Chapter 5

Run-of-river type hydropower project

5.1 General layout of components in a typical power

plant: dam body, weir, spillway, under sluices and
intakes with examples.
The components of a typical ROR power plant are:

? Diversion weir
PW
It is the structure that is placed across the river to divert a part of flow to the con-
veyance system through the intake.

? Intake
It is an opening to draw design flow from the river. It is provided with control gate to
regulate the flow.

? Gravel trap
Gravel trap is a structure constructed close to the intake in order to prevent gravel
from getting into the approach canal.

? Settling basin
It settles the suspended particles contained in the water. The trapped suspended
sediment is subsequently discharged back into the river through a flushing arrangement.

? Headrace conveyance system

Canal or pipe or tunnel can be the conveyance system in order to carry the water to
the fore bay or surge tank with the minimum energy loss.

? Fore bay or surge tank

They are the structure provided to release the water hammer pressure and also to store
additional volume of water for the startup of the plant.

? Penstock
It is the pipe for the pressurized flow of water to turbines.

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? Powerhouse
It is the location where all the machines are installed for the power production.

? Tailrace
The water used in powerhouse is taken back to the river using tailrace

A typical layout of RoR plant is shown in the figure below:

PW

Figure 5.1: A typical layout of RoR plant

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5.2 Different types of intakes, importance, location and

types, design concepts of intake structure, head
loss calculation in intake structure (trash rack losses).
Intake:
Intake is the structure to obtain the required quantity of water from the river or reservoir for
the different engineering purposes such as irrigation, power generation, water supply, etc.

Functions of intake:
The major functions of intake are enlisted below:

ˆ To control the flow of water into conveyance system by providing a gate or a valve.

ˆ To prevent entry of trash, debris, ice, boulders, etc. into the conveyance system.

ˆ To enable smooth, easy and turbulence free entry of water into conveyance system.

ˆ To minimize the sediment entry from the river into the water conveyance system.

Location of intake:
a) The intake should be located such that the largest possible portion of the bed load remains
PW
in the river and is not taken in the diversion canal with the diverted water.

b) In the meandering portion of the river, a spiral flow forms which transports the bed load
to the inner side of the river. Thus, the most favorable site for the construction of the intake
structure is the deflecting bank.

c) The intake should be located such that water is available at the intake even during low
flows.

d) If it is necessary to construct the intake on a straight river reach, a bent flow can be
forced using spurs.

e) The intake should be located such that it has minimum environmental impact.

Selection of type of intake

Selection of intake type depends upon the following factors:

∗ Nature of river
Side intake may be used in all types of rivers. The use of drop intake shall generally
be limited to small hilly rivers which witness flash floods under heavy rainfall, high
velocities of flow capable of transporting large quantities of sediments.

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∗ Nature and scale of hydropower project

Side intakes may be used for any type of RoR project. Frontal intakes are preferred
for low head projects. Owing to inherent additional head loss, drop intakes shall be
limited to small hydropower plants.

∗ Sediment, trash and debris content

Sidr intakes are preferred over those rivers which carry large amount of sediments,
trash and debris. A frontal intake located next to a free overflow section may be used
in rivers with floating debris and bed loads. Drop intakes are generally avoided in rivers
with high sediment content because the sediment content in the abstracted water will
be high.

∗ Construction consideration
The side intake may be most convenient for construction as it is usually constructed
on dry land on the bank of the river. This advantage may also hold for frontal intakes
located at a certain distance from the diversion structure.

