Module 4

Howtotackleclimatechangefromagriculture:
Ecosystem-basedAdaptationPractices(EbA)
M. Ruth Martínez-Rodríguez
Bárbara Viguera Camila I. DonattiCelia A. HarveyFrancisco Alpízar
 Module 4

How to face change

climatic from agriculture:
Adaptation Practices
based on Ecosystems (AbE)

M. Ruth Martínez-Rodríguez Bárbara Viguera Camila I. Donatti Celia A. Harvey Francisco Alpízar

CASCADA Project
Conservation International (CI)
Tropical Agricultural Research and Higher Education Center (CATIE)
Division of Research and Development
Turrialba, Costa Rica, 2017
Credits
This material may be reproduced in whole or in part for educational purposes and as
support for training activities without profit, without prior authorization, as long as
when the authorship is recognized.

This manual was developed within the framework of strengthening technical capacities.
in the matter of Ecosystem-Based Adaptation for agriculture of the CAS Project
ECO: Ecosystem-Based Adaptation for small subsistence producers
and coffee in Central America (CI-CATIE). CASCADA is part of the International Initiative.
of Climate Protection (IKI). The Federal Ministry for the Environment, Climate Protection,
Nature, Public Works and Nuclear Safety (BMUB) supports this initiative based on
in the decision adopted by the Bundestag of the Federal Republic of Germany.

More information about CASCADA at:

[Link]/cascade-spanish

Revisores
The CASCADA Project appreciates the review of this material, as well as the suggestions and
comments made in the content to the following people:
Jorge Arce (Professor of tropical crops - EARTH University, Costa Rica)
Guillermo Canet (Consultant-IICA Office, Costa Rica)
Rolando Cerda (CATIE, Costa Rica)
Julio López (Director-National Office of CATIE, Guatemala)
Luis Guillermo Ramírez (Professor of coffee systems - EARTH University and University)
dad from Costa Rica)
Pablo Ruiz (Coordinator Coffee and Climate, Hanns R. Neumann Foundation)
Guatemala
Carlos Soto (Independent consultant, Costa Rica)
Rogelio Villarreyna (CATIE, Costa Rica)

Illustrations and layout

Olman Bolaños Vargas

Recommended quote
Martínez-Rodríguez, M.R., Viguera, B., Dona, C.I., Harvey, C.A. and Alpízar, F. 2017. How
facing climate change through agriculture: Adaptation Practices based on
Ecosystems (AbE). Materials for strengthening the technical capacities of the project
CASCADA (International Conservation-CATIE). 40 pages.
 General presentation

E This manual is part of the materials for strengthening technical capacity in the area of
of adapting agriculture to climate change of the CASCADA Project. The materials, which
They consist of 4 training modules, aimed at disseminating practical information of the
application of the Ecosystem-Based Adaptation concept for extension agents. For this, the mods-
You introduce and contextualize concepts related to climate change and vulnerability.
in the face of climate impacts, they relate these concepts to their consequences in agriculture, and
they show possible solutions for small-scale agriculture through Adaptation based
in Ecosystems.
This manual serves as a tool to update the knowledge of extension workers in
climate change and adaptation. This initiative arises from the urgent need to adapt
climate change, especially small-scale agriculture in the Central American region. This
material can be reproduced to be used in extension activities with producers and disseminators
nation at a technical level. The specific objectives of each topic are detailed in each module.

General content
The climate, climate change, vulnerability, and actions against climate change:
Module I
Basic concepts.
Impacts of climate change on agriculture in Central America, mid-term strategies
Module II navigation and adaptation.

Module III The importance of ecosystem services for agriculture

How to face climate change from agriculture: Adaptation Practices
based on Ecosystems (AbE)
Module IV 1. Solutions to climate change in agriculture: Practice of Adaptation based on
Ecosystems.
2. Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA) practices that can help the
small producers to adapt to climate change
3. Mensajes clave
Instructions for understanding the manual
In the following module, you will find a series of indicators and marks that will allow you
deepen the understanding of the topics discussed:
The numbers in superscript mean that the idea that
plantations45 is reproduced in the text comes from an external source,
scientific or technical. At the end of the manual, in the bibliography,
you will find the reference to each of these documents
consulted.

anthropogenic The words highlighted in bold in the text are concepts.

which, due to being little known or novel, are detailed in the
glossary that is located at the end of each module.

The images that appear in the text are expanding the

Table 4.2.
knowledge in a specific topic, and also contribute
case studies and examples.

In the entire manual, you will find examples and specific cases.
In the year 2013... that illustrate the contents of the module, for the reality of
Central America and coffee and grain cultivation systems
basics.

Involved institutions
The CASCADA Project arises from the joint effort made by Conservation Internatio-
the Center for Research and Teaching in Tropical Agriculture (CATIE).

CATIE (Tropical Agricultural Research and Higher Education Center) is a research and education center.
dedicated to research and postgraduate teaching in agriculture, management,
conservation and sustainable use of natural resources. Its members are Belize, Bolivia,
Colombia, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, México, Nicaragua, Panamá,
Paraguay, Dominican Republic, Venezuela, the Inter-American Institute for Cooperation
for Agriculture (IICA) and the State of Acre in Brazil.

Conservation International is a non-profit organization founded in 1987 with

offices and partners in more than 30 countries. The mission of CI: 'Based on a solid foundation'
solidarity, cooperation and field demonstration CI empowers societies to
Take care of nature and our global biodiversity in a responsible and sustainable way.
and the well-being of humanity.
E
climate change is affecting communities and fa-
rural milpas, their agroecosystems and their agricultural production.
The adoption of adaptation practices by
small producers on their farms will facilitate their adjustment to
these climate changes and will help them be prepared for
its negative effects. In this context, a viable option for
the small producers are the strategies of
Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA). These
They take advantage of natural resources and the
ecosystem services as part of a strategy
integral adaptation to the adverse effects of the cam-
climate bio. Through its application in agriculture, the
producers have the possibility of being more resilient to
climate change and at the same time obtain other co-benefits
cios for them and their community, such as stability in their pro-
reduction, improvements in their livelihoods, and provision of services
long-term ecosystem services.
In this module, we will review some principles.
we will adapt and learn the key concepts of AbE.
Furthermore, we will see the importance of AbE practices for the
small-scale agriculture, and we will analyze a series of practices
Selected cases: the Quesungual system, live covers,
live barriers, windbreak hedges, live fences and the
shadow for the coffee. We will focus on the general benefits
what these practices provide, their limitations, as well as their con-
contributions for climate change adaptation and mitigation.
The detailed analysis of these practices by technicians is
fundamental for its dissemination among small producers.
 Content

1. Solutions to climate change in agriculture:

Ecosystem-Based Adaptation Practices......................................................7
1.1. Let's remember, what is adaptation to climate change?..........................7
1.2. Ecosystem-based Adaptation........................................................8
1.3. Ecosystem-based adaptation for small producers.............10

2. Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA) practices that can help the

small producers to adapt to climate change.......................................12
2.1. The Quesungual system and dispersed trees...............................................12
2.2. Living Covers...................................................................................17
2.3. Living barriers............................................................................................19
2.4. Trees planted in line:
live fences and windbreaks or barriers.......................................21
2.5. Living fences...............................................................................................23
2.6. Shadow in the coffee.....................................................................................26
3. Key messages ....................................................................................................... 31

