1

MINISTRY OF HIGHER EDUCATION AND SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

IBN KHALDOUN UNIVERSITY - Tiaret -

Faculty of Applied Sciences

Department of Electrical Engineering

Course on Electrical Network Protection

L3 electrical engineering

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Chapitre 1 : Introduction à la protection

1.1. Introduction: General Overview of Electric Networks

An electrical network is a set of interconnected electrical components in a way that allows

to transmit electric energy from the production centers to the electricity consumers.
An electrical distribution, important and complete, includes the following various parts:
Electric power production plants; Power plants;
A network of (very) high voltage transmission lines;
> Transformation, interconnection, distribution substations; > Distribution line networks in
medium voltage;
Transformation stations (cabinets), associated with low voltage utilization lines.
In this chapter, we will review some different methods of producing electrical energy.
varieties of topological structures of networks, multiphase systems, more specifically systems
balanced and unbalanced three-phase systems.

1.2. Production of electrical energy

Production consists of using various energy sources to drive alternators which often,
produce three-phase voltages and currents.
We distinguish between production plants: thermal, nuclear, hydraulic, wind, solar,
geothermal (dry steam turbines), etc. The advantages and disadvantages of each type arise
mainly from the ease of operation and maintenance of resources and especially from the efficiency of processing
of energy.

1.3. Interconnection, transport, and distribution of electrical energy

Electric energy can be transported either by single-phase or multiphase alternating current at different levels of
voltage with a given frequency, or by direct current.
Alternating current systems are universally used due to the significant advantages they offer.
and those with direct current are reserved for certain specific applications.
For technical and economic reasons, electricity production centers are concentrated on
a relatively small number of sites; as for the numerous consumers, they are spread across the entire
territory.
In order to ensure the various connections between each other, it is important to establish electrical lines.
which allow the transit of electric power.
These lines are connected to each other through electrical substations which are nodes consisting of
particularly electrical equipment, transformers, measuring devices, control devices and
control, etc.
Networks are therefore made up of branches (meshes or antennas) formed by electrical lines and
posters.
The entire network ensures the transit of energy from production centers to various centers of
consumption and also achieves a certain pooling (interconnection) of production means. The
The quantities of energy transported decrease from the generators, relatively few in number, to the millions of...
consumers.
Practically, a number of networks perform various specific functions among which the boundaries
are not always accurate and are subject to change over time with the operating conditions.
We distinguish:
Transport and interconnection networks;
Distribution networks;
Distribution networks.

1.4. Topological structures of electrical networks

The topological structure of an electric network is that which appears on a map; it is not sufficient for
characterize the network exploitation scheme.
Necessity of varied topologies
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Networks must ensure the transit of energy with the maximum safety despite various infringements.
they can be victims (lightning, pollution, mechanical shocks, etc.) and the damage that may result.
We can enhance security:
By improving the reliability of the equipment;
By ensuring adequate preventive maintenance;
By improving the construction provisions;
By increasing the number of circuits, transformers, ..., this is particularly costly.
It is therefore important to find a compromise between the cost of additional investments and that of the
potential failure, which can be drawn by the energy that may not be distributed. This compromise cannot be
the same depending on the functions provided by the networks, their voltage, the type of users connected to them.
This leads to different network topologies, including radial, looped networks, and those
meshed.
Each branch between two consecutive nodes i and j will be represented by its equivalent schematic and it is common
in the practice of knowing the load at node i by its power and its power factor.
1.4.1. Radial networks
Their configuration is that found in the operation of distribution networks whose voltage sources
are composed of one or more step-down transformer(s).
The voltage supplied by each of these sources can be variable, following the fluctuations of the high voltage network.
to which the transformer is connected, or adjustable if the transformation ratio can be modified.

Figure 1.1 below illustrates the diagram of a radial network. The calculation of such a network is particularly easy.

Fig.1.1: Illustration of a radial or antenna network

1.4.2. Mesh networks

These are networks in which the links form loops, most of which have common sides, realizing
thus a structure similar to the mesh of a net.
In these networks, energy transits in the different branches can easily escape any control.
precise.
This structure is generally used for transport; figure 1.2 below shows the mesh structure of a
electric network.

Fig.1.2: Illustration of a mesh network

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1.4.3. Closed networks

A looped network is a simplified mesh network featuring a number of closed loops. Each of
loop contains a limited number of sources.

Fig.1.3 : Illustration of a looped network

1.5. Polyphase Systems

Generally, electrical energy is distributed to most industrial installations by systems.

polyphase and particularly by three-phase systems that are composed of three phases.
A polyphase system is defined as a set of sinusoidal quantities of the same frequency.
out of phase with each other. The multiphase system of magnitudes is then called "phase system".
A -phase system is said to be 'symmetric or balanced' if the effective values of its sinusoidal quantities are
equal and if the phase shift between two consecutive quantities is worth, otherwise the phase system is said to be "non-symmetric".
you unbalanced.
The different polyphase systems are:
Biphase system: it is a system that does not conform to the definition of a multiphase system because it would require a
phase shift between the magnitudes. In this particular system, we take for the calculation of the phase shift and for the
number of phases.
Three-phase system:
Tetra phase system:
Hexa phase system:
In the following, we are particularly interested in the three-phase system.
The phase or rotation operator for a three-phase system is defined by:
P (~) -- With.

The voltage phasors ~ ~ ~) on the three phases in a node of a direct symmetrical three-phase system are defined
by the following phasors:

The symmetric system is completely defined by a single reference phasor ~.

The voltage phasors ~ ~ ~ ) on the three phases at a node of an inverse symmetrical three-phase system are
defined by the following phase shifters:

This symmetrical system is also completely defined by a single reference phasor.

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1.6. The what and the how of the electrical network

Fig. 1.4 electrical network

Problems raised
Electricity cannot be stored.
The power plants are located based on certain constraints.
geographical
Consumers are spread across the entire territory.
Solution
Electricity must be produced in real time.
The transport and interconnection network (all high voltage lines are interconnected)
through transformation substations).

