceive of hypothetical
ideas and relationships. This may well be their most important function.

Limitations

a. They can lead to oversimplifications.

b. They can lead of a confusion of the model between the behaviors it portrays.

29
 c. They have premature closure nature; i.e., the model limits our awareness of unexplored
possibilities of conceptualization.

Two Crucial Models of Communication

Linguistic communication consists of other models of communication which are completely

different. The code model is classic one. The other is inferential.

The Code Model

The code model can probably be taken as the first attempt made by communication specialists
and other people to describe the communication process. Code theorists treat communication as
involving (a) a set of observable signals, (b) a set of unobservable messages, and (c) a code; i.e.,
a set of rules or procedures pairing messages with signals. A communicator who wants to convey
a certain message transmits the corresponding signal, which is received and decoded by the
audience using an identical copy of the code when all goes well. Successful code-based
communication results in duplication of messages: the message encoded is identical to the
message received. According to this model, communication is linear. Words and meanings are
mapped in simple one-to-one correspondence with “meanings”. A dictionary is a code book, just
as example.

The Inferential Model (Grice 1975)

This theory stated that communication is possible without the use of a code by individuals who
can infer each other’s intentions. All communicators have to do to convey certain thought is to
get the audience to recognize their intention to convey it. That means intentions are not decoded
but inferred. For example, when I see you take out a key and walk towards a door, I make the
plausible inference that you intend to unlock the door; when you point to a closed window beside
me, I infer that you intend me to open it.

Unlike the code theorists, the inferential theorists believe that “what is meant is more important
than what is said”. In other words, what a receiver decodes is not only what the sender encodes.

30
Receiver constructs meanings not only from what the sender has encoded but from the context of
communicative act.

These two crucial models of communication will be referred to, directly or indirectly, in different
models/ theories of communication discussed below.

Other models

a) Aristotle’s Model

Communication as a discipline traces its roots to the early Greeks, Aristotle (384 – 322 B.C)
provided us with one of our earliest models in his Rhetoric, which is considered the foundation
of speech communication as a discipline. He is trying to understand what constitute effective
speaking, oratory. Aristotle’s understanding of communication is it as verbal activity, in which
the speaker (the one who is speaking) tries to convince the listener, thus reaching their own goal,
and this via using a tactical construct of an argument and presentation of the speech. It connotes
that the sender is responsible for good persuasive communication to happen and puts the sender
is at the centre of communication. Aristotle proposed that in communication there are variables,
such as; the speaker, message, listeners and form.

31
The variables in the process are usually arranged in a triangle, reflecting Aristotle’s concept that
these elements (speaker, message and listener) are interdependent. The form is a result of the
influence of mutual combination of the three elements, but the retrograde influence does not
apply here – the form only works unidirectional and does not influence other parts. This means,
for example, that the speaker influences the message and the listeners but the speaker is not
influenced by the audience and that the form and the content of a message affect each other. He
posited that communication is a one-way.

So the goal of the initiator is to create a positive impression about themselves on the listener and
to gain bigger understanding consecutively, and to create agreement with initiator´s point of
view. Aristotle defined rhetoric as an ability to notice, register reachable means of persuasion in
any kind of situation.

b) Lasswell’s Model (1948)

Lasswell has given us another widely quoted early model. His, though, is specifically one of
mass communication. He argues that to understand the processes of mass communication we
need to study each of the stages in his model:

Who

Says what

In which channel

To whom

With what effect?

This is a verbal version of Shannon and Weaver’s original model. He identified five key areas of
study, by and large, have proved the bedrock of structure of communication. ‘Who’ refers the
communicator/s. Who are communicators in any situations; what motivates them, what makes
them thick; and what their intention is. ‘What’ is about the text, the comment, the content, the

32
discourse and/or the message. What has been selected out of a media presentation or
interpretations? Channel focuses on the means of communication. It includes the whole panoply
of transmission, from body language to TV news and headlines. ‘To whom’ indicates perceived
receiver/s. ‘Effect’ refers what is sent, is not necessarily received in the manner expected by
those who construct and transmit messages. In other words, it takes into the account the fact that
messages are not just decoded by the receiver but have an impact on them. There is response to
be considered. It is also a one-way communication as that of Aristotle. However, he introduced
the concept of effect.

c) Berlo’s Model

David K. Berlo provided one of the simplest and most useful contemporary models of
communication and it called SMCR model of communication. He identified a number of factors
involved in the process of communication between two or more persons. Both source and
receiver are prompted and conditioned by their skills, attitudes and knowledge, and their
interactivity is influenced by social and cultural contexts in which communication takes place.
The means of communication – channels – are governed by our sense organs/ perceptions.
Although it recognizes perception as important element of communication it is one-way/ linear.
It is also limited that he didn’t aware that communication is a process and affected by time.

33
 d) Shannon and Weaver’s Model

Shannon and Weaver’s Mathematical Theory of Communication (1949; Weaver, 1949b) is

widely accepted as one of the main seeds out of which Communication Studies has grown. It is a
clear example of the process school, seeing communication as the transmission of messages. The
main concern was to work out a way in which the channels of communication could be used
most efficiently. For them, the main channels were the telephone cable and the radio wave. They
produced a theory that enabled them to approach the problem of how to send a maximum amount
of information along a given channel, and how to measure the capacity of any one channel to
carry information.

The source is seen as the decision maker; that is, the source decides which message to send, or
rather selects one out of a set of possible messages. This selected message is then changed by the
transmitter into a signal which is sent through the channel to the receiver. For a telephone the
channel is a wire, the signal an electrical current in it, and the transmitter and receiver are the
telephone handsets. In conversation, my mouth is the transmitter, the signal is the sound waves
which pass through the channel of the air (I could not talk to you in a vacuum), and your ear is
the receiver.

Key terms they used

 An information source, which produces a message.

 A transmitter, which encodes the message into signals.

 A channel, which signals are adapted for transmission.

34
  A receiver, which decodes or reconstructs the message from the signal.

 Destination, where the message arrives.

Noise

Noise is anything that is added to the signal between its transmission and reception that is not
intended by the source. This can be distortion of sound or crackling in a telephone wire, static in
a radio signal, or ‘snow’ on a television screen.

Information: basic concept

In this model, their term information is used in a specialist, technical sense, and to understand it
we must erase from our minds its usual everyday meaning. Information is a measure of the
predictability of the signal that is the number of choices open to its sender. It has nothing to do
with its content. A signal, we remember, is the physical form of a message— sound waves in the
air, light waves, electrical impulses, touching, or whatever. We can use the unit ‘bit’ to measure
information. The word ‘bit’ is a compression of ‘binary digit’ and means, in practice, a Yes/No
choice. These binary choices, or binary oppositions, are the basis of computer language.