4. Glossary

5. Bibliography.................................................................35
 Solutions to climate change in agriculture:
1. Ecosystem-based Adaptation Practices

1.1. Let's remember, what is adaptation to climate change?

L
Adaptation is the process of adjusting agricultural systems and people to the actual effects or
expected from the weather. Through those adjustments, damage can be moderated or avoided, or its
beneficial opportunities30In some systems, human intervention can facilitate adaptation.
to the expected effects of climate change. In module 2, we saw how adaptation measures can
to be organized into three general categories: social, institutional, and structural or basic.
Social adaptation measures are those related to education or behavior, such as
awareness of climate change and the implementation of emergency plans. The measures
Institutional ones are related to incentives, regulations, and policies, such as management programs.
de agua o esquemas de seguros. Las medidas estructurales de adaptación se refieren a capital sico; pueden
include efficient irrigation systems and the restoration of ecosystems, among others46.
These measures can be used to help the
agricultural producers to adapt to the impacts
causes of climate change. For example,
social measures such as providing information
updated climate and recommendations
techniques on changing planting dates
in the annual culprits are ways to deal with
impacts of climate change on phenology
of the plants. The availability of varieties
resistant and tolerant is a way to
dealing with changes in the pest area and
diseases, and to endure events
extremes such as sudden temperature changes.

The provision of updated climate information is an example

of a social measure for adaptation to climate change.

Institutional measures, such as the creation

of an agricultural insurance system, they are a
way to help producers deal with the
impacts of climate change on its production.
Infrastructure measures, such as
tanks for harvesting and storing water
and mechanisms for its efficient use, such as the
drip irrigation installation, can be used
to maintain stable production during times
very dry. A bit of musical adaptation that has
recently received attention and that may be The harvesting and storage of water is an example of a measure of
implemented both in natural ecosystems infrastructure to adapt to climate change

How to face climate change from agriculture: Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA) practices 7
 as agroecosystems is Ecosystem-Based Adaptation (EbA). In addition to the adaptive benefits
This approach can provide economic, social, and environmental co-benefits to society.
thus differentiating it from other adaptation approaches. Apart from the multiple benefits it can provide, the
It has the potential to be cost-effective and is considered a robust measure of adaptation to change.
climate. Some examples of the implementation of AbE in natural ecosystems include reforestation
of basins to ensure the continuity of water supply under changing climatic conditions; a
An example in agroecosystems is the use of shade trees in coffee plantations to provide shelter.
the impacts of rising temperatures, and later we will analyze other co-benefits.

Mangrove planting to stabilize silt is a practice of AbE.

1.2. Ecosystem-Based Adaptation

Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA) is defined as the use of biodiversity and services
ecosystemic as part of a comprehensive strategy for adaptation to the adverse effects of climate change
climate65. The practices of AbE include activities of conservation, restoration, and sustainable management.
of natural and anthropogenic ecosystems to help people adapt to climate change.
The AbE can be applied in different ecosystems, for example in coastal ecosystems (mangroves, hu-
medals), dry or rainy forests, or cloud and mountain forests. Some very recognized examples
from the AbE includes the conservation or planting of mangroves for the stabilization of silt72and protection of
the coastal areas, the restoration of wetlands to prevent downstream flooding during hurricanes and
other extreme events, and in the integrated management of watersheds to ensure the provision of water to communities.
data and agricultural land throughout the year, even during times of drought.
In agricultural and livestock systems and landscapes, the practices we consider to be AbE are those that
they take advantage of natural processes, biodiversity, and ecosystem services to help systems
Agricultural and livestock producers to adapt to climate change. These are practices of sustainable management.
blue that helps producers respond to the threats and impact of climate change (changes in
performance, physiological changes in plants, decrease in product quality, incidence of pests and

8 Module 4
diseases, etc.), and allow their farms to be resilient to the current and future impact of the cam-
gradual changes in temperatures and in precipitation regimes, as well as to extreme climate events
(droughts, floods, hurricanes, etc). Among these practices are conservation measures and
restoration of natural ecosystems, and the sustainable management of the agroecosystem. Both practices help
producers to respond to the threats and impacts of climate change and improve their resilience.
As we will see later, there is a wide variety of AbE practices that can be applied in the systems-
more so in agricultural landscapes. Examples of this include the use of windbreaks to shelter
the effect of extreme winds, the use of trees in staple grain plantations to safeguard the
increases in temperature and the conservation of riparian forests to maintain water supply
third of rural communities.

The use of live fences is a practice of Ecosystem-Based Adaptation (EbA).

The AbE practices can be implemented at different levels:

At the level of individual plots: the use of shade in coffee plantations, the inclusion of scattered trees in milpas, or
the use of various varieties in the same plot to minimize the possible impact of climate change
About worship examples of practices AbE that can be implemented at the parcel level.
At the farm level: some examples are the diversification of crops to minimize vulnerability of
producer faced with the possibility of extreme events32,35,62the establishment of windbreak crowns
to minimize the impact of strong winds on crops or the use of agroforestry systems or systems
Silvopastoral systems to mitigate the impacts of increased temperatures on crops or
animals.
• At the level of landscapes or basins: AbE practices can include the conservation of forested areas in
key basins or around water sources to ensure a continuous supply of water in the face of
climate variability.

How to face climate change from agriculture: Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA) practices 9
1.3. Ecosystem-based Adaptation for small producers
Small producers are particularly vulnerable to climate change due to their dependence on
dryland agriculture, its limited access to technical support and credit, its location in marginal lands (often
soils with a high slope and prone to erosion), their lack of social capital or lack of financial capital for.
invest in their farms or adopt new technologies. Although AbE practices can be useful for producers
of different scales and cultures, there are several reasons why AbE options could be especially
beneficial to help small producers adapt their production and to minimize the effects of
climate change and extreme events. AE practices must be part of any program of
adaptation aimed at this vulnerable sector.
The AbE practices can be considered suitable for small producers because they are mainly based on
in local inputs, they are easily accessible, can be easily used by the producers, without the need for
complex technological knowledge or materials that are difficult to obtain. These practices must be cheap for their
implementation, so that small producers can carry them out without relying on financing
external and supplies. These practices can help producers adapt both in the long term (through
of ensuring the provision of ecosystem services) as well as in the short term helping them adjust
to climate variability (improving the resilience of its production units in the face of extreme events74).

Seed exchange enriches the agricultural biodiversity of the system of

producers, and can help them adapt to climate change.

In order to ensure that a practice of AbE is appropriate for small producers, it is

necessary to meet the criteria of three dimensions:
1) that is effectively based on ecosystems, that is, on the use of goods and services
from nature provides;
2) that provides adaptation benefits to climate change and also,

10 Module 4
3) that complements the livelihoods of producers. This emphasis is especially important for
provide greater adaptive capacity, beyond the biosynthetic part of the production system. Table 1
Summarize these dimensions and provide criteria that help catalog practices as AbE.
Table 1.
Synthesis of the three dimensions and the necessary criteria that agricultural practices must have to
to be considered as appropriate Ecosystem-Based Adaptation (EbA) practices for the
small [Link] practices that meet at least one criterion in the dimensions 'based
in ecosystems" and "adaptation benefits" can be considered AbE practices. The practices that
they also meet a criterion in the third dimension (“livelihood security”) they are practicesAbE
suitable for small producers.
Dimension 1 Dimension 2: Dimension 3:
Based on ecosystems Benefits of adaptation Safe subsistence
["It is based on the","Maintains or improves production","Increases food security of the"]
observation, restau- life of the culprits, the pro- homes of small producers.
ration y managementduality of animals and
sustainable of the bio- of the plot to face the • Increase or diversify generation of
diversity (e.g. Diver- climatic variability and the change income in small households
genetic city, espe- bio climatic. producers.
and the ecosystem).
Reduce the biophysical impacts • Take advantage of local knowledge or tradition
It is based on the con- of extreme climatic events of small producers.
observation, restaurant extreme rains, temperature-
Use local, available and ren-
ration y managementextremely high tours,
movables (e.g. use of local materials of
sustainable of the fun- strong winds, etc.) in the
the plot or the landscape, instead of resources
actions y processes cults, animals or systems
externals like pesticides and fertilizers without-
ecological (e.g. cycle of agricultural.
spectacles, etc.
nutrients, infiltration
of water, kidnapping of Reduce the risk of pests and Requires implementation costs and labor
carbon, etc.). diseases in the buttocks
affordable works for young pro-
due to climate change.
conductors.