1.6. 1. The different faults in the electrical network

Before discussing the different faults in the electrical network, we will first start by giving
the general structure of the electrical network

1.6. 1.1 National structure of the electrical network

The generators of power plants generally provide a voltage between 5 and 20 kV. This
the voltage is raised to a value of 400 kV in order to be transported to the distribution stations (dispatching) and then
towards the locations of use by the transport and distribution networks of electrical energy
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Electrical components in a substation (A: primary side B: secondary side 1. Primary power line 2. Cable
3. Guard 4. Electric line 5. Voltage transformer 6. Switch 7. Circuit breaker 8. Transformer
courant 8. Parafoudre 9. Transformateur (de puissance) 10. Bâtiment secondaire 11. Clôture 12. Ligne électrique
secondary)

Fig.1.5 National structure of the electrical network

1.6. 1.2 Sources of disturbance in the electrical network

a) atmospheric perturbations (Natural origins): lightning, fog

b) artificial (accidental) perturbations: triggering of foreign bodies (branches, birds) or with a device.
pollutions.
c) internal perturbations: the defects originate from the network itself
The equipment damages (lines, cables, transformers, etc.) caused by mechanical failures or the
aging of insulators.
Inopportune maneuvers: related to a human failure or equipment.
These disruptions cause in the network:

Figure I.6 Examples of disturbances in the quality of electrical energy

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I.6.2.1 Tension trough

Voltage dips are caused by short circuits occurring in the general network or in the installations.
from the clientele (figure I.7). Only voltage drops greater than 10% are considered here (the amplitudes
lower ones fall into the category of "voltage fluctuations". Their duration can range from 10 ms to several
seconds, depending on the location of the short circuit and the functioning of the protective devices (the faults
are normally eliminated in 0.1-0.2 seconds in HT, 0.2 seconds to a few seconds in MT.

Figure I.7: Tension hole

They are characterized by their: amplitude and duration and can be single-phase or three-phase depending on the number of
concerned phases.
Voltage dips can trigger equipment when their depth and duration
exceed certain limits (depending on the particular sensitivity of the loads). The consequences can be
extremely costly (restart times amounting to hours or even days; data loss
informatiques ; dégâts aux produits, voire aux équipements de production...).

I.6.2.2 Short interruption or brief outage

A short interruption is the complete loss or disappearance of the power supply voltage for a period of
time of 1/2 cycle up to 3 s. It occurs when the supply voltage or charging current decreases to
less than 0.1 p.u.
The release of voltage faults and brief interruptions are mainly caused by short circuits.
attributable to natural network incidents and maneuvers of protective devices eliminating these faults. They
are also the result of calling significant powers during the commissioning of certain loads of the
network.

I.6.2.3 Voltage or overvoltage bosses

The voltage swell is an increase in voltage above the nominal voltage of 1.1 p.u for a duration of
0.5 cycle at 60 s. It is characterized by its amplitude and duration. It can cause overheating and destruction.
components.

I.6.2.4 Voltage drops

When the flow in an electrical line is significant, the current flow in the line causes
a drop in voltage (figure I.8). The voltage is then lower at the end of the line than at its origin, and the longer the line
is charged in power transit, the voltage drop will be greater.

Figure I.8: Case of a consumption powered by a line from a power plant

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If the consumption doubles, the voltage drop doubles.

Figure I.9: Case of high consumption supplied by a line from a power plant

A network in which consumption is distant from production will present a different voltage profile.
of that of a network in which production and consumption are evenly distributed (figure I.10). Each
The power plant imposes the voltage at its output, and the voltage evolves in the network according to the supplied consumption.

Figure I.10: Case of distributed consumption with multiple plants

That is why in high voltage mesh networks, the voltage differs depending on where one is located. At the
At the consumption point, the tension is high at the nodes of the network where the power plants discharge, and relatively low.
at consumption points far from power plants.
Figures (I.8) (I.9) (I.10) are valid for a given moment, at a given level of consumption. When the
consumption varies over time, the voltage evolves, decreasing when consumption increases, rising again
when consumption decreases.
The fact that the voltage is not the same at every point in the network is normal. This difference is compensated by
voltage adjustments made in the substations. This ensures that the voltage remains within
the acceptable range at all delivery points.

Remark
An electric cable has its own resistance depending on its length and cross-section, so we need to
limiter the loss generated by this resistance of the cables electric.

A small part of the electricity carried by an electrical cable is transformed into heat, so there is a generation of heat.
a drop in voltage commonly referred to as Voltage Drop or Joule effect. If a drop occurs in
tension, meaning a decrease in the voltage flowing through the electric cable, then there will also be a decrease in
the intensity in Amperes.

If a low voltage LED bulb only receives 10.4v instead of 12v, then its luminous power will be
largement impactée à la baisse.
What the NF C 15-100 standard says about voltage drop in the domestic electrical installation:
The NF C 15-100 standard imposes a voltage drop of a maximum of 3% between the main circuit breaker and
the terminal circuits of the electrical installation: sockets, lighting, specialized circuits….
If the measurement of the voltage at the connection circuit breaker is 230V, the acceptable limit voltage at the level
The terminal circuits are therefore at 223V. (3% of 230V is approximately 7V).
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Example 1
Calculate the voltage drop

230
I 3.38A
24 20 20
U R * I 20*3.38 230 67.65 162.35V

Example 2
Calculate the voltage drop in an overhead line.

UAD = the composed tension of Departure

UAA = the composed voltage of Arrival = 20KV

P1 = active power + 15MW

F=50Hz
R = 220mΩ/km
L=1.2Mh/Km
Length of the line = 50km
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I.6.2.5 Voltage imbalance

Voltage imbalances usually occur in the presence of a charge imbalance and their
current calls. Indeed, all three-phase loads must draw the same current on each phase. As for the
single-phase loads connected to a three-phase network must be distributed as evenly as possible among the
three phases. In addition, some voltage imbalances result from the operation and nature of the equipment
of the electrical network.

Figure I.11 Voltage imbalance

In figure I.11, the currents absorbed on the three phases are of different amplitudes, hence some
voltage imbalances. These voltage imbalances generate reverse current components that
mainly cause parasitic braking couples and overheating in current motors
alternative.
At the European level, the standard EN 50160 specifies: 'Under normal operating conditions, for each
During a week, 95% of the effective values calculated over 10 minutes of the inverse voltage component.
Food supply should be between 0 and 2% of the direct component. In some regions, there are imbalances.
can reach 3 %.
HOW TO DETECT A VOLTAGE IMBALANCE ISSUE?
Here is how to obtain a good approximation of the imbalance in a network:
Measure the three phase-phase voltages.
2. Calculate the average tension.
3. Determine the voltage that has the greatest deviation from the average.
4. Calculate the ratio between this deviation and the average voltage.

If the report is greater than 2%, it is recommended to intervene internally.