Redundancy and entropy: basic concepts

Closely related to ‘information’ is the concept of redundancy. Redundancy is that which is

predictable or conventional in a message. The opposite of redundancy is entropy. Redundancy is
the result of high predictability, entropy of low predictability. So a message with low
predictability can be said to be entropic and of high information. Conversely, a message of high
predictability is redundant and of low information.

Entropy means the measure of uncertainty in a system. In other words, the informative value of
an item in a message increases in exact proportion to the likelihood of its occurrence.
Redundancy means the degree in which information is not unique in the system. Here the
informative value of an item in a message decreases in exact proportion to the likelihood of its
occurrence.
35
Channel, medium, code: basic concepts

Channel

It is simply the physical means by which the signal is transmitted. The main channels are light
waves, sound waves, radio waves, telephone cables, the nervous system, and the like.

Medium

The medium is basically the technical or physical means of converting the message into a signal
capable of being transmitted along the channel. My voice is a medium; the technology of
broadcasting is what constitutes the media of radio and television. The technological or physical
properties of a medium are determined by the nature of the channel or channels available for its
use. These properties of the medium then determine the range of codes which it can transmit.

Code: basic concept

A code is a system of meaning common to the members of a culture or subculture. It consists

both of signs (i.e. physical signals that stand for something other than themselves) and of rules or
conventions that determine how and in what contexts these signs are used and how they can be
combined to form more complex messages. The way codes relate to and develop within their
parent culture is complex.

e) Gerbner’s Model (1956)

Communication specialist George Gerbner’s model is more complex representation of

communication process. It deals with the nature of the human communication. This model also
takes into account the way missing Lasswell’s model of communication because it presupposes
that after perceiving an event, a person will want to communicate his/her perception to another
for some reasons and will do so in some form and in some context. The model clearly
distinguishes between actual events, the way it is perceived by the sender, how that perception is
36
made into a message and the way the message is perceived by the receiver. This model is useful
in describing both communication and perceptual problems. Applied to the mass media, it can
also be used to explore how accurately events in the real world are reported by the news as
measured by audience perceptions.

George Gerbner’s model is exploring the relationship between media messaging and individual
reception, emphasizes the difference between event (E) and perception of that event (E1) by the
communicator (M), leading to a representation of it in one communicative form or another, and
in turn perceived by the recipient of the communication (M2). What happens, whether perceived
by a media communicator or by an individual is that perception of that event becomes, in
Gerbner’s term, a percept: and it is this which, in the process of communication, as it were, ‘does
the talking’. Form and content transmit the percept according to criteria of selection, context and
availability (of information, for example). Gerbner highlights the complexity of process, for we
can never have a foolproof perception of reality because we cannot know everything about that
reality or have a fault-free grasp of context, especially as the communicative act inevitably
involves a degree of selection; and this from all participants in the interaction.

The main advances over others are:

37
  It relates the message to the ‘reality’; i.e., perception and meaning.
 It sees communication process consists two dimensions:

o Perceptual or receptive

o Communicating or means and control.

The relationship between form and content is dynamic and interactive. The meaning of the
message itself, but it’s the result of an interaction or negotiation of the receiver and the message.

f) DeFleur’s Model

In 1966, Melvin DeFleur created a communication model that was a development of Shannon
and Weaver’s model. In his model, the two-way process of communication is highlited. His
conclusion of feedback and his depiction of communication as circular suggest that obtaining
meaning from messages is complex. Frequently sender and receiver have to exchange role as
they work over come noise and negotiate a common meaning. Feedback also plays a large role in
this negotiate of meaning.

38
 g) Westley and MacLean’s Model

This circular model is based on the model of interpersonal communication according to Theodor
Newcomb; as in the original, the basis for the whole concept is the triplet A (communicator), B
(recipient) and X (the subject of the communication), but it is applied on mass, intentional
communication area. He introduces a new role of the mediator (also controlling subject) and tries
to describe the mutual relationships between the main agents of mass communication. One of the
positive sides of it is that it pins down the changeability of the message in the course of mass
communication. On the other hand, the influence of an outer context is not caught and the
influence of the source on the medium and vice versa is not elaborated.

Newcomb’s Model

Newcomb’s model and his A, B (the communicating ones) and to X (any matter or event in the
surrounding of A, B which is the subject of communication), Westley and MacLean added C,
representing the publishing function – the process determining what and how to communicate.
This means C represents the editorial communicating function of mass media.

39
Each person responds to their sensual experience by choosing only certain objects they
respond to, those are illustrated as X. In the model, A is the reporter, B is the public and C
stands for the controlling subject or channel, e.g. chief editor. f represents the feedback.

Wesley and MacLean indicate that the balance of Newcomb model is disturbed by A and C
being close together. C functions partly as a channel and also as a mediator of transfer of X from
A to B, so X is further away from B in the previous model than in this model, and thus the
dependence of element B (the public) on A and C is indicated.

In this model, communication is not started in the moment when the person starts talking but
only when he or she selectively responds to their actual environment. This is emphasized by the
fact that many signals that are important for a communication process did not have to be sent
deliberately.

Strengths of the model

 It accounts feedback.
 It accounts for a sensory field or, in Newcomb’s (1953) words, “objects of orientations”.

40
  It accounts for non-binary interactions – more than just two people communicating
directly.

 It accounts for different modes of communication. E.g. Interpersonal, mass

communication, etc.

Chapter Four

Levels of Communication

Intrapersonal Communication: Communication with Self

Intrapersonal communication is the communication that takes place within an individual. It’s
natural that we should think about social situations. It’s the individual’s communication system
that may be thought of as a more or less complex, dynamic, open, purposive information-process
and decision-making system. It’s the level of upon which an individual “talks to himself” and
thus handles events, ideas and experiences. The individual is complete, self-contained
communication system, able to receive messages from inside or outside himself. He can process
the information; and then respond by sending message to himself or destinations outside himself.
The individual sees, hears, feels, smells, and tastes; he learns, remembers, and thinks; he speaks,
writes, gestures, moves, and behaves. Therefore, we can understand intrapersonal
communication is the base of operation for all levels of communication.