Translated from Vignola et al.74

How to face climate change from agriculture: Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA) practices 11
 Ecosystem-based adaptation practices
that can help the little ones

2. producers to adapt to climate change

A
Continuing, a series of AbE practices are reviewed that meet the previously mentioned criteria.
cited, and which are particularly important for coffee and staple grain producers.
Central America, being simple to implement, provides adaptation benefits and has multiple
co-benefits for the producer.

2.1. The Quesungual system and dispersed trees

The Quesungual or Kuxur Rum system (my wet land in Chort'i language)57) is based on a practice that
it consists of sowing the annual cover crop in combination with scattered trees (often leguminous)
that have been selected from natural regeneration. Traditionally, this practice involves cultivation
of corn and beans, but currently also includes the association of other crops such as sorghum (Sorghum
vulgar) and the melon (Cucumis melo)63This agroforestry system has been practiced ancestrally by the
traditional cultures of Central America, especially in Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, and Nicaragua12.
The Quesungual agroforestry system integrates soil management technologies and tree crops.
natural regeneration dispersals, and have multiple benefits for the small producer, which we will see
later.
There are four basic principles in the
establishment and maintenance of
Quesungual:
1. No logging and no burning: it is carried out a
management of partial, selective logging and pruning
and progressive of the natural vegetation.
When the producer does not burn,
is allowing them to accumulate
the harvest residues, those
that when decomposing they become
in organic matter, improving the
physical-chemical conditions of the soil
where it is cultivated23

2. Permanent soil cover:

continuous deposit and distribution of
the mulch coming from
biomass of trees, shrubs, No burning is one of the principles of establishment
weeds and crop residues. of the Quesungual system

3. Minimal soil disturbance: another principle for the establishment and maintenance of Quesungual
it is the low soil disturbance, through 'zero tillage' techniques throughout the crop season
and the direct sowing of the seed, through a speck, a pick or a stick.

12 Module 4
4. Efficient use of fertilizers: carry out fertilization efficiently, using precise doses (neither
no more or less fertilizer than necessary), place the fertilizer in the right spot for absorption
the plant and avoid fertilizing when it is not raining, are part of the good agricultural practices that this
system requires for its operation15.
The plot with this practice is composed of pruned trees and shrubs with an average density.
between 11 to 14 trees/ha, but it can reach up to 140 trees/ha, which are important for the
livelihoods of producers for their value in wood and fruit23It is a diverse system, where the selection
The regeneration of trees depends on the objectives and management capabilities of the producer.54. A
Proper management of the system allows for the maintenance of soil fertility, as well as long-term sustainability.
deadline of the system.

To establish this system, the producers select a guamil or fallow land that has been in
rest between six to twelve years, with trees of a diameter greater than ten centimeters and bushes with more than a
height metro. The presence of trees and shrubs of these sizes indicates that the plot has recovered
its fertility, due to the biomass produced by the trees and shrubs during that period20.54and can be used
again for the cul vo in a sustainable way.
For the establishment, which takes place before the onset of heavy rains, seeding is done by broadcasting (in a
non-uniform distribution) beans, millet or sorghum; later the land is cleared by cutting the weeds
at ground level and then a pruning of the trees is done according to the producer's interest, performing
training pruning and thinnings20Shrubs like guava (Psidium guajava), madreado, black wood
mouse plant (Gliricidia sepium), chaperno (Lonchocarpus officinalis) and others, are pruned to a height of 1.5
at 3.0 meters, taking care of the root to promote regrowth in winter. The cutting of trees and shrubs is
they are carried out transversely (bevel, pencil tip or "chamfer"), to avoid the proliferation of fungi upon arrival
the rains. The firewood obtained can be used in the home. The lighter biomass (non-woody) from pruning is chopped.
and it spreads on the ground, like mulch, to decompose and be incorporated into the soil for the rest
from winter and the following summer20,23.

Cuando se realiza la cosecha del frijol, se deja que este se seque en mazos o manojos de plantas sobre los
shrubs pruned until they dry out, so that it is easy to beat them. The produced straw
they leave in the plot. The harvesting of the sorghum acorn is done by leaving the rest of the plant in the plot, which
they can then be used to feed livestock or to spread them on the farm20.

How to confront climate change from agriculture: Ecosystem-based Adaptation practices (EbA) 13
 As post-management, a clearing is carried out at the beginning of the rains, in the second year of the selection of the
Weeds that have grown during the fallow period of the beans are removed with a machete.
of sorghum. The regrowth of trees and shrubs pruned the previous year is also managed. This material
It is chopped again and spread in the field, and the firewood is used in the home.20.
Once the producer has prepared the plot again with this second clearing and with the management
from the outbreaks, corn is sown. It is sown with a stake, a pole, or a rod in zero tillage, using
a planting distance of half a meter between plants and one or one and a half meters between rows,
oriented against the slope, placing two to three seeds per planting16.

2.1.1. Benefits of using the Quesungual system

In studies carried out in Honduras16, El Salvador23and Guatemala57benefits were observed both in
level of production as well as at the landscape level. At the farm level, sustainable increases were seen in the
productivity, improving food security and income at the domestic level, by improving quality
from the soil and the retention of water in the soil. Additionally, surpluses of staple foods were produced.
need (corn, beans, and sorghum), promoting their sale in the market, contributing to family well-being.
In these areas, trees are an important source of wood and firewood. For example, in El Salvador, they were found
timber trees such as laurel (Cordia alliodora), which are commercially valuable, and fruit trees
like the mango (Mangifera indica), for sale and home consumption, diversifying the diet and the
family income. Likewise, there was an increase in the availability of firewood for the home, supplying or
complementing their energy needs. Thus, firewood and timber can be obtained from the same plot.
(product of natural regeneration management) and food production, which reduces vulnerability
general of the producers23.
Compared to the systems
traditional slash and burn
that were taking place in several
sights of Central America for
produce basic grains, the system
Quesungual has the advantage of
that the earth can be utilized
for more time. With the systems
of pink and burn, the war se
it lasts up to four years, and then
it needs to rest for
more than 10 years. The Quesungual
it allows to improve performance
by area after 10 years
to work the same plot,
because it improves fertility and
increase the building humidity20.
Due to the low density of the
scattered trees, there aren't many
competition at the root level
among the trees and shrubs with
With the Quesungual system, sustainable increases are observed in the
productivity, generating surpluses and improving household income. the annual cults, which is
advantageous.