Example 3:
Calculate the imbalance voltage
1. Tensions mesurées : Vab = 600 V; Vbc = 630 V; Vca = 570 V
2. V moyenne = 600 V
3. ΔV = 630 V –600 V = 30 V 4.
In imbalance = (30 V ÷ 600 V) × 100 = 5 % (very high imbalance)
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I.6.2.6 voltage fluctuation or flicker

Flickering or blinking (flicker in English) is a fluctuation in electrical voltage caused by

electromagnetic perturbations or by variations in power on the carrier network of this voltage.
By extension, the flicker effect is also called the variation in luminance of a light source due to the variation of
the power supply voltage of this source. Thus, flicker effect is also referred to as the flickering of a screen.
computer caused by voltage fluctuations due to screen refresh, or variations
of the electric current intensity of a light bulb when an electrical device is connected to the same circuit.
Variations in the national power grid voltage also cause a flicker effect on all the
connected light sources. These variations are mainly caused by power fluctuations.
reactive on the network, caused by the sudden connection and disconnection of bandwidth-hungry devices
energy.

Figure I.12 voltage fluctuation

Variation of the light intensity (flicker) typical of incandescent bulbs connected to the mains
ordinary electric (230V/50Hz). The flicker occurs 100 times per second (= 100 Hz). The intensity variation is located
generally between 5 and 15%.
Flicker source devices
• Arc oven
• Welder
• Engine
• Wind turbines

Devices sensitive to flicker effect

Any light source present on the electrical grid where 'flicker source' devices can be connected
to be connected or disconnected.
• Téléviseur
• Fluorescent tube
• Computer screen
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I.6.2.7 The harmonics

Linear and nonlinear charges

A load is said to be 'linear' if the current it absorbs is sinusoidal when it
is powered by a sinusoidal voltage. This type of receiver does not generate
of harmonic.

Non-linear loads result in a current from the network that is not purely sinusoidal.
Only the fundamental at 50 Hz of this distorted current contributes, along with the voltage, to
the contribution of the active power consumed by the equipment.
Non-linear loads generate harmonics
The current harmonics do not bring this power (because their frequencies
are different from 50 Hz) but unfortunately contribute to increasing
uselessly the effective intensity of the current carried by the power cables

[Link] series decomposition of a periodic signal

See the link below
[Link]
A periodic signal of frequency f can be expressed as the sum of:
• A constant term that corresponds to the continuous component (i.e., the average value over time)
• A sinusoidal term of frequency f (it is the fundamental or harmonic of rank 1)
• A sinusoidal term of frequency 2f (second harmonic)
• A sinusoidal term of frequency 3f (3rd harmonic)
• etc ...

( )= 0+ 1sin( ωt+ )
1+ ∑ sin( ωt + )
>2
( ) = 0 + V1 sin( + 1
) + ∑ V sin( + )
n>2

3. Concepts of harmonic voltages and currents

3.1. Effective value (True RMS)
By definition, the effective value of a periodic current i(t) is: = √ 1∗ ( ∫ 0)2

It is shown that

=√ 2 2
0+ 1+ ∑ 2

Likewise
= √ 2 2+
0+ ∑ 2
1
2
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3.2. Effective value of harmonics

It is the effective value of all harmonics
We show that and
= √∑ 2 VH= √∑ Vn2
2 n 2

3.3. Total Harmonic Distortion, THD

The harmonic currents flowing through the impedances of the electrical system cause voltage drops.
harmonics, observed in the form of harmonic distortion in voltage.
One of the solutions designed to detect the presence of harmonics is the calculation of THD, total harmonic distortion.

value efficace ofsharmoyouwhats

Definition of the harmonic distortion rate:THD = effective valueibrake of the ovenngive mensuch

What gives us 2
and 2
√∑ 2 √∑ 2
THDV= THDI=
V1 I1

Note 1: When the THD is equal to zero, we can conclude that there are no harmonics on the network.

Note 2: There is another definition of the distortion rate relating to the effective value of the signal as a whole.
√ ∑ >2 2 √ ∑ >2 2
eff valueicace ofsharmoniwhats
(THD = , that isTHDV= for the tension and THDI= for the current).
effective valueicage 2
√∑ 1 √ ∑ >1 2
The important thing is to remain consistent in your calculations...

Powers in the presence of harmonics

3.4. Active, reactive, and apparent powers.
• The active power P consumed by the load is the average over a period of the instantaneous power:
1
=∗∫ ( )( )
∗
0

It is shown that: P = V0x I0 contribution of continuous components

+ V1 I1cos 1 contribution of the fundamentals
+ V2I2cos 2 contribution of second-order harmonics
+ V3I3cos 3 contribution of third-order harmonics
+ ….

• The reactive power Q consumed by the load is Q = V1I1sine 1+ n>2

∑ Vn cohswaeng

• The apparent power of the load is by definition: S = V x I

3.5. Deforming power

In the presence of harmonics, S²≠P² + Q²
We introduce the notion of deforming power D such that S² = P² + Q² + D²

3.6. Power factor

By definition, the power factor is equal to: P P
PF = =
S √ P² + Q² + D²
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What to remember: In a purely sinusoidal environment: PF = cos

In a harmonic environment: PF < cos φ

4. Case of a nonlinear dipole powered by a sinusoidal alternating voltage

4.1. Expression of voltage and current
We assume the alternating current: I0= 0
2
In
So we have Ieff = √ I12+ ∑ I2n= I11+ ∑√( )
I1
n 2 n 2

Ieff= I1 √1+ THDI2

A purely sinusoidal alternating current is summarized by its fundamental (first-order harmonic).

So V = V1 (Vn = 0 for n 2)

4.2. Expression of powers

The expressions for voltage and current allow for the simplification of those for power.
• Active power P = V I1cos 1
• Reactive power Q = V I1without 1

• Apparent power S=VI=V √ +

• Deforming power D² = S² - (P² + Q²)
D = V I1x THDI
D = V IH

Remarks:
• The harmonics of the current (order do not play any role concerning the active power
• The harmonics of the current (order do not play any role concerning reactive power
• The deforming power is directly related to the presence of current harmonics (rank 2).