Basic elements in individual communication system

The basic elements in the process of communication within the individual include receivers, and
information process unit, and transmitters. The receivers with which we are the five senses:
sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch. The information processing unit is the central nervous
system. The transmitters are facilities used in speaking, writing, vocalizing, moving, gesturing,
or posturing – the means whereby messages are sent. These three class of elements – receivers,
the brain, and transmitters – function together interdependently to make intrapersonal
communication possible. If any element is defective or inefficient in its functioning, the quality
of communication is correspondingly lower than it might be otherwise. The process of

41
communication system is become complex, and there are natural and acquired limitations upon
its efficiency.

Information Receiving: Perception

We can communicate only the information that we possess and that we have comes to us through
the process of perception. There are two sources of information: internal and external.
Information from internal sources come from the brain and may be either verbal or nonverbal, or
may come internally from organs of the body in the form of non-verbal messages that may or
may not be translated into language for intrapersonal communication process. For example, a
man thinks about his daughters who have been abroad. Similarly, external information may be
verbal (primary received by seeing or hearing) or it may be nonverbal. For example, a girl feels
hot when she touches the stove. However, our interest in internal messages from body organs is
limited since our principal concern here is with the process of receiving information external
sources. In general, man possesses five primary senses that able to perceive the surroundings and
receive information from the environment, such as; sight, hearing, touch, smell and taste.

Information Processing: Symbolization

The information processing unit is composed of brain and the central nervous system. The
primary unit is the brain – the mind. The most important characteristic of human being is its
ability to deal with symbols. Symbolization is integral to the function of brain as it is the most
important element in thinking. Symbolization can be defined as the ability of brain to represent
an experience when the stimulus is absent. Whether the event is in the past or projected in the
imagination into the future. The ability to represent an experience is an extremely important step
in mantel evolution. When brain can think of an object or an event it can begin to solve problem
by reasoning rather than by trial and error – man, then, can process information in a way greatly
different from that of animals. It is the capacity of the human brain to symbolize – to acquire the
ability to use words – that makes complex information processing possible.

42
Interpersonal communication

Interpersonal communication refers that communication in which persons are engaged directly
with each other in overt and covert transmission and reception of messages. In communication
situations in which the sender of a message is unable to communicate directly with an individual
as a person, with each aware of the other as a unique person, there is no interpersonal
communication. It occurs when two or more persons are involved in interaction that allows all
participants to send overt verbal messages. Conversation, interview, committee meetings, and
small group discussions are examples of interpersonal communication. Interpersonal
communication includes dyadic communication and small group communication.

Dyadic communication may be formal and includes the situation like – two persons visiting over
a cup of coffee, job interview, telephone conversation, etc, in each of these two people
communicate directly with one another.

Interpersonal communication also includes formal and informal kinds of small group
communication. The difference between small group and dyadic communication lies in the
numbers of participants. The small group may be three to five individuals. However, in dyadic
communication, there are only two persons communicating. The essential element in
interpersonal communication is that of direct, person to person interaction.

Important concepts that determine the outcome of interpersonal communication:

a) Interpersonal attraction and affection versus alienation and hostility

b) Interpersonal trust and supportiveness versus suspicion and defensiveness

Interpersonal attraction and affection versus alienation and hostility

Interpersonal attraction and affection: refer to the positive attitudes people’s share, the
moving toward, or the liking one person has for another. Interpersonal attraction exerts a
powerful influence on interpersonal communication.

Factors related to interpersonal attraction and affection:

43
Accidental happenings: it is one element that operates in interpersonal attraction; it can be
either good or bad. Good happenings cause us to like the recipients of the happening, but bad
happenings cause us to draw away from that person.

Unjust treatment: the person who harms another person tends to develop a dislike for the
person he has harmed, and the person who does favor for another tends to increase his liking for
another.

Stress and anxiety: it may cause to motivate persons to seek and to be attracted to others.

Social isolation: it may create a powerful desire for interpersonal contact, and it is strong
facilitator of interpersonal attraction.

Propinquity: proximity or nearness may motivate to interact with others easily.

Rewards: we like those who reward us and dislike those who punish us.

Homophily: refers to the degree of similarity of various attributes of two persons. Similarity of
attitudes, values, interests, personality, and other attributes determines the degree of homophily.

Heterophily: refers the degree to which two persons unlike.

Factors Related to Alienation

Alienation: refers to being estrange or withdrawn from other person. An alienated person holds
negative attitudes towards other persons and has a feeling of “alones”. Alienation does not mean
simple disagreement with other person. Disagreement with another is communication, but
alienation is nonparticipation. It is withdrawing from purposeful interaction. It is being apart
from others. Being ignored is a dominant casual factor in alienation. It is a withdrawing
relationship – an estrangement. Anomia is a second causative factor of alienation. It is
unwillingness to communicate.

Factors Related to Hostility

Out of competitiveness, mistrust, frustration and fear come anger, and out of anger hostility
comes. Anger is warm and immediate while hostility is cold and calculated.
44
  Aggression (verbal and physical)

 Rationalization (speaking unattainable goal as an undesirable one)

 Negativism (reject all or parts of proposal that others made)

Interpersonal trust and supportiveness versus suspicion and defensiveness

As attraction, affection and hostility exist only in relation to another person; trust,
supportiveness, suspicion and defensiveness also exist in relation to another person. The basic
factor of the ability of communicators is to trust each other. Once such climates have been
created fears of rejection, betrayal and disappear and feelings of supportiveness, acceptance,
openness and safety emerge. The absence of such supportiveness ultimately fosters an
atmosphere of suspicion and defensiveness that is dangerously destructive in interpersonal
communication.

Factors Related to Trust and Supportiveness

 Self-esteem: it is related positively to trusting (persons of high self-esteem tend to be

more trusting and supportive than persons of low self-esteem).

 Authoritarianism: it is related negatively to trusting (authoritarian tends to be more

suspicion and defensive than non-authoritarian)

Stages in the Development of Relationships

The process by which an interpersonal relationship is established has a number of fairly well-
defined stages:

A. Proximity and Chance: although interpersonal relationships are of primary important to

us, they are governed by proximity and chance. Even though we have the potential for
establishing relationships with a number of people, we cannot do so unless they are
around for us to interact with over time. Timing as well as time itself plays a role in the
establishment of relationships.

45
 B. Attraction: assuming that we are surrounded by any number of people with whom we
could establish meaningful relationships, we have to wonder what it is that determinates
with whom we begin. Here we need to consider appearance. Appearance is significant
because in order to have an interpersonal relationship two people have to be attracted to
each other enough to begin communicating. For many people, initial attraction is based
on looks. For others different factors are equally important. Research on the first
impression suggests that physical beauty is more important for males that it is for
females. Although females also wanted attractive dates, they indicated stronger
preference for intelligence, consideration and extroversion than did males.