∗ Operation and maintenance

Considering the large amount of trash and debris carried by the Nepalese rivers during
floods, side intakes may be preferred because of ease of trash handling, gate and stop
log operation and low maintenance cost.
PW
Types of intake
Based on the layout of the hydropower, the intakes are classified as:
1. Run-off-river intakes
a) Side intake

Figure 5.2: Side intake

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In this type of intake, the longitudinal axis of the intake shall generally be aligned perpen-
dicular to the axis of the river. It is the most common type of intake in RoR plant. It is
suitable for mild slope of the river.
Example: Lower Marsyangdi, Sunkoshi

b) Frontal intake
In this type of intake, the longitudinal axis of the intake shall generally be aligned parallel to
the axis of the river. It is suitable for relatively clean water carrying rivers and wide rivers.
Trashes and debris are attracted towards intake.
Example: Seti hydro intake

PW

Figure 5.3: Frontal intake

c) Bottom rack intake

Figure 5.4: Drop intake or Bottom rack intake

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This intake consists of a trench-shaped intake gallery constructed on the river bed to entrap
river flow. A sediment trap trench may be provided upstream of the intake gallery. A rash
rack is provided over the intake, often at the same level as the initial river [Link] intake
is suitable for very steep rivers carrying boulders. It is simple and inexpensive. The main
disadvantage is the abrasion of rack, chocking of rack and collecting channel.

2. Reservoir intake
a) Dam intake
Dam intake is provide in the body of the dam and is used in high head hydroelectric plant.
The penstock pipe is embedded in the dam at the required level. The component parts of
this intake are a trash rack in front of the dam, a control gate operated from the top of the
dam by hoisting cable, an air inlet just after the gate and a penstock pipe.

PW

Figure 5.5: Dam intake

b) Tower intake
Tower intakes are generally used in large projects. Tower intakes are categorized as dry tower
intake and wet tower intake. Wet tower intake is preferred over dry tower intake as it can
function well even in the fluctuation of reservoir level due to wave. Openings called portals
are available at different levels for the entry of water. Figure below shows a dry tower intake:

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Figure 5.6: Tower intake

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c) Submerged intake
The submerged intakes are used in small power plants. It is used in reservoir or river which

Figure 5.7: Submerged intake

do not have higher sediment concentration. It is economical and does not obstruct navigation.

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d) Shaft intake
It is a vertical shaft driven into the river bed which carries water through underground
conveyance system to the powerhouse for power generation. It consists of trash rack at the
entry of water, gate chamber, hoist chamber, intake gate arrangement and the penstock.

PW

Figure 5.8: Shaft intake

Hydraulic considerations in intake:

a) Intake approach should be symmetrical to avoid turbulence and to minimize entry head
loss.

b) Submergence depth should be more than 70% of the intake pipe diameter to avoid entry
of air pockets and vorticity.

c) Smooth flow of transition should be assured to minimize entry head loss. A sudden accel-
eration or deceleration of the flow generated additional turbulence with flow separation and
increase head loss.

d) Intake should be preferably located on concave side near the end of the curved stretch to
avoid the entry of silts.

e) Angle of diversion should be 20◦ to 30◦ , if discharge ratio is 0.2 to 0.3 and 45◦ to 60◦ if
discharge ratio is 1.

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Design concept of intake:

i) Decide suitable type of intake based on site and hydraulic conditions.

ii) Satisfy the velocity conditions

a. Approach velocity - 1.0 m/s
b. Trash rack – (0.6-0.75) m/s
c. Intake gate – (1-2) m/s

iii) Decide number of opening of intake.

iv) Account for contraction effect due to abutment or piers.

v) Calculate hydraulic losses.

Eg. Head loss due to trash rack, Entrance loss, Transition loss, Gate loss, Exit loss

vi) Ensure no entry of air

The system can trap air due to the formation of vortex due to hydraulic jump condition,
Submergence, velocity at intake etc.

vii) Ensure the release of trapped air to avoid formation of vacuum, cavities inside the system
PW
by providing inlet aeration facilities such as air vent.