4.3. Expression of the power factor

P VI1cos φ1
PF = =
S √V squaredI²1cossquaredphi1+ V²I²
1 sin²φ1+ V²I² 1THDI ²

cos φ1
PF =
√ 1+ THDI ²
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Remarks:
• When the total harmonic distortion of current (THDi) increases, the power factor decreases.
• The term cos 1is also called displacement factor (DPF: Displacement Power Factor).
On a: PF < DPF

THDi Power factor PF

(for DPF = 1)
0% (linear charge) 1
10% 0,995
20% 0.981
50% 0.894
100 % 0.707
150% 0.555
200 % 0.447

5. Problems created by harmonics

5.1. The effects
Immediate effects: losses due to Joule effect
• Power factor degradation Reduction of motor power (negative torque)
• Surcharges of cables, transformers, and motors
• Increase of noise in the engines
• Recording error in the meters
• Oversizing of cables
• Network capacity reduction
• Malfunction of contactors
• Perturbation of electronic systems

Medium and long-term effects

• Reduction of engine lifespan
• Deterioration of capacitor batteries
• Reduction of the lifespan of transformers
• Accelerated aging of insulators and dielectrics
• Iron losses, losses caused by the magnetic field + losses due to eddy currents, leading to a
decommissioning of transformers and motors

5.2. The main remedies considered

General solutions
• Lowering harmonic impedances
• Act on the structure of the installation

6. Normative aspects
6.1. Main standards
Several standards exist to frame this subject, among the most important:
• IEC 61000-1-1 : To define the harmonics.
• CEI 61000-2-1 to 5 : For low-frequency networks and transmission.
• IEC 61000-3-2 to 6 : For the limits of harmonic current emissions.
• CEI 61000-4-1 to 15: For the testing and immunizations of the materials.
• EN 50160 : For the characteristics of voltage supply by public networks.
• The UTE C15-105 guide: For the sizing of cables in the presence of harmonics.

6.2. Excerpt from the IEC 61000-2-2 standard:

This standard defines the compatibility levels for low-frequency conducted disturbances on public networks.
low voltage power supply
 16

Tolerable levels for harmonic voltages on low voltage networks 50 Hz (according to IEC61000-2-2)
6.3. Consideration of harmonic currents by the NF C 15-105 standard (excerpts)
The sizing of cables based on the percentage of harmonics (TH%) is carried out according to the NF C 15-100 standard.
Edited by UTE C 15-105 (433.3 & 433.4) taking into account the calculation of the neutral section, depending on the harmonic rate.

Harmonic rate Predictable effects

THDU < 5 % and THDI < 10 % Nothing
5% < THDU < 8% or Significant pollution,
10 % < THDI < 50 % possible harmful effects
Strong pollution,
THDU > 8% and THDI > 50%
likely malfunctions
Third order harmonic rate Significant current
running > 15% in the neutral
Forecast analysis of the harmonic distortion rate in current

Choice of the neutral section according to NF C 15-105

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Chapter 2: Protection System Element

2.1. Introduction: means of protection

PROTECTIONS AGAINST ABNORMAL NETWORK SITUATIONS

They include:
overload protections, which cut off power to equipment subjected to excessively high currents,
susceptible to deteriorating them or making them dangerous.
the protections against out-of-sync breaks, designed to prevent the triggering of alternators
centrals when one of them, or several of them, rotates at a different speed from the rest of the others
alternators delivering on the same network
the load-shedding protections, aimed at restoring the balance between production and consumption, and thus preventing a fall
of frequency likely to lead to a general collapse of the means of production.
THE AUTOMATONS
Most of the defects caused by lightning on aerial works disappear spontaneously after a few
tenths of seconds after the equipment is powered off. After certain checks, it is then possible to reconnect
the equipment under pressure. Automata are responsible for these checks. Other automata allow, when
several works are offline, to quickly bring back into service those that are healthy. Others
allow to avoid overload triggers through preventive maneuvers on other departures. Others,
finally, are used to maintain a correct voltage on the network, by acting on the regulators of the transformers.
THE THERMAL RELAY
It is a device that protects the downstream receiver against overloads and phase cuts. To do this, it
constantly monitors the current in the receiver. In case of overload, the thermal relay does not act directly.
on the power circuit. A contact of the thermal relay opens the circuit of a contactor.
switch that cuts off the power to the receiver. Figure II.1 shows the thermal relay.

Figure II.1: thermal relay

The thermal relay does not have breaking power, it is always associated with a contactor. The thermal relay
It will cut off the power to the contactor in the control section via an auxiliary contact.
THE SELECTIVITY
Within an industrial electrical network, the protection of property and people requires the implementation of a
protection plan based on the definition and adjustment of protective equipment complying with certain
principles of selectivity. That is, each protection must trigger for the faults assigned to it and
do not trigger unnecessarily for others.
SENSITIVITY
Line protections must be able to detect faults for all operating schemes.
usual.
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2.1.1 protection against voltage dips and outages

We generally distinguish between voltage dips, short-duration interruptions, and long-duration interruptions.
Generally, all these phenomena are caused by the same incidents: short circuits. The location on
The electrical network in relation to the location of the short circuit determines the consequences on the power supply.
at the connection point. In the event of a short circuit, the part of the network in question is isolated by operation
of protections. A connection point will only be affected by a cut if it is part of the isolated section.
Typically, this occurs when a short circuit happens on the cable or power line of the point of
connection concerned or on a neighbor's installation.
We distinguish three categories of hollows based on the number of phases involved:
Type I: Mainly a drop from one of the phase-neutral voltages
Type II: Mainly due to a phase-phase voltage drop
Type III: The tensions on the three phases are affected equivalently.
Types I and II are typically caused by single-phase or two-phase short circuits.
Type III is the result of three-phase short circuits.
To protect against voltage dips:
1. Use low voltage relays E in the contactor group, they serve as a safety function when the
the power supply voltage is too low.
2. Use direct current power supplies rather than alternating current: because they inherently have a
energy reserve. They are typically less sensitive to dips (e.g. contactors with
excitation winding at cc).
3. Provide conditioned power supplies for control equipment: the installed power of equipment
The cost of the protection to be anticipated is therefore often justifiable.
To do this, uninterruptible power supply (UPS) systems are generally used.
It is important to note that the reliability of an UPS unit largely depends on the condition of the batteries. A
Good maintenance and the timely replacement of these batteries is therefore essential.
also true for programmable controllers: it is crucial to replace the backup battery on time.
in a way not to lose the program.
4. Use appropriate programming techniques: for processes based on sequential actions, it is
it is preferable not to use RAM for action variables. In this way, if the controller must
to be restarted, the step at which the process was before the dip is known and the process can be
restarted quickly.
2.1.2 surge protection

They are due to the causes:

1. Internal: they come from the electrical devices themselves, particularly during switching on or off.
2. External: lightning,
It is necessary to plan for the installation of surge protectors, lightning rods, and ground wires.
The transformer of the tapping station is fed through the network on one or two phases. An overvoltage
at 50 Hz can occur. This is a linear phenomenon. The occurrence of the overvoltage phenomenon is
instantaneous as soon as the necessary conditions are met.