14 Module 4
At the community level, the continuous use of the land provided by Quesungual is important.
With the slash-and-burn system, producers worked a plot for a short time and when seeking new ones.
Errors caused the advance of the agricultural frontier, the mismanagement of natural resources, the emissions of
greenhouse gases, and a detriment to food security20The use of the Quesungual system,
instead, help to curb agricultural expansion into remaining forests.
At the landscape level, with the adoption of Quesungual, restoration and conservation are observed.
biodiversity, providing habitat for birds that can serve as natural pest control. Additionally,
The adoption at the landscape level fosters the protection of water sources. Furthermore, improvement occurs.
of ecosystem services, for example nutrient recycling, since some dominant species in
Quesungual, like charcoal (Acacia pennatula), contribute to the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen in the
soil through nodules and inputs of organic matter into the system23In addition, the layer formed by the
pruning waste helps in recycling nutrients, improving soil fertility and consequently, to a greater
carbon storage in soil4, wind and water erosion is reduced, thanks to this layer, and it
man maintains the building humidity.

This system has allowed in many places to improve the livelihoods of families
producers thanks to the stabilization in the production unit in one place, allowing
diversifying the land. Thanks to this practice combined with diversification, harvests are achieved for
the household nutrition and sale of surplus. Thanks to this sale of surplus, it is obtained
additional income for children's education or purchase of products not generated on the farm.
The time and effort that women traditionally dedicate to gathering firewood has decreased, as this has...
you can get from Quesungual20so they can distribute their day into other activities.

The Quesungual system, combined with a diversification strategy, can help household food security.

How to address climate change through agriculture: Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA) practices 15
 2.1.2. Contribution of the use of the Quesungual system to climate change adaptation and mitigation
The shade provided by this agroforestry system helps regulate temperatures and enhances productivity.
of the system, especially during the phase of establishing the culverts73This is very important
in the semi-arid areas that are also facing rising temperatures and the reduction of
the crops. In the future scenario of warmer environmental conditions, the shade of the trees
perennials of this system could compensate for the decreases in yields caused by excess
of heat in open areas and also contribute to minimizing water stress12.
In addition, Quesungual has shown resilience to extreme weather events. In the case of extreme rainfall,
The permanent cover of the soil reduces the impact of raindrops, and compaction is reduced.
from the ground23In times of drought, producers who implemented the Quesungual agroforestry system in
Honduras experienced long periods without rain, compared to those that did not have this implemented.
system, those who suffered major damages20The potential of the Quesungual system to maintain moisture in
the soil is particularly important in prolonged periods of drought as a consequence of the phenomenon of
El Niño, which results in the loss of crops. The soil cover and the incorporation
the organic matter that is carried out through Quesungual also reduces soil loss due to erosion,
especially on sloped land.

2.1.3. Limitations of the Quesungual system

One of the limitations of the Quesungual system is that trees and shrubs attract a diversity of birds and
Some of these species can harm the cabbage. This is more evident in places where there are not many.
producers using the system, affecting the farms where Quesungual exists, as the trees provide in
this case a limited habitat for birds. In places where the use of the system has become widespread, the
birds are scattered throughout the area, and the damage to a single culvert is minimal20.

The Quesungual system

requires preparation of the
land at hand, with a spear,
little stick or rod like
part of the zero tillage,
which can be very
claimant in hand of
work. The Quesungual does not
allows the preparation of the
soils with plowing or traction
animal, since the land
it has many roots of
woody plants, so that
movement is impossible Planting with espeque, chuzo, or bordón is key for the Quesungual system.
of the plow20. and it can be highly labor-intensive.

Poor management of the Quesungual system can bring disadvantages. If the density of the trees is too high
high and there is not a good thinning of the pruning, humidity accumulates during the rainy season. This can turn into
in a problem affecting corn and beans, which can be attacked by fungi in that microclimate
of humidity20It will also depend on how much shade the system has. If the shade
if it is not well managed, there may be a decrease in the yields of the yields. However, the
the economic benefits of the commercial exploitation of trees can compensate for the yield of the
cultivations20.

16 Module 4
2.2. Live Covers
Cover crops are herbaceous species introduced to provide beneficial services for
the agroecosystem. Although cover crops can belong to any plant family,
most of them are legumes33, such as, canavalia bean (Canavalia ensiformis), velvet bean (Mucuna
Mucuna pruriens
The coverage culverts are suitable for low external input systems, and the adoption of the same
it is especially important in places where several limitations can be solved at the same time by the
cover crop (for example, low soil fertility, high weed infestation, and severe erosion of
soil). Cover crops are a technology that can be easily disseminated; the producer does not require much
information to be able to establish it58.

2.2.1. Benefits of using live covers

One of the benefits of cover crops is that many leguminous species (e.g., canavalia bean, bean
velvet, among other species)50 38 They have the ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen and can help to
improve soil fertility by means of the direct release of ammoniacal nitrogen, the senescence of
the mycorrhizal nodules and the decomposition of the plant when it completes its life cycle60The benefits
this contribution is clear starting from the second year of planting the legume, when it has already
developed this relationship56. Al incorporar coberturas vivas, se necesiten menos fer lizantes nitrogenados
to meet the requirements of the cul vo, and this is a significant saving for the producer's wallet56, and
an important contribution to the mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions (GHG).
Another important benefit of living coverage is that its presence helps to retain moisture in the
floor48increasing water penetration and reducing runoff loss by up to six times1.
In addition, it helps in reducing the amount of weeds.17by competition. Both the canavalia bean and
velvet beans are resistant to shading from other crops and are strongly allelopathic to certain
weeds, as they are used as weed suppressors in associated crops56.

Nitrogen
Decomposition of the atmospheric
plant and senescence
of nodules making
available nitrogen
for the plants.

Setting of
nitrogen: conversion to
ammoniacal forms by
in the middle of the

nodules.

Mycorrhizal nodules fix atmospheric nitrogen, converting it into forms useful for plants.

How to confront climate change from agriculture: Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA) Practices 17
 Additionally, there are positive consequences of using coverage in food provision services.
Various studies in southern Mexico show that the yield of corn grain associated with cane bean
Value compared to maize in monoculture increases starting from the second year of association to 12% more yield.
grain amendment. The quality of maize biomass when grown with a cover of canavalia bean
it is better in quantity and quality than when it is grown in monoculture; this is important for obtaining
from other food products of the farm. Studies indicate that after three consecutive years of
as a partner, you obtain 23%
more than the total of protein
in the foliage of for
hectare, 66% more than the
total of dry straw
per hectare and 120%
more than the total of pro-
teina from the stubble for
forage per hectare.
This increase of the
quality and quality
of the stubble can be
important for the ga-
swimming, when used as
food supplement
and for the floor of the
plot, upon incorporation
to the ground as mulch56. The harvest of corn associated with living covers is greater than that of corn without covers.

2.2.2. Contribution of the use of living covers to climate change adaptation and mitigation
The benefits of living covers are particularly important in the context of extremes of
precipitations we are facing in Central America. The effects of coverage regarding
Erosion control and soil conservation are important in the face of extreme rains.56In this context, the
Live cover reduces the impact of raindrops on the soil; the residues prevent erosion.
from the soil due to runoff flow58and the added organic matter improves water infiltration56this
it is very relevant in hillside areas that are often exploited by marginal producers. In the scenarios
in drought, this practice helps in the conservation of moisture.
The nitrogen contribution made by leguminous cover crops is a natural fertilizer that does not
They generate transportation costs, as they are cultivated in the same terrain, making use of the processes and resources.
natural, which helps to mitigate the use of synthetic fertilizers56.