Head loss in trash rack

Head loss in trash rack is computed by one of these formulae;
a) Kirschmer’s formula

 4/3
t V2
HL = k ∗ sin θ
b 2g
where,
HL =head loss in trash rack
t=thickness of bars in trash rack
b=spacing between the bars
V=velocity of flow through trash rack
φ=angle made by trash rack with horizontal
k=loss coefficient depending upon cross section of bar

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b) General formula

V2
HL = Kt
2g
where,
HL =head loss in trash rack
V=velocity of flow through trash rack
Kt =loss coefficient=1.45 − 0.45R − R2
where,R=ratio of net area to gross area of trash rack

5.3 Performance standards of headworks: control of

bed load and floating debris in intakes, Himalayan
intakes and hydraulic design of gravel trap.
One of the major function of the intake is to minimize the amount of debris and sediment
carried by the incoming water. So to avoid the entry of these particles into intake and ob-
tain relatively clean water, various structures are made at headworks. Some of them are
explained below:
PW
Trash rack:
Trash rack are placed at the entrance to the intake to prevent the entry of floating debris
and large stones. A trash rack is made up of one or more panels, fabricated from a series of
evenly spaced parallel metal bars. Trash racks are fabricated with stainless steel or plastic
bars.

Under sluice
The under sluice is provided to flush out the sediments deposited in front of the intake and
thus control the bed levels in its approach area. Hydraulic design of the under sluice shall
consists of determining its location, length, profile and opening size. The under sluice is
located close to the intake. It shall be provided in continuation with the overflow section
separated by the divide wall. Based on the flow to be passed, the under sluice may consist
of one or more bays. However, for small river flows, a single bay may be preferred over two
or more bays with smaller openings. The under sluice shall be designed as a broad-crested
weir with downstream submergence. Normally, energy dissipation downstream of the under
sluice shall be achieved through stilling basin.

Gravel trap:
The gravel trap is constructed close to the intake in order to prevent gravel from getting into
the approach canal. Main function of the gravel trap is to collect the bed load, smaller than
the trash rack opening size, entering through the canal. Gravel trap’s location is governed by
the site conditions, availability of flushing head and gravel carrying capacity of the approach
canal. Gravel trap is generally designed to collect maximum of 12 hours gravel deposit. A
flushing arrangement associated with the gravel trap is operated to flush out the collected

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gravels to the river.

Figure 5.9: Gravel trap

Hydraulic design of gravel trap:

Hydraulic design of gravel trap is very similar to that of settling basin design.
Critical velocity
The critical velocity of flow for the size of gravels to be transported shall be determined by
√
V =a d
PW
where,
d is the diameter of particle in mm
a=coefficient (depends upon size of particle)

Length of gravel trap Based on the flow velocity in the trap and the settling time of the
particle, the length of settling trap shall be obtained as:

L = tset V

where,
h
tset =
w
Hence,
Vh
L=
w
where,
w is the settling velocity and h is depth of the flow

Flushing velocity
The flushing velocity in the trap gallery may be found out by formula:
p
Vf = φ 2gH

where, φ=velocity coefficient

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Flushing time
The time taken for flushing (emptying) volume of water and gravel mixture from the gravel
trap will be determined as:
Vo
T =
Qf
where,
Vo =volume of water gravel mixture
Qf =flushing discharge

Himalayan intake:
Himalayan intake is a special type of intake that has proper system for management of both
floating debris and bed load.
ˆ It was invented by H stole in 1996.

ˆ It is a geometric design of an intake structure to be used in run-off-river hydropower

intake in steep Himalayan Rivers.
ˆ The purpose is to maintain a reservoir volume for daily peaking by providing means
of flushing of sediments from reservoir.
ˆ The intake is designed to function in a river which carry both floating debris and large
PW
amount of coarse sediments, including sizes up to rocks and boulders.

5.4 Sediment handling measures: types, location & de-

sign criteria of settling basin, its design and esti-
mation of sediment volume.
Sediment transport is the inherent phenomenon. Himalayan rivers are more prone to erosion
due to:
ˆ Young geology

ˆ Fragile geology

ˆ Intense rainfall

ˆ Steep catchment
The erosion products are boulders, gravels, sand and fine materials. Nepalese rivers have
high concentration of sediment. During rainfall season the concentration of sediment is as
high as 25,000 ppm in Narayani and Major rivers. In Jhimruk River, the concentration is as
high as 50,000 ppm.