400 kV / 90 kV Transformer Stabbing Post

The value of the overvoltage coefficient S is greater the more the homopolar impedance Zo of the transformer.
and that the phase-ground capacity Cp of the line will be high. Indeed, the study showed that the coefficient of
overvoltage S = V / Vn

= Xc/ Xc-3* X0
with Xc = 1/j * Cp * ω, Xo = j * Lo * ω
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2.1.3 protection against voltage drops

Reduce losses and voltage drop in an electrical cable. To maintain optimal efficiency, one
try in general to limit the loss to 3%, therefore there are several solutions to achieve this.
Limit the distance traveled by the current.
It is enough to minimize the distance between the energy source and the consumption of that energy.
In the context of battery use, the battery should be placed as close as possible to the components that will
consume the current.
2. Increase the section of the electrical cables.
The huge advantage of this solution is that it is possible to significantly reduce current loss as soon as
that we increase the section of the electrical cables, however, the cost can prove to be significant if the consumed intensity
is high or if the distance is important. To be reserved for average distances of 10m maximum according to our
calculations.
3. Reduce the intensity in electrical cables.
There are 2 very simple solutions.
The first is to connect your devices in parallel from the power source as much as possible because instead of
Having a consumption of 100w on an electric cable, you can for example switch to 4 x 25 watts on 4.
different cables. This leads to an additional cost in terms of the length of the cables since you will need 4 times more
length, it is therefore necessary to make a cost calculation between upper section or upper length.
The second solution is to increase the voltage upstream, meaning that instead of starting with
12v for example we will start at 48v and you just have to connect your devices in series to reach this
Tension is 4 devices 12v in series on a 48v output. The downside is that via a solar system +
battery it is quite difficult to find panels and batteries operating at 48v and you still need to ensure that your
Devices accept series connection. Reserved for those who have knowledge in electricity...
4. Limit the heat in the cables.
This solution will not bring a significant improvement, however a gain is a gain and nothing should be overlooked.
Place your cable close to the floor rather than running it along the ceiling where heat accumulates, for example.
bury an outdoor cable rather than leaving it exposed if it is already 30°C outside.

2.1.4 protection against voltage fluctuations

1. choice of lighting mode

2. modification of the disruptor The flicker can be reduced by changing the operating cycle of the load
perturbing factor: welding rhythm, furnace filling speed, ... When the direct and frequent start of a
the motor is causing flicker, a startup mode reducing overcurrent can be adopted.
3. addition of a flywheel In certain special cases, a rotating load can cause
voltage fluctuations (for example a volumetric compressor); a flywheel on its motor shaft
reduced.
4. rotating converter A motor-generator group dedicated to supplying the fluctuating load is a
solution valid if the active power of this load is relatively constant, but its price is high.
5. network modification According to the network structure, two methods are possible:
To distance or even isolate the disturbing load from the lighting circuits,
To increase the short-circuit power of the network by reducing its impedance (at the Coupling Point)
Common, PCC) These solutions should be recommended whenever applicable and preferably to all
the others (simplicity of operation).
For this, different schemes are possible:
Connection of lighting circuits as close as possible to the power source (transformer),
Increase in the power of the common transformer (at constant Ucc),
Reduction of the short-circuit voltage (ucc %) of the common transformer (at constant power),
 23

2.1.5 protection against voltage imbalances

They are caused by short circuits and unbalanced loads. Their existence alters the balance of
electrical quantities present.
Voltage imbalances affect all three-phase equipment, especially motors, as they
They then experience an unwanted braking couple that results in overheating. Any imbalance of voltage
greater than 2% leads to overheating of the equipment, which requires over-sizing them to compensate
this overheating and prevent premature degradation. There is no standard for the acceptable threshold of
voltage imbalance on electrical networks,
HOW TO PROTECT EQUIPMENT AGAINST VOLTAGE IMBALANCES?
1. It is necessary to ensure that the internal loads are well balanced and that the equipment is equipped with
adequate protections.
2. Use phase unbalance protection relays, they serve the function of monitoring
the phase wave L1, L2, L3.

2.1.6 protection against harmonics

Given the risks that harmonic pollution poses to electrical installations, it is advisable
to eliminate the harmonic currents generated, using filters. Passive filters: Passive filters are tuned to
the frequency to be eliminated or that can attenuate a range of harmonic frequencies: Active filters (figure II.2),
active harmonic compensators cancel harmonics by injecting harmonic currents
exactly equal where they occur. This type of filter reacts in real time to existing harmonics to
eliminate them. They are more flexible and efficient than passive filters. In figure II.3, the current is shown
source, the nonlinear current filled with harmonics and active filter.
The parallel active filter is used for the depollution of low voltage (BT) and medium voltage (MT) networks. Its total impedance with respect to the
the source and the load give it good self-adaptability with appreciable performance.

Figure II.2 Principle

: of the parallel active filter

Figure II.3: Source current, charge and filter.

The Power Factor
In an environment where there are only linear loads, the Power Factor is simply the Cosine of
the phase angle between the Voltage and the Current at a frequency of 50HZ is the Cos φ.
In the presence of non-linear loads, the cos φ is no longer applicable, we will talk about the POWER FACTOR.
In a non-harmonic environment: FP = Cos φ
In a harmonic environment: FP < Cos φ
 24

2.2 ORGANIZATION OF PROTECTIONS

1. CHOICE OF THE NEUTRAL REGIME

• Neutral directly grounded.
• Isolated neutral
• Intermediate solutions
2. Selection criteria
3. The requirements depend on the current:
4. The requirements depending on the voltage
5. The requirements depending on network operation and clients

Every network needs to be protected (overvoltage, overcurrent, short circuit, grounding, etc...)
the function is ensured by a set of equipment, located in the stations:
1) The measuring transformers (voltage and current) providing the voltages (phase-neutral) and current of
each phase as well as the current in the neutral if necessary. They bring back the current and voltage values
nominal values (several tens or hundreds of kV and amperes) to conventional values
(110 V p.e. and 5 A) which can directly power the relay. This treatment could change in the future.
with the advent of 'optical' transformers that would provide information directly digitized.
2) The protection relays
3) Circuit breakers A protection relay detects the presence of abnormal conditions through monitoring.
continue, determine which circuit breakers to open and energize the triggering circuits.