C. Disclosure and Risk Taking: self-disclosure is the process whereby we tell others things
about ourselves in the hope that they will disclose about themselves in exchange. There is
of course the possibility that after we disclose information, the other person will not
reciprocate, and that possibility is considered the risk factor involved in self-disclosure.

D. Trust and Intimacy: the rewards for taking the risk and disclosing the information about
ourselves are apparent. Sharing highly personal information with another person can
build trust and intimacy. We can develop about ourselves that we held within us.
Disclosure often results in a closer relationships and increased feeling of self worth when
we find we accepted unconditionally by another.

E. Achieving Balance: along with trust and intimacy, close interpersonal relationships are
marked by sense of balance. As these relationships evolve, the balance between the two
people involved growth. Balance refers to psychological congruence between two
individuals.

Group Communication

The small group has become one of the most common settings for speech communication. Small
groups operate in every organized human activity. Most people participate in small group,
formally and informally.

46
In order to understand how small groups function, we must examine the nature of small group.
The small group has a powerful potential for action. When people come together in a group,
friendships can develop, decisions can be made, and problems can be solved.

The nature of the small group

Homans has defined a group as “a number of persons who communicate with one another, often
over a span of time, and who are few enough so that each person is able to communicate with all
the others, not at second hand, through other people, but face-to-face. A chance meeting of
casual acquaintance does not account as group for us.” Congregations, aggregations, audiences,
and other collections of a large number of individuals are not groups. They cannot communicate
with other.

Brown (2000: 3–4, original emphasis) offers the following definition of a group: ‘a group exists
when two or more people define themselves as members of it and when its existence is
recognized by at least one other. The ‘‘other’’ in this context is some person or group of people
who do not define themselves so.’ A number of criteria have been identified as essential for
determining the existence of a group. There should be identifiable common goals, interaction
between members and a structure for interaction, interdependence of fate or task, a stable
relationship among members, a sense of group identity and developing and dynamic social
integration.

Types of Groups

There are essential five kinds of small groups: primary groups, casual groups, problem-solving
groups, and therapeutic groups.

Primary Groups

The first group that every human being experiences is primary in sense that they give the
individual his earliest, most basic, and most complete experience of social unity. The
individual’s first primary group is the family. It is one of the most elaborate, complex, intimate,
47
and influential groups we experience, and it gives us our first training in social behavior and
interpersonal relationships.

Causal Groups

The coffee group, bull sessions, and social gatherings are examples of casual groups. These
groups do not exist to solve specific problems, although they may, from time to time, hash out
problems or get into heated discussions on important issues. Rather, they exist to exchange ideas,
to enjoy interacting with one another, and to extend the warmth of companionship. Conversation
may ramble over many topics. There is no specified agenda; no requirement to stay on the
subject. The members of such groups have as their goal friendly companionship. These groups
are sometimes called friendship groups. They serve a social function for us.

Educational Groups

The purpose of educational group is to instruct, to teach or to learn. These groups are essentially
information – sharing groups. They are used to educate and inform members of the audience.
Participants in these groups are usually experts or persons particularly involved with the topic of
discussion. The purpose of such public discussion groups is not to solve a problem before
onlookers, but rather to inform and educate. These public discussion groups are organized along
different patterns, including the panel, symposium and forum.

A panel – discussion group usually has from four to six informed participants plus a
chairperson. They sit in full view of the audience and carry on a public conversation among
themselves. It is not unusual that the discussion is carefully planned in advances as to topics,
issues, and their sequence and development. Either the chairperson, or the chairperson and
panelists, determine the outline or agenda, but the discussion is extemporaneous and
spontaneous.

48
The symposium is characterized by two to four speakers, each of whom gives a prepared
presentation to the audience. These speakers focus upon a common topic or problem. Each
speaker may address himself to a different viewpoint toward the problem as a whole. It is not
unusual for the chairperson to ask questions for each participant following their presentations, to
allow them to ask each other questions, or to invite the audience to ask questions.

The forum discussion is one in which the audience directs questions and enters into the
discussion of the topic. It may follow a symposium format and be essentially a lecture forum. On
occasion, a single speech, or film, or dramatic presentation is given and a public forum situation
follows.

Therapeutic Groups

The small group is widely used in therapy. Social workers, psychiatrists, and psychologists are
employing small group techniques in increasing numbers. The therapeutic group is interested in
personal improvement – changes in behavior, values, or attitudes of the individual. There is no
collective group goal; rather, each member seeks solutions to his own problems. The group is a
vehicle used to aid in the discovery of solutions and new insights; as well as to facilitate mutual
interpersonal support. Problem solving groups, education groups, or casual groups can also have
therapeutic effects on the individual, but that is not their primary purpose as is the case for
therapeutic groups.

Problem- solving groups

Most of us belong to groups that have specific tasks assigned to them. Unlike the casual group or
therapeutic groups, the problem solving group has a particular group goal involving some
anticipated action, or resolve a mutual concern of members. Although the difference in goals
distinguishes the five types of groups, all five kinds contain the essence of the group process –
face-to-face interaction that is relevant to all members. There are two types of problem-solving
groups:

49
 a) On-going groups: they have permanent memberships over an extended period of time.
They establish problem solving objects, administrating, decision-making, or policy-
making groups. Eg. Permanent committee.

b) Appointment groups: these groups are appointed to accomplish a specific and when it’s
completed the group ceases to function. It is a temporary committee. Eg. Decoration
committee for a particular dancing.

Characteristics of Group Communication

All communication groups have certain characteristics in common:

1) Rules and Norms

Rules refer officially stated guidelines that govern what the group is supposed to do and how
members should behave.

Norms are shared values, beliefs, behaviors and procedures that govern a group’s communication
operations.

2) Roles

Roles mean defined patterns of behavior expected of members.

3) Patterns of Group Interaction

Communication involves the exchange of information between and among people. It almost goes
without saying that this exchange needs to be complete and efficient network for the
communicators to reach their goals. Physical arrangement influences communication in groups.
If group members always stayed together and shared every piece of information with one
another, their interaction would resemble either of the following patterns.

All-channel network: When group members aren’t in immediate contact with one another,
information can flow through a variety of other networks. But not all groups meet face to face.