There are two types of sediment load: bed load and suspended load. Bed load is excluded
at the intake but the suspended load enter into the intake.

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Effect of sediment on hydropower

ˆ Wear and tear of hydro-mechanical equipment such as

X Turbine blades
X Guide vanes
X Guide vane rings
X Steel pipes, valves, lining and other structures

The wear and tear depends upon shape, size and hardness of sediment.

ˆ Chocking of various parts such as Valves Flushing channel Monitoring devices like
sediment sampler, turbid meter, current meter etc.

ˆ Loss of efficiency

Settling phenomenon depends upon:

 Particle characteristics

 Temperature of water
PW
 Concentration

What size particles to remove?

Stole. 1993 suggested removal of particles size d > (0.15 − 0.3)mm
Masonyi suggested removal of particles according to the head.

? Medium head d > (0.2 − 0.5)mm

? High head d > (0.1 − 0.2)mm

? Very high head d > (0.01 − 0.05)mm

Parameters of settling basin design

a) Settling velocity (w)
The settling velocity of a sediment particle is defined as the rate at which the sediment
settles in still fluid. It is diagnostic of grain size, but also sensitive to the shape as well as
the viscosity and the density of the fluid. The settling velocity can be computed for different
flow condition as follows:

For fully turbulent condition,(d > 1 mm)

p
w = 3.33gd∆
γs − γw
∆=
γw

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For transition flow condition,(0.1 mm < d < 1 mm)

4∆gd
w=
3CD
24 3
CD = + √ + 0.34
Re Re
For laminar flow condition,(d < 0.1 mm)

γd2 (G − 1)
w=
18ν
24
CD =
Re
where,
w=settling velocity
d=diameter of particle
CD =coefficient of drag
Re =Reynold’ s number
ν=kinematic viscosity of water
G=relative density of sediment
PW
The settling velocity of different size particles for different temperature may also be available
in tabular form as shown below:

b) Concentration (C)
Concentration is the amount of sediment present in given volume of water. It is generally
expressed in ppm or mg/l. In general, with the increase in concentration, settling velocity
(w) decreases due to interference of the particles. But if the finer particles are dominant,
settling velocity (w) may increase due to group settling of the particles.

c) Turbulence
Due to turbulence, the trap efficiency of the settling basin is reduced due to the reduction
of settling velocity.

Design method of settling basin

A. Particle approach
Assumptions:

ˆ Steady flow

ˆ Quiescent flow (no turbulence)

ˆ Particles once settled down do not come back into suspension.

ˆ Depth of basin (H) is usually assumed.

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Figure 5.10: Partical approach

Let L, B and H be the length, breadth and height of the settling basin. Let V be the
horizontal flow velocity and w be settling velocity
L
T ravel time =
V
PW
H
Settling time =
w
Equating travel time and settling time,
L H
=
V w
Thus,length of settling basin is obtained as
VH
L= (5.1)
w
Also,using continuity equation,
Q = AV = BHV
Q
V =
BH
So,eqation (i) becomes,
Q H
L= ∗
BH w
Thus,settling velocity is given by
Q Q
w= = (5.2)
LB As
where,
As is the surface area of settling basin.

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Now, horizontal flow velocity can be computed using empirical formulae.

According to camp, p
V = 0.36 dmm , f or (d > 1mm)
p
V = 0.44 dmm , f or (0.1mm ≤ d ≤ 1mm)
p
V = 0.51 dmm , f or (d < 1mm)
Since turbulence is neglect, thus obtained length of settling may be multiplied by a factor of
safety k.
VH
L= , k = 1.2 − 1.5
w
Considering turbulence:
If turbulence is considered separately, its effect is incorporated by reducing the settling
velocity.
wadopt = w − w0
where,
w0 = αV
0.132
α= √
H
VH VH
PW
∴L= =
wadopt w − 0.132
√
H

Hence,
H 3/2 V
L = 1/2
H w − 0.132V
Also,breadth is given by
Q
B= (5.3)
VH
Design steps for particle approach:

ˆ Calculate settling velocity of the particles (w)

ˆ Assume a suitable depth of the settling basin (H)

ˆ Calculate horizontal flow velocity (V) using Camp’s empirical formula.