2.3 The protection plan for the electric power transmission network

An electrical energy transport network brings together production facilities and connects power plants to the areas.
of consumption
["Selectivity","Sensitivity","Securing"]
["Line protections","Bus protections","Backup plan","Defense plan"]

3.1 operation and applications of different types of relays

Presentation
A relay is a device in which an electrical phenomenon (current or voltage) controls the On/Off switching.
Off of a mechanical element (we then have an electromechanical relay present) or an element
electronics (this is a solid-state relay). It is somewhat like a switch that can be operated at
distance, and where the cutoff function is dissociated from the control function. The voltage and current of
the command (part 'Command'), as well as the switching power (part 'Power') depend on the relay, it
it is necessary to choose these parameters according to the desired application. Thus, different relays must be chosen depending on whether it
It is necessary to switch audio signals or significant voltages or currents. As the control can be carried out
under low power (low voltage, low current), and that the Cutoff part can switch power
important on can dire what this component est a amplifier of current.
The first truly 'practical' relay was created in 1837, thanks to American inventor Samuel F.B. Morse (yes,
the one who invented the famous alphabet of the same name), who himself relied on the work of the physicist
British Charles Wheatstone (yes, the one to whom we owe the famous measuring bridge that bears his name).

3.1.1 Electromechanical relays

An electromechanical relay is equipped with a winding as a control element. The voltage applied to this
Winding will create a current, this current producing an electromagnetic field at the end of the coil (it does not
it is nothing more and nothing less than an electromagnet). This magnetic field will be able to move an element
metallic mechanism mounted on a movable axis, which will then move mechanical contacts.
 25

Figure II.4 electromechanical relay

Figure II.5 coil

In the photo above (figure II.5), we can clearly see the coil, consisting of a very large number of turns of a
very fine copper wire. When this coil is passed through by a sufficient current, a magnetic field attracts the
mobile part towards it (in the photo, the element marked Mobile part rises), and moves via an axis, the
mechanical contacts located next to (in the photo, the mechanical contacts move to the right). When more
No current flows in the coil, the contacts return to their resting position thanks to a return spring.
The external connections simply allow access to the coil wires and the associated electrical components.
moving mechanical parts.

Advantages of the electromechanical relay

• Ability to switch both continuous and alternating signals over a wide range of frequencies.
• Operation with a considerable dynamic of the switched signal.
• No addition of noise or distortion.
• Very low closed contact resistance (it is less easy to find such low values with)
electronic components).
• Very high open contact resistance (it is less easy to find such high values with)
electronic components).
• Very high isolation between the control circuit (coil) and the switched circuit (contacts).
• Possibility of solving automation problems sometimes more simply than with a circuit.
electronics.
Disadvantages of the electromechanical relay

• Control element having a significant inductive component (after all, it's a coil),
causing a significant surge when the current flowing through the coil is interrupted (law of
Lenz). This necessitates the use of at least one protective component (a diode for example) to
protect the control circuit if it is of the electronic type.
• Presence of rebounds during switching, the transition from the ON state to the OFF state (or vice versa) is not
"net" (same mechanical bounce phenomenon observed in switches). It is interesting
to know that the number of bounces, and therefore the speed of the straightforward contact, depends on the current of
current flows in the coil. The number of bounces is indeed greater when this current
the command is much lower or much higher than the nominal current value specified by the manufacturer
Applying a control voltage of 8 V to a relay with a nominal voltage of 12 V can do it.
glue, but in a less direct way and with more rebounds.
• Compatibility not always guaranteed with digital circuits, especially for heavy relays.
power, which may require a specific interface circuit.
• Capacitive coupling between contacts for multipolar models (with multiple poles).
• Reduction of insulation in the open state due to capacitive coupling (even more troublesome since the
switched signals rise high in frequency.
• Short lifespan 'low' if a significant number of switches (contact and return spring fatigue, which
may "soften" or even break).
 26

• Mechanical clutter is more significant for medium and high-power relays, which must however
compared to transistors or triacs equipped with their (sometimes large) heatsink.
• Broaching not really standardized, despite some efforts made for certain categories of relays.
in DIL package and relay "European standard".
3.1.2 Power relay
Most relays, such as those presented above, are capable of switching a few amps (usually 1 A)
At 4 A). For higher breaking capacities, such as 10 A, 25 A or more, one must turn to relays of
power. If the relay has several contacts and only one switching is needed, the different contacts
can be mounted in parallel to increase the breaking capacity. It should be noted that some relays of
Power requires a minimal current flow to maintain good reliability. For example, a relay
planned to switch a current of 25 A, may very well not be properly utilized if the current actually
The switched current is "only" 1 A. This type of information is generally communicated by the manufacturer, but this is
not always the case. Choose a relay whose cutoff power is slightly higher than the current value at
The relay can switch a current of 40 A, it is a very common model in the
automotive sector. To such an extent that it is called auto relay.

Figure II.6 power relay

3.1.3 Bistable Relays
A bistable relay is a relay whose contacts maintain their position even after the power supply is cut off.
the control coil. This type of relay has the main advantages of consuming current only
during switching and to remember its position even in case of unexpected power cut.
is very used in industrial automation systems. Its main disadvantage is its price. There are
several types of bistable relays: - those that have two control windings: a first winding for
activate the relay in Work position and another winding to bring it back to Rest position; - those who do not have
a single control winding and where the Work and Rest function depend on the polarity of the DC voltage
applied to the coil (for example +12 V to bring it to the working position and -12 V to bring it to the position
Relays). Important note: the contacts of some bistable relays may change position during their
transport or in case of shock. It is therefore necessary to 'reset' them when they are first powered on after
displacement or shock.
3.1.4 Miniature Relays
Relays are often seen as behemoths, compared to transistors or triacs. However, there are some.
small ones, the size of a 14-pin integrated circuit and even much smaller. The size is primarily
proportional to the maximum current that can flow through the contacts: when this current needs to be significant, the
Mechanical parts in motion are large, and since they are large, the control element must provide
more magnetic fields to move things. For small current needs, and when one is not seeking
For electrical isolation, miniature relays may be sufficient. Reed relays are one example of this:
This is an ILS (Flexible Blade Switch) bulb which consists of an elongated glass bulb containing two
metal contacts that touch when subjected to a sufficient magnetic field. The bulb can be
visible, just like it can be integrated into a waterproof plastic case of type DIL14 (same case as a
AOP quadruple type TL084.