50
The crew who waits tables and prepares the food at a restaurant and the group of nurses, aids,
and technicians who staff an eight- or ten-hour hospital shift rarely sit down together to discuss
their work, just few examples.

51
Some follow a chain network, moving sequentially from one member to another. Chains are an
efficient way to deliver simple verbal messages or to circulate written information when
members can’t manage to attend a meeting at one time. You might use this approach to route an
important message to members of a team at work, asking each person to initial a memo and pass
it along to the next person on a routing slip. Chain networks are not very reliable for lengthy or
complex verbal messages, because the content of the message can change as it passes from one
person to another.

Another communication pattern is the wheel network, in which one person acts as a
clearinghouse, receiving and relaying messages to all other members. Like chains, wheel
networks are sometimes a practical choice, especially if one member is available to communicate
with others all or most of the time. In a class group, you might use a wheel network if one of
your members is usually near a telephone.

Organizational Communication

Organizational communication has increasingly focused on the meso level of communication

(group, organizational and inter-organizational communication).

a) Formal versus informal communication

52
The concern of managers of large bureaucratic organizations is formal, top-down
communication. Informal communication, generally associated with interpersonal, horizontal
communication, is primarily seen as a potential hindrance to effective organization performance.

b) Vertical, horizontal and diagonal communication

Vertical communication occurs between hierarchically positioned persons and can involve both
downward and upward communication flows. Downward is more prevalent than upward
communication. Downward is most effective if top managers communicate directly with
immediate supervisors, and immediate supervisors communicate with their staff (the rest
employees).

Downward communication is best when:

1) Top managers should communicate directly with immediate supervisors;

2) Immediate supervisors should communicate with their direct reports; and

3) Top managers should follow-up by communicating with employees directly.

N.B. To be effective in downward communication, you should communicate orally, and then
follow up in writing.

Upward communication: from employees to top-managers:

- Employee surveys,
- Suggestion programs,

- Employee grievance programs,

- Employee participation programs (team meetings)

Lateral communication: it involves communication among persons who do not stand in

hierarchical relation to one another. Eg. Across managers of dissimilar functional divisions,
workers in different functional areas

53
Diagonal communication refers to communication between managers and workers located in
different functional divisions.

The primary functions of organizational communication are:

- Compliance – gaining,
- Leading, motivating, and influencing,

- Sense-making,

- Problem-solving and decision-making,

- Conflict management, negotiating, and bargaining.

Mass communication

It refers to the process by which a complex organization with the aid of one or more machines
produces and transmits public messages that are directed at large, heterogeneous and scattered
audiences. The mass communication can be characterized by the nature of source, encoding,
decoding, receiver and feedback.

The source in the traditional mass communication situation is typically a group of individuals
who act in predetermined roles in an organizational setting. For example, reporters gather news,
writers draft editorials, the advertisement department lays out advertising, etc. the advent of
internet – based mass communication change this situation, and one person can become a mass
communicator.

Encoding in mass communication is always a multistage process. For example, a film producer
has an idea. The screen writer produces a script. The director translates it for camera.
Cinematographers capture the scenes on film, on and on.

Mass communication channels are characterized by the imposition of at least one, and usually
more than one, machine in the process of sending the message. Messages in mass

54
communication are public. Mass communication typically involves multiple decoding before the
message is received.

One of the prime distinguishing characteristics of mass communication the audience/ receivers:

1) The mass communication audience is a large one.

2) The audience is also heterogeneous – it is made up of dissimilar groups who may differ in
age, intelligence, political beliefs, ethnic backgrounds, etc.

3) The audience is spread out over a wide geographic area; source and receiver are not in
each other’s immediate physical presence.

4) The audience in mass communication is self-defined. The receiver has to the right to
choose which program is important for them to attend.

Feedback: the message flow is typically one-way, from source to receiver.

In general, traditionally features of mass communication can be defined:

1) Mass communication is produced by complex and formal organizations.

2) Mass communication organizations have multiple gatekeepers. A gatekeeper is any
person or group who has control over what material eventually reaches the public.

3) Mass communication organizations need a great deal of money to operate.

4) Mass communication organizations are highly competitive.

55
 Chapter Five

Functions of Communication
If communication is considered in its broadest sense, not only as the exchange of news and
messages but as an individual and collective activity embracing all transmission and sharing of
ideas, facts and data, its main functions in any social system may be identified as the following:

-Information: the collection, storage, processing and dissemination of news, data, pictures, facts
and messages, opinions and comments required in order to understand and react knowledgeably
to personal, environmental, national and international conditions, as well as to be in a position to
take appropriate decisions.

-Socialization: the provision of a common fund of knowledge which enables people to operate
as effective members of the society in which they live and which fosters social cohesion and
awareness thereby permitting active involvement in public life.

56
-Motivation: the promotion of the immediate and ultimate aims of each society, and the
stimulation of personal choices, and aspirations; the fostering of individual or community
activities, geared to the pursuit of agreed aims.

-Debate and discussion: the provision and exchange of facts needed to facilitate agreement or to
clarify differing viewpoints on public issues; the supply of relevant evidence needed to foster
greater popular interest and involvement in all local, national and international matters of
common concern.

-Education: the transmission of knowledge so as to foster intellectual development, the

formation of character and the acquisition of skills and capacities at all stages of life.

-Cultural promotion: the dissemination of cultural and artistic products for the purpose of
preserving the heritage of the past; the development of culture by widening the individual's
horizons, awakening his imagination and stimulating his aesthetic needs and creativity.

-Entertainment: the diffusion, through signs, symbols, sounds and images, of drama, dance, art,
literature, music, comedy, sports, games, etc. for personal and collective recreation and
enjoyment.

-Integration: the provision to all persons, groups and nations of access to the variety of
messages which they need in order to know and understand each other and to appreciate others'
living conditions, viewpoints and aspirations.

Functions of communication for society

For a society to exist, certain communication needs must be met. These needs existed before
Gutenberg bolted together hiss printing press and Morse started dots and dashes. Primitive tribes
had sentinels who scanned the environment and reported dangers. Councils of elders interpreted
facts and made decisions. Tribal meetings were used to transmit these decisions to the rest of the
group. Storytellers and jesters entertained the group. As society became larger and more
complex, the jobs grew too big to be handled by single individuals.