2.2.3. Limitations of the use of living covers

Some of the disadvantages of using living covers include the reduction of yield of the
crops of basic grains in the first year of the association due to competition between the crops and the
cover crops legumes79, although some studies indicate that this reduction is not significant56. For
Another part, the inadequate establishment of cover crop can facilitate the prevalence of weeds.
in the corn43At times, it may require greater use of labor, especially to establish the
live coverage40In corn, the severity of some diseases, such as ear rot
(Diplodia or Stenocarpella maydis) may be greater due to the more humid microclimate that fosters the
cover crop, favoring the development of fungi.

18 Module 4
[Link] barriers
Live barriers are plants sown in rows at short distances, such as good perennial grasses.
mallet, trees, and shrubs. They are planted on the ground in a direction perpendicular to the slope.
from the slope following contour lines53This practice reduces the speed of the rainwater that drains through
the surface of the soil, reducing water erosion and soil loss. In addition, as the plants that
they are used for dense growth, retaining a large amount of soil and nutrients. This system increases the
water filtration helping to retain moisture in the soil profile for a longer time59.
Among the species used as living barriers are grasses like king grass (Pennisetum purpureum x P.
typhoid), guinea grass (Panicum maximum), valerian (Vetiveria zizanioides), lemon grass (Cymbopogon
citrus), sugar cane (Saccharum officinarum) or other crops such as pineapple (Ananas comosus), among others.
Each vegetable material has its own different way of being sown. For grasses, sowing can be
to be done in double rows or staggered (herringbone), with distances of 15 to 20 cm, separated by a barrier
from the other according to the slope of the land and the type of culvert59To optimize water retention with
living barriers of grass clumps must form a dense row of plants53Live barriers are often
to be more effective than basic measures such as stone barriers to retain the soil, due to their
effective permanent root system45.

Living barriers can be more effective than dead barriers due to their deep root system.

You can also plant living barriers with shrubs and trees. Among the most commonly used species for this
The following are found: leucaena (L. leucocephala), madreado or black wood (Gliricidia sepium), and the bean.
pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan). In the case of live barriers of shrubs and trees, they can be planted from 20 to 30.
cm apart, in single or double rows, and with a braid of branches at the base that helps with a
greater soil retention59.
Keeping the barriers alive is simple, but it requires the producer's attention, specifically
reviewing the density, so that there are no empty spaces due to dead plants or because of the terrain.
very irregular topographically, there may exist points of water concentration that leave gaps in
the barrier, which requires reseeding. For grass species, it is advisable to maintain them at 0.75 -
1.0 m high to prevent providing too much shade to the undergrowth. Both for trees and for grass.
Pruning generates a vigorous regrowth, which is convenient for its maintenance and thus they can retain
better the ground24.

How to face climate change from agriculture: Ecosystem-based Adaptation Practices (EbA) 19
 Living barriers are easy for the producer to adopt, easy to establish, and involve low use of
labor for its maintenance. In terms of land conservation, over time the barriers
They are forming terraces, because the dragged material settles at the top of the barrier.
This is a gradual change that promotes soil conservation.18.

2.3.1. Benefits of the use of living barriers

Living barriers provide many benefits to producers. Living barriers reduce in a way
It means superficial runoff, erosion, and soil loss.53Theycanalsopromoteconservation.
of organic matter, phosphorus, and potassium64. In addition, there are studies that indicate that the yields of the plots
Black wooden barriers can be much superior to plots without barriers. In a study that uses
these living barriers, despite the influence of extreme events such as Hurricane Mitch when it occurred
In the experiment, the yield of corn was up to 45% higher than the test (without living barriers).42.
Living barriers can be multifunctional. Depending on the species used as a barrier, it can be
obtain different additional benefits for the producer. For example, elephant grass (Pennisetum
purple) or sugar cane (Saccharum officinarum) can be used as fodder for livestock or
for the family's supply. Other species, such as the gandul bean, can serve as food.
additional for the family or poultry53It can also help to provide additional income.
serving as raw material for other processes. For example, the use of living barriers of aloe (Aloe vera)
in coffee plantations in the western region of Honduras, provided raw material for the production of
soaps made by groups of women52, apart from being a medicinal species.

[Link] of the use of living barriers to the adaptation and mitigation of climate change
Live barriers have benefits in both drought and extreme rain conditions. It has been observed that
increase soil moisture in maize agroecosystems: for example, in agroecosystems of
maize in Choluteca, Honduras it was observed that living barriers reduced the impact of the drought on the
Upper layers above the barriers28It has also been observed that living barriers of mothered or black wood
In basic grains, they increased water infiltration and improved soil structure in fields.
of basic grains with a 40% increase in Nicaragua55Additionally, they reduce the possibility of an occurrence.
landslide due to ground disturbance71These aspects are important in a context of increase
of the frequency and severity of extreme rains and drought.

2.3.3. Limitations of the use of living barriers

There are specific limitations regarding different species used as living barriers. The king grass
It closes well at its base and provides forage, but if not managed properly it can be invasive. The cane
India (Dracaena fragans) has a deep root system, holding the slopes well, but it doesn't
closes well at its base. There is documentation that the mother tree or black wood has been a host of
the green bean leafhopper (Empoasca kraemeri, Homoptera)14and the lemon grass is a host of the
coffee root louse (Geococcus coffeaeDysmicoccus brevepis)18. The living barriers of trees such as
Leucaena, and madreado or blackwood have some considerations related to their management due to
its shadow. In the tops of staple grains, they should be pruned at the beginning of the sowing to prevent that
shade harms the growth of the crop53This pruning must be done in advance to achieve that the
biomass degrades and incorporates into the soil51.

However, the benefits provided by the practice of living barriers are greater than their limitations, and
It is up to the implementers in the field to weigh the factors related to their efficiency with
each species that is used.

20 Module 4
2.4. Trees planted in line: live fences and barriers or curtains
windbreaker
Linear trees are established to separate plots, keep animals away from crops or pastures, and to
protecting slopes from strong winds and erosion45Live fences and windbreak barriers have in
common planting (or retention) of trees or shrubs in a linear manner on the farm. According to the function in the
environment, differ in width, spacing, and the specific composition of the rows45.

The trees planted in line can provide multiple

benefits, such as the provision of firewood for the home.