Figure II.7 miniature relay

 27

Chapter III Protection of network elements

["Protection of alternators and motors","Protection of busbars","Protection of transformers"]

Protection of lines, distance and differential.
3.1INTRODUCTION
Rotating electric machines can, like all industrial equipment, be affected
functional defects. These defects generally render them unfit for more or less long term,
to ensure their service, and disrupt the operation of other equipment. The defects, as well as the
abnormal operating conditions must therefore be detected as quickly as possible and
cause the electrical disconnection between the machine and the network to which it is connected.

The role of electrical protection relays for alternators and motors is to detect, among the
various possible defects, those of electrical origin, and to develop the necessary actions of
signaling and opening of the cutoff device connecting the equipment to the network.

3.2 Reminder on electric machines

Electric machines can be classified based on the criterion of the mode of production of the rotating field.
From the inductor: Synchronous machines and Asynchronous machines.

3.3 Role of electrical protections

3.3.1 Prevention of Damage to Machinery
Rotating electrical machines are sized and designed for a given service and cannot
function beyond this service without risk of degradation. The role of electrical protections is to
detect variations in electrical quantities leading to exceedances of allowable limits
for the components, and to operate the disconnection device isolating the machine from the network. These constraints
may be of nature:
— electric, related to the operating voltage of the winding;
thermal, related to the maximum temperature tolerated by the insulators;
—mechanics, related to the holding of conductors, insulators, and various materials (shaft, shimming) to the
efforts to which they are subjected.
The electrical protection relays therefore contribute to limiting the damage to machines in case of
of abnormal operation or malfunction. They automatically cause their disconnection from the network or
simply triggering an alarm if the level of stress is not too high, thus allowing for
the operator to take timely appropriate measures to ensure the safeguarding of the equipment.
3.3.2 Malfunctions

Internal origin defects

[Link] Alternators
The insulation of the conductors forming the stator winding can break or pierce due to causes.
— electrical (poorly impregnated insulation, superficial discharges, moisture penetration);
thermal (on overheating due to overload or lack of cooling);
mechanics (wear, excessive short-circuit forces).
These defects, whose evolution may be slow at the beginning of the degradation process, generally degenerate.
very quickly at the end of this process into a short circuit, due to the high voltage applied to
the stator winding. At this stage, the short circuit is generally permanent. A short circuit can occur
produce
between a phase and the mass, consisting of the magnetic circuit or the casing;
between two phases, with or without contact with the mass;
 28

— between the three phases, often through the evolution of a two-phase short circuit (arc extension); A short-
A short circuit can also occur between two turns or two bars of the same phase.
The insulation of the rotor winding conductors can also be faulty, most often due to
of the causes:
-mechanical, due to wear of insulators or failure;
—thermal, due to lack of general or localized cooling;
—electric, through piercing the insulation or, most often, by bypassing due to pollution
An asynchronous machine can also experience a loss of electrical power of
the inductor.
[Link] Engines
The damage affecting the stator winding of motors is of the same nature as that related to
alternators. However, it is likely that a short circuit between two phases will develop more quickly in
short-circuit with the mass, due to the relatively more compact dimensions of the casing and the circuit
magnetic. The insulation defects of the rotor winding only concern motors
asynchronous wound rotor or synchronous motors, the rotor bars of asynchronous motors
cages not being isolated from the mass. The causes of these defects are of the same nature as the alternators,
although the degradation kinetics may be faster due to the smaller dimensions of these
machines. The rotor bars of squirrel-cage induction motors can break under the effect of
excessive constraints due to too many or too close start-ups.
External origin defects
[Link] Alternators
Groups consisting of a turbine or a thermal engine and a generator can be either
directly connected to a distribution system (factory network, self-producer), or connected to the
general system of electricity production-transport-distribution, or network through a
step-up transformer, called main transformer (MT) (figure III.1).

Figure III.1 Schematic diagram of connecting an alternator to the grid

Hydraulic power plant groups can also be connected in pairs to two

primary of a transformer or in parallel on a busbar, the energy being discharged by a
common HTA/HTB transformer. In a power plant, the energy required for the auxiliaries
 29

is taken, either upstream or downstream of the main transformer, by a take-off transformer

(TS).
The faults that can affect the electrical system are of different natures:
Short circuits, whether single-phase or multi-phase, can occur:
— on the direct connection between the alternator and the grid, or between the alternator and the TP and/or the TS;

—on the connection between the TP and the electrical system;

—on the power supplies for auxiliary services.
The imbalances between the production and consumption of electrical energy may be due to:
a lack of production, resulting in a decrease in the frequency of the turbo-generator set;
a surplus of production, resulting in an increase in the frequency of the turboalternator group;
a deficiency in load distribution, mainly reactive, causing an overload in current
the alternator; the overload in active power is, in fact, unlikely due to the limitation of
mechanical power of the driving machine (turbine, diesel engine, etc.).
[Link] Elimination of defects

▪ In the case of alternators,

The action of the relay (for example, short-circuit to ground, between phases...) generally causes and
simultaneously
the opening of the circuit breaker connecting the alternator to the network (figure III.1);
the closure of the steam supply valves or the water supply valves and valving of
the turbine, or the interruption of the fuel supply to the engine, etc.;
the opening of the circuit breaker supplying the excitation circuit;
If such a device is provided, the closure of a rapid de-excitation contactor, closing the circuit
from the inductor on an external resistor, intended to rapidly dissipate electromagnetic energy
the rotor. This sequence of actions is called triggering the group.
The short circuit to ground of the rotor winding at a point represents a particular case in this sense.
that it may only trigger a simple alarm, without activation.
▪ In the case of motors, a relay or a set of protection relays is assigned to an auxiliary and
acts on the corresponding cut-off organ. The cut-off organs are of different types, depending on
of the power of the auxiliary:
For powers below 500 kW, we generally use the combination of a contactor and
fuses;
For powers equal to or greater than 500 kW, a circuit breaker is generally used.
preferably in high voltage (HV)

In the event of external defects, rotating machines are required to provide their service to the fullest.
as long as possible, to allow the necessary time for the protection relays, external to the installation,
to eliminate these defects.