57
Societies as a whole cannot survive today if they are not properly informed about political
affairs, international and local events, or weather conditions, etc. Governments need varied
information from all corners of their respective countries as well as from every quarter of the
earth, concerning trends in population growth, harvest results, water supplies, etc., if they are to
be able to plan dynamically for the future. Without sufficient data on world commodity and
money markets, public authorities are handicapped in their international activities and
negotiations. Industrial enterprises also need rapid information from many sources in order to
increase their productivity and to modernize their production processes; banks depend more and
more on world networks for data on currency fluctuations, etc. The armed services, political
parties, airline companies, universities, research institutes and all kinds of other bodies could not
function today without daily, efficient information exchanges. However, in many cases the
collective information and data systems do not correspond to the needs of the public authorities
or private bodies. Apart from main government services, and the biggest enterprises and banks,
which are usually well-informed, many local bodies, factories, firms and agencies lack ready
access to organized information. So, in many instances, the emphasis is still on information
systems whose purpose it is to satisfy individual communication needs. It is vitally important to
correct this situation which is liable to affect adversely the development prospects of millions of
people, especially in developing countries.

This is particularly so as communication functions are linked to all people's needs, both material
and non-material. Man does not live by bread alone; the need for communication is evidence of
an inner urge toward a life enriched by cooperation with others. People want to add aspirations
toward human growth to the satisfaction of material needs. Self-reliance, cultural identity,
freedom, independence, respect for human dignity, mutual aid, participation in the reshaping of
the environment - these are some of the non-material aspirations which all seek through
communication. But higher productivity, better crops, enhanced efficiency and competition,
improved health, appropriate marketing conditions, proper use of irrigation facilities are also
objectives - among many others - which cannot be achieved without adequate communication
and the provision of needed data.

58
It must also be recognized that each of these functions may, depending on environmental
conditions, display different and even contradictory characteristics.

Information is easily corrupted into the dissemination of half-truths and even falsehoods;
persuasion into manipulation and propaganda. Similarly, institutionalized communication may
serve to inform, to control, or to manipulate citizens. While the content often serves to sustain
personal identity, it may lead to the standardizing of attitudes and aspirations. Information
systems which use a variety of sources and messages help to foster open-mindedness (albeit with
the attendant risk of alienation in extreme cases), while systems ignoring this need may lead to a
taming of the mind, or indoctrination. The simple truth that the functions of communication are
essentially relative and related to varied needs of different communities and countries is often
overlooked or underestimated, yet without recognition of it there can be no realistic approach to
communication problems in a divergent, divided but interdependent world. Hence,
communication effects vary according to the nature of each society. There is, indeed, no such
thing as contemporary society, but only contemporary societies.

The following discussion will examine communication functions by means of mass media to the
larger society. These functions are not mutually exclusive.

1. Surveillance: refers to what we popularly call the news and information role of the
media. The media have taken the place of sentinels and lookouts. The surveillance
function can be divided into main types. Warning, or beware, surveillance occurs when
the media inform us about threats from terrorism, hurricanes, erupting volcanoes,
depressed economic conditions, increasing inflation, or military attack. These warnings
can be about immediate threats (a television interrupts programming to broadcast a
hurricane warning), or they can be about long-term or chronic threats (a newspaper runs a
series about air pollution or unemployment). There is, however, much information that is
not particularly threatening to the society hat people might like to know about.
Instrumental surveillance has to do with the transformation of information that is useful
and helpful in everyday life. News about films playing at the local theaters, stock markets
prices, news products, fashion ideas, recipes, and teen fads are examples of instrumental
surveillance.
59
2. Interpretation: closely related with the surveillance function is the interpretation
function. The mass media do not supply just facts and data. They also provide
information on the ultimate meanings and significance of events. one example of this
function is the editorial pages of the newspapers. Interpretation, comment, and opinion
are provided for the reader as an added perspective on the news stories carried on other
pages. Another example for this function is articles that analyze the causes of an event or
that discuss the implications of government policy. The interpretation function can also
be found in media content that at first glance might appear to be purely entertainment.

3. Linkage: the mass media are able to join different elements of society that are not
directly connected. For example, advertising attempts to link the needs of buyers with the
products of sellers. Telethons that attempt to raise money for the treatment of certain
diseases are another example of this linkage function. The needs of those suffering from
the disease are matched with the desires of others who wish to see the problem
eliminated. Another type of linkage occurs when geographically separated groups that
share a common interest are linked by media. The media can create totally new social
groups by linking members of society who have not previously recognized interests in
one another.

4. Transmission of values: it is a subtle but nonetheless important function of mass media.

It has also called socialization function. Socialization refers to the ways an individual
comes to adopt the behavior and values of a group. The mass media portray our society,
and by watching, listening, and reading, we learn how people are supposed to act and
what values are important. Individuals who are exposed to these portrayals are likely to
grow up and accept this value. Thus, a social value is transmitted from one generation to
another.

5. Entertainment: another obvious media function is that entertainment. Television is

primarily devoted to entertainment, with, about three-quarters of a typical broadcast day
falling into this category. The entertainment content of radio varies widely to station
format. For example, it can be comics, puzzles, games, horoscopes, advice, gossip,
humor, sport, etc.
60
Personal function of communication

The following discussion will be focused on the function of communication at individual level.
Consequently, we will now focus on how the individual uses mass communication. in its
simplest form, audience members have certain needs or drives that are satisfied by using both
non-media and media sources.

1. Cognition: it is the act of coming to know something. When a person uses a mass
medium to obtain information about something, then he or she is using a medium is
directly parallel to surveillance function. There are two different types of cognitive
functions :

One, has to do with using the media to keep up with information on current events, while
the other has to do with using the media to learn about things in general or things that
relate to person’s general curiosity.

2. Diversion: another basic need of human beings is for diversion. Diversion can take many
forms. Some of the forms identified: 1) stimulation, or seeking relief from boredom or the
routine activities of everyday life; 2) relaxation, or escape from the pressures and
problems of day-to-day existence; and 3) emotional release of pent-up emotions and
energy.

3. Social Utility: social integrative needs have grown from an individuals’ need to affiliate
with others, including our need to strengthen contacts with family, friends, and others in
the society. It can take several forms:

Conversational currency: the media provide a common ground for social conversations,
and many people use things that they have read, seen, or heard as topics for discussion
when talking with others. There is a certain social usefulness in having a large repository
of things to talk about so that, no matter where you are, you can strike up a conversation
and be fairly sure that the person you are talking to is familiar with the subject.

61
 A means to overcome loneliness: parasocial relationship. For example, radio keeps
individuals company in their car.

4. Withdrawal: at times, people use the mass media to create a barrier between themselves
and other people or activities. For example, the media help people avoid certain chores
that should be done. People also use the media to create a buffer zone between
themselves and other people. A buffer zone refers to a neutral zone between two rival
powers that is created in order to diminish the danger of conflict. Media can be content
and context, people may not only use the message sent from the media, but also needs to
know who say and who involves in the mass communication process.