[Link] or windbreak curtains

The function of windbreak barriers is to provide protection, whether to crops, animals, or sources.
of water, to the soils and/or to the infrastructure of extreme winds41In the mountainous areas of Costa
Rich exposed to the trade winds, it is common to see windbreaks established in pastures, coffee plantations.
and agricultural fields, to avoid the effects of the wind in dehydrating the soil, damaging plants and animals,
and prevent erosion. In general, if coffee-growing areas are exposed to winds greater than 30 km/h, they
recommend the use of these barriers to prevent damage to leaves and fruits, and reductions in production.
Among the desirable characteristics of trees for windbreaks are: having a crown with
abundant and dense foliage; have branches and leaves resistant to winds; have a strong root system and
deep; to be a fast-growing entity, and to have a long life2Among the species that are recommended for the
windbreak barriers in coffee are: the magnolia (Magnolia grandiflora), the copalchí (Croton reflexifolius)
Croton guatemalensis, Jaboncillo (Sapindus saponaria), allspice (Pimenta dioica), pink apple
(Eugenia jambos), the thunder (Ligustrum japonicum), the tubú (Montanoa guatemalensis) and the Casuarina
Cunningham's Casuarina2.
The establishment of windbreak fences must take into account the wind direction, the topography.
of the land and the culvert that is being protected68In general, windbreak hoods should
to be established perpendicular to the prevailing winds. For better operation
from the barrier, plants of different sizes must form a two-dimensional mosaic, with a

How to face climate change from agriculture: Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA) practices 21
 WIND
speed
temperature
ZONE TO PROTECT
cultivation - soils - animals

Ideally, a windbreak crown is formed by a mosaic of trees of different sizes located in the direction
perpendicular to the prevailing winds.

permeability of 20 to 50% of the barrier, to prevent turbulence on the wind side69As a general rule,
It is estimated that the protective effect of a windbreak extends downwind.
from eight to ten times the height of the barrier (41 in 45).
Care must be taken to ensure that the windbreak plants are compatible with the culverts of
interest; for example, the use of Neem trees (Azadirachta indica) or eucalyptus species should be avoided
(Eucalyptus spp) and walnut (Juglans spp) as they can have a negative effect on nearby crops.
due to the competition oalelopa a.
2.4.2. Benefits of using barriers or curtains
windbreaker
The main benefit of windbreaks is
that reduces the harmful effect of the wind on the
crops, livestock, and the soil. They also help regulate the
microclimate of the plot. Depending on the species
used, they can serve as important sources of
production of fruits such as cashew (Anacardium
western), forage (Prosopis sp), firewood and other products
forestry. The effects of windbreak barriers
they can also result in significant increases in
the productivity of the stakeholders of interest45, and have a
positive effect on pest control, for example in
laPhoma species of coffee.

In addition, at the landscape level, the presence of windbreaks can help provide habitat and resources.
paralabiodiversity (including seed dispersers, pollinators, and natural enemies of pests)45),
since many wild animals take advantage of the windbreak crowns as they provide connectivity between
landscapes, to cross from one forest to another.

22 Module 4
2.4.3. Contribution of the use of windbreaks or windbreak curtains to adaptation and mitigation of
climate change
In the current landscape of climate change that we live in, it is imminent that extreme winds and hurricanes
with strong winds becoming more frequent. Due to its design, the fundamental function of the windbreak is
it is the reduction of the speed of the winds that manage to pass through the hull, being its main function
adaptable. In addition, some of the winds are diverted, so the animals and vultures are protected from
possible extreme winds. Additionally, windbreaks affect the temperature of the wind,
making them cooler in very hot places and more temperate in very cold places6, which is
important to deal with the extreme temperatures projected in our region.

2.4.4. Limitations of the use of windbreak curtains

Because of the nature of the practice, we find effects of shadow and root competition that can
delay the growth of the plants closest to the coruña, and 'loss' of agricultural land that
is being taken over by the windbreak trees. However, considering the benefits
long-term mentioned earlier, such as the multiple products they can provide, the benefits of
biodiversity, and from the provision to the producer we can see that there are more positive effects than negative.
If proper pruning is done, and compatible species with the desired crops are kept, we can have
a good balance regarding the use of this practice.

[Link] fences
Live fences consist of trees.
spaced in a row, that are used
to place wire or sticks for
to separate one plot (or pasture) from another.
Ideally, the species that are planted
they are trees that can be pruned
easily, two or three times a year, and
easily established by cuttings45,
usually of a single species
when it is planted by the producer27.
The use of living fences is a
very common practice in Central America.
For example, a recent study of
CASCADA project found that 98%
from small coffee producers in
Turrialba, Costa Rica, used fences
you live on their farms; likewise,
87% of small producers of
basic grains in Choluteca, Honduras
they had living fences on their farms.
Among the most common species in
the live fences are poró (Erythrina
wooded or black wood
(especially in humid areas)
the jocote (Spondias purpurea), Indian

How to tackle climate change from agriculture: Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA) practices 23
 naked or jiñocuabo (Bursera simaruba) (especially in dry areas)8, but there is a lot of variety in
the species used in different places. The density of their planting varies greatly from one place to another, but
generally the trees are spaced one meter apart. In some cases, the fences are not planted but
that arise naturally (from seeds dispersed by birds or the wind). These 'natural' living fences have
greater diversity of plant species27y has greater value for biodiversity conservation, already
that attract more animals.
It is recommended to use stakes that are 2 to 2.5 meters long and plant them 20 to 30 cm deep, so that
the sprouts that emerge are out of the reach of livestock, so that their establishment is achieved more quickly,
in approximately 3 months45It is also necessary that as the trees grow, they
Revise if it's necessary to replant. This is done by placing stakes of a smaller diameter than those that were planted.
Initially. The wire should be placed several months later, when it can be ensured that the trees
they are well rooted8.
Pruning is essential to keep the live fence in good condition. This practice depends on
the services provided by trees, the use of pruned material, and personal preferences of the
producers. For example, some producers prefer to prune according to the phases of the moon, preferring
perform the pruning in the waning phase.

2.5.1. Benefits of Using Live Fences

Hedgerows can have multiple uses depending on the species used, providing many
possible by-products. For example, forage species can be used for ruminants or other animals
domestic animals (including chickens), which is very important for their food, especially when there are
less biomass in the pastures. These trees are mostly legumes and are easily propagated (by
seed or in a vegetative manner6.

Living fences can have multiple uses, such as supplementing the feed for livestock.

24 Module 4
Live fences can provide firewood for home use or for sale, and give us timber products.
(e.g., posts, forks). In terms of supply, it is a way to produce fruits with commercial value or
for the food security of the family by utilizing unused or marginal areas, with relatively
little competition with the culverts. Additionally, living fences allow for a clear delimitation of
the property, reaffirming its ownership, preventing possible legal issues regarding the property of the
neighbors, unwanted invasions, etc.6In addition, living fences add aesthetic value to a landscape.6, since
Its beauty can often be appreciated, for example with species that bloom or when its foliage contrasts.
with the rest of the estate.

[Link] of the use of live fences to adaptation and mitigation of climate change
Living fences can lower soil temperature due to the greater moisture retention where they are.
located11, 39, 47 and 41) which is relevant in the context of erratic precipitation that we are facing.
Additionally, it is expected that the air temperature in a plot surrounded by live fences will be higher.
established that without her41The relative humidity of the nearby plots increases with the presence of live fences.
reducing the evapotranspiration rate of the culverts47, this effect decreases as one moves away from the
live search. The lower rate of evapotranspiration translates into greater water conservation in the plant,
avoiding water stress41Finally, although its main objective is not the same as that of a cornet.
Windbreaks, living fences can also moderately protect against extreme wind.

2.5.3. Limitations of the use of living fences

The limitations of living fences are mainly related to the need to manage the
trees regularly. Live fences need to be pruned as their branches can produce a lot of
sombra, compi endo por luz con el cul vo. Además, si no se podan, se corre el riesgo de que el árbol crezca
in diameter and "eats" the wire, causing it to break and need to be replaced to continue
fulfilling its function, which is inconvenient for the producer8.
As part of the CASCADA project, interviews were conducted with small coffee and grain producers.
sicos in Costa Rica, Guatemala and Honduras about the limitations of living fences, among other practices
Cases. For the establishment of this practice, 47% mentioned difficulties in obtaining the plant material.
as a limitation,
13% mentioned the high cost
of the wire, and 13% the hand
of work needed for the
establishment. When
he asked about the
limiters once it is
practice established, 38%
mentioned the need to
labor to carry out
the pruning; they were not mentioned
other issues as
The practice is already here.
blessed.