ˆ Calculate the length of the basin using equation (5.1)

ˆ Calculate the breadth of the basin using equation (5.3)

ˆ Multiply the calculated length of settling basin using a suitable factor of safety.

ˆ Or consider turbulence separately by reducing the settling velocity.

ˆ Using reduced value of settling velocity, calculate length and breadth as mentioned
above.

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[Link] approach
In this method, the basin is designed to achieve desired trapping efficiency. Various combi-
nation of depth, width and length can be considered to achieve the desired efficiency. There
are various methods for concentration approach.
[Link]’s method.
In this method, trapping efficiency is function of dimensionless parameter w/u* and wAS/Q
where u* is the shear velocity. Shear velocity is given as
p
u∗ = gRi

where,  2
Qn
i = f riction slope =
AR2/3
Once, w/u* is computed, wAS /Q for certain value of trap efficiency can be obtained. For
known value of w and Q, AS can be calculated.
PW

Figure 5.11: Camp’s chart

b. Vetter’s method
For the given value of w and Q, AS can be calculated directly using the formulae.
−wAs
η =1−e Q

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c. Hazen’s method
 −1/m
w
η =1− 1+m
Vo
The parameter is used to quantify performance of the settling basin, where m=0 represents
best performance, and m=1 represents very poor performance.

Design steps of concentration method

ˆ Assume removal of the sediment particle to 90% to 95% efficiency.

ˆ After assuming efficiency, calculate AS using Vetter’s equation or using camp’s chart.

ˆ Assume length to breadth of the basin = 4 to 10

ˆ Length and breadth can be calculated.

ˆ Calculate depth of the basin using continuity equation Q=AV

Estimation of sediment volume

Weight of the sediment=Q*T*C
PW
Where,
Q= discharge
T= detention time
C= concentration
weight
V olume of sediment =
density ∗ packingf actor(0.5)
volume of sediment
Depth of sediment =
surf ace area of settling basin

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Velikanov’s formula
The empirical formula for determination of the length of the settling basin is given by
Velikanov. It is especially used to check the length of the basin calculated from the analytical
method. The necessary settling length for turbulent flow is computed from settling velocity
and flow velocity as: √
λ2 V 2 ( H − 0.2)2
L=
7.51w2
where,
λ depends upon removal ratio W
W denotes the ratio of settled sediment to the total load entering
The value of λ for given removal ratio can be calculated from the curve below:

PW

Figure 5.12: Velikanov’s chart

Different types of settling basin

F Conventional type
The basin is dewatered when it is taken out of operation. Sediments may be removed
manually or with mechanical equipment after the basin is dewatered. Deposited sed-
iments may also be removed by lowering water level inside the basin and generating
swift flow in free surface gravity flow throughout the basin. Generally, two settling
chamber are constructed so that one can still be operated while other is closed for
flushing.

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Figure 5.13: Conventional type

F Hooper type
Water level and water flow is maintained in the basin throughout the flushing period in
order to facilitate continuous power generation. Removal of sediments while the basin
is operational may be achieved with continuous or intermittent flushing or by use of
some kind of suction or dredging device.
PW

Figure 5.14: Hooper type

F Beiri type
In Beiri type, the shutter mechanism in the bottom of the basin is made of two plates
with series of opening. One plate is fixed while other can be moved horizontally.
Flushing is done when opening in both plate fall together. Sensor can be placed at the
bottom of the plate so as to sense the volume of sediment deposited in the chamber.

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Once the sediment collected increases the desired level of deposition, one plate is moved
over the other to match the opening and sediment is flushed.