Economic function of communication

A constant flow of information is vital for economic life. As well as being a great economic
force with incalculable potentialities, it is a decisive factor in development. As an element of
increasing importance in all national economies, communication represents a growing segment
of a country's gross national product and has direct repercussions on productivity and
employment.

In particular, advances in telecommunications bring about instant transmission of information

and thus, in some places, dispense with skilled labour, while in others modify its nature. It is
communication that now holds out the best prospects of growth in industrial societies and can be
seen as the pivot of the world economy.

Modern communication means make the site of enterprises often irrelevant, permit transfers to
distant areas of many factories, or a freer choice of locations for different industries and other
sorts of activities, such as trade, banking and airlines. The ordinary man feels, even though he
does not control, the crucial part played in the economy by communication and information. And
all this is sure to become more emphatically true in the coming decades.

True, various forms of communication and information have always been linked, at least
implicitly, to work and production, but now it has become easier to see the connections. Thus,
information - and more specifically the ability to transmit, store and use information - is a key

62
resource on a par with energy or raw materials. But in some societies, or for limited groups in
almost all societies, communication becomes in a certain sense perverted or distorted: people, as
expressed by an economist, can no longer communicate otherwise than by exchanging monetary
signs and material goods. On an international level, new structures of communication reflect the
life-styles, values and models of a few societies, spreading to the rest of the world certain types
of consumption and certain development patterns in preference to others. In this, there is a grave
danger of the distorting power of communication.

By under-estimating these factors, some developing countries neglect the protection of their
independence in the sphere of communication. And the economic imbalances in this sphere, as
between nations and regions, are a cause for concern. Unless they are overcome, they will be
made still more glaring by technical progress.

In developed countries, the introduction of the new technology followed the industrial revolution
with an ample breathing-space; but developing countries cannot repeat this sequence, partly
because they have a pressing need to speed up their development, partly because the industrial
revolution and the informatics revolution are impinging on them at the same time. Many
countries have strong reasons to work out concrete development strategies for communication,
and to devote added resources to the creation of appropriate infrastructures.

Development in this field demands a better utilization of resources which are at present under-
employed. As things stand, there is no doubt that communication resources are unequally
distributed on a world scale. Some countries have a full capacity to collate information regarding
their needs; many have little capacity to do so, and this is a major handicap in their development

Scientific and technical information is today a vital economic resource which ought to be more
generously and widely shared, since it derives from the efforts and the thinking of men and
women in many countries, in the past and in the present. It is certainly the key to all independent
national development, while it is also a basic factor in the coordinated progress of mankind.
Informatics obviously governs the gathering, classification and analyses of scientific data.

63
 CHAPTER SIX

FACTORS AFFECTING COMMUNICATION

a) GENDER
People are fascinated by how women and men communicate, especially how their
communication differs. It is a great deal about the ways in which sex and gender shape
communication styles and, in turn, how our communication reinforces social views of women
and men.

Understanding Sex, Gender, and Communication

Many people use the words sex and gender interchangeably, but actually they are discrete
concepts.

Sex

Sex is a biological category—male or female—that is determined genetically. Most individuals

are designated as male or female based on external genitalia and internal sex organs.

Gender

64
Gender is the social meaning attached to sex within a particular culture and in a particular era.
Gender influences the expectations and perceptions of women and men, as well as the roles,
opportunities, and material circumstances of women’s and men’s lives.

Because gender is central to social order, society works very hard to convince us that its
definitions and expectations of women and men are natural, normal, and right. Gender involves
learning about both femininity and masculinity. Gender is often perceived as a synonym for men
or women’s interests. Gender is not something people have (a personal quality), but rather
something they do.

We express, or perform, conventional gender through every day practices such as dominating
(masculine) or deferring (feminine) in conversations, offering solutions and judgments
(masculine) or empathy (feminine) when a friend discloses a problem, and crossing our legs so
that one ankle rests on the knee of our other leg masculine) or so that one knee rests over the
other knee (feminine).

Communication is related to sex and gender in a number of ways, four of which we’ll discuss
here.

1) Communication Socializes Us into Gendered Identities

Communication is a primary means by which new members of a society are taught existing
views of gender. As parents interact with children, they teach gender. Boys may be discouraged
from playing with dolls, and girls may be scolded forgetting dirty—both messages that convey
social views of gender in an effort to teach children how to perform identities that are consistent
with existing social norms. Parents are not the only ones who communicate society’s views and
expectations of gender. Siblings, other relatives, peers, and teachers talk differently to boys and
girls.

2) Communication Expresses Gendered Identities

We know which clothes will be seen by others as masculine or feminine; we understand which
postures are regarded as appropriate and inappropriate for women and men; we realize that
certain words and tones of voice are regarded as more acceptable for men and others as more
acceptable for women. In other words, we use verbal and non verbal communication to “do
gender.”

3) Communication Challenges and Changes Social Views of Gender

Communication is a key means of changing gender. We can use communication to challenge

existing views of men’s and women’s nature, behaviors, and rights.
65
 4) Communication Names Issues and Identities

Communication enacts naming, which is a critical means of making issues related to gender
visible. We name things that we consider important and don’t name things that we don’t consider
important. When we name phenomena that have not been named, noticed, or valued, we bring
those phenomena into social awareness.

b) CULTURE

There is a relationship between culture and communication is obvious when misunderstandings

occur in international relations and business.

There are many approaches to studying the relationship between culture and communication.
International communication is a term used to refer to the study of the flow of communication
among countries—particularly the communication between national governments—and the
comparative study of national mass communication systems. More recently, global
communication has been used to refer to trans-border communication by groups, institutions,
and governments.

The term cross-cultural communication technically refers to comparing phenomena across

cultures. For example, a cross-cultural study of childrearing would compare what is done in
many cultures. Development communication is used to refer to the study of communication to
promote social and economic grow thin poverty-stricken countries and areas.

The more generic term intercultural communication generally refers to face-to-face interactions
among peoples of diverse cultures.

All these terms require an understanding of the term culture itself. The term culture typically
includes the following understandings:

• The totality of that community’s thought, experiences, and patterns of behavior and its
assumptions, understandings, and values about life that guide behavior

• The process of social transmission of these thoughts and behaviors from birth in families and
other institutions over the course of generations

• That members consciously identify themselves with that community—referred to as cultural

identity or the identification with and acceptance into a group that has shared symbols and
behavior norms.