How to face climate change from agriculture: Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA) practices 25
 [Link] in the coffee
The coffee plantations vary greatly in terms of the type and level of shade. Moguel and Toledo.44indicate five ways
to classify the shadow positions in coffee plantations: the rustic shade, the traditional polyculture, the polyculture
commercial, monospecific shade (simple shade) and monoculture in full sun.
In the shaded coffee plantations, the producer replaces the plants that grow on the forest floor with
coffee plants. Only the lowest layer of the forest is removed and the tree cover is maintained. Usual-
In this system, there is minimal management, with little use of agrochemicals, and it has low yields.
In the traditional coffee production system, the producer also introduces coffee under the tree cover.
but coffee is managed with different useful plants, with a lot of useful biodiversity, and with more manipulation. The
The commercial reforestation system involves the removal of the original forest and the introduction of trees.
devoted and selected for the coffee cult. The original trees of the forest are no longer there, but rather species
that provide shade and also offer other benefits such as nitrogen fixation from plants
legumes, and the production of wood, fruits, and other goods. This system has a better yield than
the previous one, and in general it is handled with agrochemicals. The monospecific shade or simple shade is a
of the most common in modern coffee cultivation. Some selected species are used to provide the
shadow: Poró, guaba or pepeto (Inga spp.), black wood or madreado, among others, resulting in a plan-
specialized planting under little diverse shade (generally with only one shade species), and also
It requires the use of agrochemicals. Finally, the full-sun monoculture lacks trees and requires great
quality of agrochemicals and intensive management44.

Dense shadow of the traditional policula Shadow of the commercial police

(adapted from Moguel and Toledo44). (adapted from Moguel and Toledo44).

10

Arrangement of the simple shadow or monospecific shadow (adapted from Moguel and Toledo44).

26 Module 4
2.6.1. Benefits of using shade trees in coffee plantations
Among the most important benefits of shade is the conservation of high levels of matter.
organic22 in 76which is important both for maintaining soil structure and for serving as a source
of nutrients25 and 76The amount of organic matter present in the agroecosystem will depend
del manejo que el productor le dé a su plantación. El manejo de cafetales con sombra de poró y otros
trees conserve more leaf litter or debris on the ground compared to a coffee plantation without
shade trees9.70 and 75Additionally, the capacity to retain nutrients is greater in a coffee plantation with trees.
with shade that in a coffee plantation without shade.

The use of shade trees in coffee plantations has advantages such as the conservation of soil organic matter, promoting the
nutrient recycling and promoting soil moisture, while providing other ecosystem services such as offering
habitat for biodiversity.

Shade trees are also very important for nutrient recycling. A study conducted
by Baraër5 in 75 it was focused on determining the effect of shade trees on the processes
of mineralization and nitrification of organic matter in the soil, and found a strong relationship between the
mineralization and the shadow period. According to their experiment, it was observed that coffee soils without shade
they showed the slowest nitrogen demineralization rate (1.7 mg N/kg of soil) and the coffee plantations with
Poró shadow, nitrogen-fixing tree, presented the fastest mineralization rate (5.64mg N/
kg of soil). As a summary of their study, we can indicate that there is more mineralization under trees of
shade, variable depending on the species, being greater under the shade of leguminous trees.

How to face climate change from agriculture: Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA) Practices 27
 The trees that are used for shade can also determine the benefits that can be obtained from it.
practice. The use of service trees is a common practice in coffee plantations. The specific diversity
in these systems it is reduced to two or three species. Among the species that fix nitrogen and that are used
As shade trees, the poró, guaba or pepeto stand out, and to a lesser extent, madreado or black wood and Gravilia.
(Grevillea robusta). These species are characterized by their rapid growth and can withstand one or several prunings.
times a year. Some produce good or average quality firewood, others produce fruits (for example, pacai
(the guaba). They are easily spread by cuttings or seeds.61These species also improve the balance of
nitrogen in the plantation, a fundamental element in coffee production. The estimated amounts
de nitrógeno, en cafetales bajo condiciones normales, con manejo de especies fijadoras como el poró o la
guava or pepeto, they surround 100 kg/ha34which can vary from 56-555 kg/ha49 and 76 .
Shade trees can help retain moisture in the soil and also promote infiltration.
However, in very dry areas throughout the year, or in areas with very marked and long dry periods,
very high densities of shade trees in coffee plantations should be avoided (>60 trees per hectare)
because under those conditions the trees will transpire more water than they can contribute to retaining, and
they could even compete for water with the culvert.
It is important to highlight that if the shaded coffee plantations are managed with the same intensity of care
(fertilization, pruning of coffee plants, pest and disease management, shade management, etc.) the
yields can be similar in this system as in the non-shaded coffee farm. If both systems are

The production of coffee plantations with shade trees is less susceptible to changes in management.

28 Module 4
worked with low management (as happens with traditional polyculture systems: little shade management,
little fertilization, etc.), there are better yields in the shaded system, meaning that the full system
sun is more susceptible to management deficiencies, while the shadow system better supports the low
management, in terms of production. This last point is important considering small producers.
On the other hand, the export quality is higher in shade-grown coffee plantations, as they produce better fruits.
big and healthy, without sunburns26 and 75In addition, other characteristics, such as caffeine content
and sugar levels rise in shaded coffee compared to full sun coffee26This is important
because these compounds are fundamental in the coffee roasting process76, and it is relevant to the
Coffee cultivation in Central America that has a vocation for specialty coffee markets.
Shade trees can be very diverse and provide goods for different uses. All the goods
Produced means an income or savings for the family depending on how they are used. It can be produced
wood for sale or for construction on the farm, firewood for the home, fruits for family consumption or for
the consumption of domestic animals, or for sale as well. It is very relevant that producers value
the additional contribution of the shadow to the family cash flow (economy), not just the competition between
crops and trees.

[Link] of the use of shade trees to the adaptation and mitigation of climate change
climatic
The shade has effects on the microclimate of the coffee plantation, affecting the amount and quality of light that enters.
system, moderating the temperature of the air, the soil, and the leaf area (leaves of the coffee plant); improving
the soil moisture10,29,36,37 76and has a positive effect due to the impact of the rain under the canopy3.70 in 76 .
The solar radiation that reaches the coffee plant is considerably reduced depending on the shade density and
of the tree canopy used (e.g. evergreen vs. deciduous)7,36,67 and 76The high temperatures of
air (maximum temperatures), of coffee plant leaves and of the soil, decrease within the system below
shade; while the humidity of the air (relative humidity) tends to increase36, 37 and 76 and to remain for longer
time21.78, which is particularly important in future drought scenarios. Those conditions
Microclimates can help regulate the fruit load of coffee plants, thus avoiding significant variations.
marked in the production from one year to another. This regulation of the fruit load can also prevent
excessive presence of fungal diseases (plants are more susceptible to pathogens with high
fruit loads.
In the face of extreme rains, shade trees help protect the soil from laminar erosion.
its fertility through the organic matter they provide to the system; they also help prevent landslides.
related to mass soil erosion, through the support provided by deep roots
that go from one horizon to another in the agroecosystem76, although this effect requires more studies. The canopy
The shadow intercepts the rain and can reduce its intensity and the surface runoff under the canopy.76
especially in the case of light rain (< 5mm). This point is controversial because the leaves
the shade trees collect rainwater and form larger drops, which, when
leaf shedding (in more abundant rains) can have a greater impact on the leaves of the
cafés. The kinetic energy of the drops (determined by the size and speed of the drop) depends on the
canopy height and species of trees3.70In this sense, the laurel (Cordia alliodora), for example, increases
the kinetic energy of the droplets, compared to full sun13.70 in 77causing greater erosion. Others
tree species such as Inga edulis and Inga densiflora, on the contrary, tend to decrease energy
cinema of the drops, possibly due to its cup shape that intercepts more rain and distributes it to the
length of the branches and the trunk70.