The operation of external fault protection relays must therefore ensure the selectivity of actions.
without interfering with the network protection relays.
In the case of alternators, two types of actions are controlled by the protection relays.
If the cause of the abnormal regime is unambiguous (for example, imbalanced regimes, frequency variations,
...or, most likely, external to the alternator, it is disconnected from the network, either immediately or after
a delay intended to allow the network protections to take effect by opening the line circuit breaker (figure
 30

III.1). The alternator then only provides the electrical energy necessary for the unit's auxiliaries. This action
is called islanding.
If the origin, internal or external, of the defect cannot be distinguished by variations in electrical quantities
(for example, voltage drop, loss of synchronization...), the elimination of the fault is done in two stages:
first of all, grouping isolation,
If the defect persists, after a certain delay, triggering of the group. Other abnormal regimes, including
The effects on the alternators are not immediate (for example, overload) only trigger an alarm.
In the case of motors, power supply disturbances must be eliminated, while respecting the
principle of selectivity, through actions on the cutting devices as close as possible to the equipment in
default. The protection relays against these types of conditions (for example, unbalanced voltages, voltage drops),
installés dans la cellule de départ agissent en 2e stade, par déclenchement de chaque auxiliaire, après temporisation.
The disturbances caused by the driven organ (for example, long starting time, overload) are obviously
eliminated by the opening of the corresponding contactor or circuit breaker, after a delay.

[Link] Protection of bar games

A defect on a busbar system is, most of the time, very restrictive for the network (short-circuit current)
high and large number of works to be decommissioned to eliminate the defect). Therefore, it must be eliminated.
quickly. Without specific protection, such a fault is eliminated by the distance protections of the stations
adjacent in a second zone time (250 to 600 ms) in the most favorable case.

The role of bar protections is to improve the situation by eliminating as quickly and selectively as possible.
any type of defect occurring in the area of the bars.

Figure III.2 Example Network Architecture

 31

The choice of neutral earthing for MV and HV networks has long been a subject of controversy.
passionate, given the impossibility of finding a single compromise for the different types of networks.
The experience gained today allows for a relevant choice based on specific constraints.
each network. This chapter compares the different types of grounding connections for the neutral, which are distinguished
by their neutral point connection method and their operating technique.

Fig. III.3: equivalent diagram of a network with ground fault

[Link] Protection of transformers

In distribution networks, they allow:

• To minimize energy losses due to Joule effect; a voltage increase of a ratio of 10 leads to a reduction
these losses of a factor of 100 (Losses = R (called Pappelée / U)²),
• To minimize the voltage drops, resistive (R) and reactive (X) at a given transmitted power (U I cosφ)
(∆ U ≈ R I cosφ + X I sinφ)
• Eventually, to ensure galvanic isolation between networks of the same voltage (property boundary,
change of neutral regime...). Although it is rare to voluntarily interrupt a distribution
for energy, we still need to 'maneuver' the transformers under normal conditions
of exploitation, for example:
- To reconfigure the network,
- For maintenance or security reasons,
- To respond to a peak in consumption,
- To start or stop a process
Protection policy
It is the responsibility of the electrical network designer to define the measures to be implemented at the level of each.
transformer, based on the criteria of continuity and quality of service, cost of investment and usage,
of the safety of property and persons as well as the acceptable level of risk. The selected solutions are always
a compromise between these different criteria and it is important that the advantages and weaknesses of the chosen compromise
be well identified. For example, the same operator, energy distributor, can retain very
different on the parts of the network, urban and rural, as the criteria for unit power, cost,
Consequences in case of an incident are not the same. The high reliability of transformers is an element
determining in the choices made by distributors, in relation to the unit cost of protective devices that can
to be associated. It justifies, for example, that one does not seek to protect the transformer, as a backup.
the equipment, but we only limit the consequences of a failure.
 32

Figure III.4 Delivery, distribution, and transformation HTA/BT posts C13-100 and C13-200
Indeed [reference]
 33

Figure III.5 departure of a line

 34

Figure III.6 departure of a transformer

 35

Figure III.7 COUPLING BETWEEN BAR GAMES

Remark
The protections can be used either as coupling protection or as line protection. In this
in the last case, a bar is assigned to a single line, whose circuit breaker is bridged or locked closed, and the
protections out of service. It is then said that the coupling is used in transfer.
Important posts can have four sets of bars

Figure III.8: truncations

C1 and C2 are couplings treated as above T1 and T2 are truncations. They cannot be
used in transfer.
 36

Conclusion

Electrical Network Protection Course

In this course, we presented three chapters following the L3 electrotechnics framework:

Chapter 1. Introduction to Protection (5 weeks)

Chapter 2. Elements of the protection system (5 weeks)

Chapter 3. Protection of network elements (5 weeks)

Reference

1. Hadi Saadat, "Power system analysis", Edition 2, 2004.

2. Furan Gonon, "Electric Power distribution system engineering", Edition, 1980.
3. Christophe Prévé, "Protection des réseaux électriques", Hermes Paris, 1998.
4. S. H. Horowitz, A. G. Phadke, "Power System Relaying", second edition, John Wiley & Sons, 1995.
5.L. Féchant, "Low Voltage Electrical Equipment, Distribution Devices", Engineer's Techniques, Engineering Treatise
electric, D 4 865.
6. S. Vacquié, A. Lefort, "Physical Study of the Electric Arc, The Electric Arc and its Applications", Volume 1, ed.
CNR, S 1984.
7. Electrical protections of alternators and motors by Bernard GUIGUES Engineer of the Higher School
Senior Engineer in Electrical Rotating Machines SEPTEN-Electricity of France (management of
The Equipment
[Link]://[Link]/OP_MAIN/Sepam/[Link]
9. [Link]
[Link]
[Link]://[Link]/userfiles/file/[Link]
[Link]://[Link]/maupassant/site2/bpeleec/technologie/Distrib_elect_eleve.pdf
[Link]://[Link]/sti/sites/[Link]/files/ressources/pedagogiques/3863/3863-
[Link]
[Link]://[Link]/[Link]?fileId=Brochure_creux_de_tension_FR.pdf&language_code=NED
[Link]://[Link]/liste/Doclidie/B6121_principes_protection.pdf
[Link]://[Link]/Main/Sepam/guide/guide_de_la_protection_fr.pdf
[Link]://[Link]/documents/technical
publications/fr/shared/electrotechnics/protections-control/high-voltage-above-1kv/[Link]
[Link]://[Link]/documents/pageFlip/d1/pdf/chapitre/[Link]