In related to culture and communication, there are recognized barriers to effective

communication. These are anxiety, assuming similarity instead of differences, ethnocentrism,
stereotypes and prejudice, and nonverbal misinterpretations.
66
Anxiety

When we are anxious because we are not sure what is expected of us, it is only natural to focus
so much on what we are doing that we are not fully present in the communication itself.

Assuming Similarity Instead of Difference

Often times, visitors to a new culture focus on the things that seem the same that is, driving on
the same side of the road, eating similar foods, and enjoying the same music and movies. When
we assume similarity, we can ignore important differences.

Ethnocentrism

Ethnocentrism refers to negatively judging aspects of another culture by the standards of one’s
own culture. We are ethnocentric when we believe that our culture is superior and not understand
that whatever exists in one culture makes sense if we understand that culture.

Stereotypes and Prejudice

Both these terms refer to making judgments about another based on group membership.
Stereotype refers to negative or positive judgments made about another based on any observable
or believed group membership. Whereas, prejudice refers to the irrational dislike, suspicion, or
hatred of a particular group, race, religion, or sexual orientation.

Nonverbal Misinterpretations

Nonverbal symbols create meanings for others. Nonverbal communication refers to messages
sent without using words. Many nonverbal expressions vary from culture to culture, and it is just
these variations that make nonverbal misinterpretations a barrier.

c) RISK
Risk communication concerns physical hazards of any sort, those that harm people, those that do
not, those that people are worried about, and those that people are not worried about but should
be.

Risk communication is the process of sharing meaning about any physical hazard such as
dangerous worksites, environmental pollution, radiation, food-borne illness, cancer, tobacco,
climate change, crime, suicide, and terrorism. Risk communication occurs in interpersonal
communication settings, organizations, and mediated environments such as the internet, print
news, and television.

67
To understand risk communication, it is important to learn first about two related fields, risk
assessment and risk management. Risk assessment involves determining the nature, likelihood,
and possibility of hazards for individuals or populations.

Risk managers develop and implement policies that reduce the harm or likelihood of hazards. In
one sense, anyone who owns or manages something that could be hazardous (a car, a home, a
boat, a business) is a risk manager.

d) Ethics
The study of communication has always reflected on the interest of ethics. Confucius wrote on
ethics in the 6th c B.C., and in the 4th c B.C. Aristotle discussed the importance of appeals to
ethos, personal quality, in communication, or “communication with integrity.”

Communication—the use of available resources to convey information, to move, to inspire, to

persuade, to enlighten, to connect—is an inherently ethical undertaking. Regardless of context,
communication involves choice, reflects values, and has consequences. These three key elements
of communication form the basis of its ethical makeup.

Ethics has been defined as the study of the general nature of morals and of the specific moral
choices to be made by a person. Thus, ethics involves in communication choices so that, by
examining and becoming more aware of our own values, we become responsible for the
consequences of our actions.

Throughout history, unethical communication has been one of humanity’s most potentially
harmful weapons. In interpersonal contexts, for example, communication has the power to
wound deeply, to undermine connection, and to thwart healthy human development. At the same
time, the art of communication has been instrumental to the pursuits of truth, wisdom, justice,
and peace. Historically, responsible and effective communication has fostered loving connection,
compassion, and understanding.

Communication’s powers to hurt and to heal, to repress and to inspire, to betray and to uplift, to
oppress and to comfort, to deceive and to enlighten, to wound and to mend are among the direct
links between communication and ethics.

Elements of Ethical Communication

All communication—interpersonal, organizational, small group, mass mediated, political,

informational, technical, or commercial, whether delivered orally, electronically, verbally or
nonverbally, visually, or through a print medium — occurs within a context, including goals,
means, and occasion. Ethical communication requires understanding of and responsiveness to
each of these three key elements.

68
What one hopes to achieve through the communication (the ends), how one chooses to
communicate (the means), and the “real-world” outcomes (the consequences) of communication
are particularly important features of ethical communication.

Choice, Moral Agency, and Responsibility

Communication ethics is, first and foremost, about choice. To the extent an individual or group
has options available in any given situation, moral agency is at play. With moral agency—the
relative freedom to choose one’s path way in any given situation comes responsibility.

General Guidelines for Ethical Communication

No set of rules or norms can provide certainty regarding the most ethical pathway in specific
cases. Usually, some measure of uncertainty is inevitable. However, people unable to make
absolute decisions nevertheless have the potential to make well-informed, ethical choices.
General guidelines for ethical communication provide tools for discerning more or less ethical
pathways, assisting decision-makers in their efforts to make responsible choices.

The Golden Mean

Aristotle is thought of by many scholars as the fonder of communication discipline. According to

Aristotle, morality is to be found in moderation. Aristotle view moral virtues as choices or mode
of choice. He considers each virtue has a mean, the middle path between to extremes – excess
and deficiency. For example, truthfulness would be the mean between false modesty and
boastfulness.

The Categorical Imperative

This is the guiding principle proposed by the German philosopher Immanuel Kant. Kant’s
principle is known as categorical imperative – that is, a command or obligation to act (an
imperative) that is absolute (categorical) – one with no exception or conditions. A categorical
imperative makes certain behaviors unacceptable under any circumstance. For example, to Kant
telling the truth is a sacred duty. There are no circumstances under which it would be acceptable
for us to lie because we do always harm someone by telling a lie.

For Kant morality is measured by our intentions to obey universal laws of morality rather than by
the consequences or outcomes of our actions.

Utilitarianism: Greatest happiness principle

69
British philosophers Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill value morality as the outcomes or
consequences of our action. Bentham proposed a “hedonistic calculus,” in which the amount of
pleasure an action creates is weighed against the amount of pain it causes. Mill refers to
happiness is the greatest good, and for Mill “happiness” refers to “pleasure and absence of pain.”

Utilitarianism is best known seek the greatest happiness for the greatest number.

Justice and the Veil of Ignorance

An American philosopher John Rawls proposed the principle of justice. His proposition is that
we should all be placed behind a veil of ignorance, “no one is in a position to tailor principles to
his/her advantage.” We don’t know which principles would be in our interest. Therefore, our act
should be free from bias and self-interest. No single person, group, or generation will be favored.

Rawls proposes then that a principle of justice or fairness must include protection of those
positions in the society is weakest – whether due to age, illness, status or income – and that what
is moral is what is fair for all.

70