How to tackle climate change from agriculture: Ecosystem-based Adaptation Practices (EbA) 29
 The use of shade trees moderates temperature and has a positive impact on precipitation in the coffee plantation; at the same time
Tempo provides habitat for biodiversity that can be beneficial for planting.

Shade trees also contribute to the mitigation of climate change, a service for the
global environment. Trees are capable of sequestering carbon from the air and storing it in their woody parts.
(trunks and branches), providing a benefit of mitigation. In this way, they are contributing to reduce the
concentrations of a greenhouse gas (CO2of the atmosphere, which is one of the causes of
global climate change.

2.6.3. Limitations and trade-offs of shade trees in coffee

The main limitations of shade trees are that they require management in the early years when
are established (the first 3 to 4 years) which can increase the use of labor, increasing
costs for the producer. The management of shade trees through pruning is essential because if the shade
is excessive can significantly reduce performance and also promote a higher incidence of
pests and diseases.
The shade has some trade-offs when compared to the coffee plantation in full sun, for example, the development
The grain under shade matures later. However, it is more uniform and the grain is more
big30,34 and 76Studies also show a clear shadow effect on load reduction.
fruitful3.19Other studies also show reductions in performance under the shade of Inga sp.
38% when compared to full sun plantations67 and 75 .

30 Module 4
 3. Key messages

L Agricultural producers in Central America are particularly vulnerable to climate change; adjus-
Adapting to this change is essential for their level of production and their livelihoods to persist.
There are several ways to adapt to climate change; however, Ecosystem-based Adaptation
provides a viable option with additional benefits for small producers. These are some of
the key ideas of this module:
Ecosystem-Based Adaptation practices use biodiversity and ecosystem services to
help families and their farms adapt to climate change. They refer to conservation practices,
restoration and sustainable management of agroecosystems. Many can be used in ag production.
livestock farming to help agroecosystems, producers, and their families to be more resilient to
future pacts.

The adoption of AbE practices in the landscape helps in the continuous provision of ecosystem services while also helping the
producers to adapt to the change

Many of the Ecosystem-Based Adaptation practices that are suitable for small producers
they provide multiple co-benefits: they provide goods for family income and consumption, they help in security-
food dad, protect the culverts from extreme events (winds, hurricanes), improve fertility
from the soil and contribute to mitigating climate change through carbon sequestration.
3. Some examples of Agroecological Engineering (AbE) in agricultural systems include the use of living barriers to prevent
erosion during heavy rains or extreme events, the use of windbreak cores to shelter the

How to Face Climate Change from Agriculture: Ecosystem-Based Adaptation Practices (EbA) 31
 impacts of strong winds or extreme rains on the coffee plantations, the use of diversified shade in coffee
such as protecting against the impacts of high temperatures and fluctuations in precipitation, conservation
of riparian forests and wooded areas to ensure water supply during times of greater variability
climate, and the use of soil conservation practices to avoid the effects of extreme events on
erosion, loss of fertility and availability of water, among others.
4. Ecosystem-based Adaptation practices can have a significant impact at the landscape level: if
These practices will be implemented in all the farms in a region, their impact would be faster and more noticeable.
beneficial for many communities at the same time, beyond just the farm of a producer.
The use of Ecosystem-Based Adaptation practices can help small producers to adapt.
adapt to climate change and should be part of their adaptation strategies. Other activities that can
being important for their adaptation includes access to technical support, the use of new plant varieties
more resistant to high temperatures or drought, and access to credit and financial resources to implement
changes in their farms, among others.
 4. Glossary

Allelopathy: It is the direct influence of a chemical compound released by a plant on development and
growth of another plant. Allelopathic compounds can be released from plants into the environment
through the exudation of the roots, leaching, volatilization, and decomposition of the residues of the
plants in the soil
Anthropogenic: It refers to the effects, processes, or materials that are the result of human activities.
unlike those that have natural causes without human influence
Service trees: Trees that are generally not used with annual and perennial crops for
control erosion (e.g., living barriers), provide shade, fix nitrogen, provide mulch, to control weeds or
improve soil fertility.
Financial capital: It is composed of economic resources, in cash or not, that are available for the
communities and contribute both to consumption and to production. It is used to achieve objectives
related to the means and strategies of life; by their nature as investments, they allow for the creation of value
additional.
Social capital: It refers to the connections, networks, the norms of reciprocity and trust that exist among the
people and organizations in communities, whether private, public, or community.
Zero tillage: The sowing that is done directly in soils, without the need to disturb it or remove the...
underbrush that covers it.

Co-benefits: Secondary benefits of an action.

DAP: Diameter at chest height.
Layer erosion: Loss of a more or less uniform thin layer of soil (particles released
by splash) on sloping land. It occurs when the intensity of precipitation exceeds the
infiltration or when the soil becomes saturated with water, leading to an excess of water on the surface.
Agricultural frontier: Boundary between the land dedicated to agriculture and the land that is maintained as an area.
natural intact.
Fungal (diseases): They are caused by fungi.
Host: An organism that houses another inside it or carries it on itself.
Robust measure: In the context of Ecosystem-based Adaptation, robust measures are
also known as 'useful actions in any case' or 'no-regrets' in English. These, regardless
Of the climate scenario, they offer both environmental and socio-economic benefits. That is, they are
beneficial even when the anticipated consequences of climate change do not materialize or do so in
a different way.
Mycorrhizae: Symbiotic association of a fungus with the roots of a higher plant, through which
Both organisms benefit. The fungus provides minerals to the roots and the tree provides food.
(carbohydrates) to the fungus.

How to face climate change from agriculture: Ecosystem-based Adaptation practices (EbA) 33
 Mineralization: It is the transformation of organic nitrogen into mineral nitrogen, becoming assimilable.
for the plant through the action of soil microorganisms.
Mulch: Layer of loose organic matter, which can be crop residues, cut grass, leaves, and others
similar materials, used to cover the ground around the plants, or placed between the
Rows of plants to protect the soil.
Trade-off: It is a situation in which a certain quality must be sacrificed in exchange for another quality. It implies a
decision in which the advantages and disadvantages of each choice are fully understood.

34 Module 4
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How to confront climate change from agriculture: Ecosystem-based Adaptation Practices (EbA) 39
The CASCADA project (Ecosystem-Based Adaptation)
for small subsistence and coffee producers in
Central America) is part of the International Initiative of
Climate Protection (IKI). The Federal Ministry of the Environment
Environment, Nature Protection, Public Works and
Nuclear Safety (BMUB) supports this initiative based on
the decision adopted by the Bundestag of the Republic of
Germany.

More information about the project at:

[Link]/cascade-spanish