Figure 5.15: Beiri type

F S4 (Serpent sediment sluicing system)

This is a new type of desanding basin which was developed by Hakoon stole at the
Norwegian Institute of Science and Technology. It consists of a flushing channel and
a flexible pipe called Serpent. This pipe can float or sink in water depending upon
the fluid filled inside it. When the serpent is filled with heavy fluid, it settles and
flushing canal is closed and sediment is deposited over it. When the deposition reaches
PW
a limit, the fluid in pipe is removed and light gas is installed which facilitates floating
of serpent and hence sediments are flushed through flushing channel.

Figure 5.16: S4 system

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F Hydro cyclone
Particles in a hydro cyclone are trapped due to centrifugal action. When the head of
the power plant is significant (several 100 m), very fine particles have to be removed.
Conventional gravity basin for such purpose is usually not feasible due to unavailability
of space and cost. Hydro cyclones are suitable and efficient for such purpose.

PW

Figure 5.17: Hydrocyclone

Numerical 5.1
Design a settling basin to remove sediment particles larger than 0.15 mm (w=1.7 cm/s) from
the water carrying mainly sand having a design discharge of 35 m3 /s.
a) Without considering turbulence
b) Considering turbulence
Also check the length of the basin using Velikanov’s formula. Given that for W=88%, λ=0.8.
Provided that the height of the basin doesn’t exceed 8 m.

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Components of settling basin

The settling basin consists of following components:

PW
A. Inlet transition
i. The inlet transition shall be designed to prevent turbulent flow at the entrance of the
settling basin.
ii. The approach canal to the settling basin shall have a straight alignment.
iii. The gradual expansion angle at the inlet is small about (6-8)◦ .

B. Settling zone
i. It is the main part of the basin where settling of the suspended sediment is supposed to
take place.
ii. Settling zone length is also called effective length of the basin.
iii. Length to breadth ratio of about (4 to 10) is adopted for the design.

C. Outlet transition
i. This is a kind of transition designed after the settling zone of a settling basin to facilitate
for getting back the flow into conveyance system.
ii. The transition can be more abrupt than at inlet.

D. Flushing system
The flushing arrangement should be provided to flush the sediment deposited in the basin.
It should ensure that when the flushing gate or valve is opened, the water level in the basin
decreases and the sediment deposited in the bed starts flushing out.

E. Regulation system
A regulation system is provided at the inlet and outlet of the settling basin for the control
of flow. It consists of gated structure with operation mechanism.

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5.5 Flushing of settling basin: flushing frequency (pe-

riodical and continuous)
Based on flushing mechanism, settling basin can be classified into two groups.
a) Continuous flushing type
These type of basin are designed with hoppers. The settled particles pass through the bottom
of the hoppers to the collecting channel and are flushed continuously.

? Continuous flushing desanding basin uses surplus water for flushing i.e. about 10% of
plant discharge.

? These type of settling basin does not interfere power production during flushing process.

? The design and operation of continuous type settling basin is complex compared to
discontinuous type.

? The main problem is clogging of the sediment extracting system.

Example: Hopper type and Hydro cyclone

b) Discontinuous flushing type

In this type of settling basin, sediments are not flushed continuously.
PW
ˆ Discontinuous flushing desanding basin are of much simpler in design and are much
less susceptible to clogging.

ˆ The main operating convenience is that plant output should be cut back for multi basin
or shut down for single basin.

ˆ In first phase, the suspended sediments are allowed to settle in the settling zone.

ˆ In second phase, the deposited sediments are removed by different systems.

They are further classified into two classes:

i) Periodic flushing type

In this type of settling basin, power plant is shut down during flushing. Flushing is gen-
erally done by conventional gravity flushing method. Mechanical removal (Dredging)
is also another means of sediment removal. If other means turn out to be inefficient,
the settling basin should be cleaned by manually removing the sediments.
Example: Conventional type settling basin

ii) Intermittent flushing type

In this type of settling basin, flushing is not continuous. However, power plant is
not shut down during flushing. Flushing is done at regular intervals and the power
generation is done continuously.
Example: Beiri type and S4 type

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