Design elements of

intersections
DEFINITION: Intersection are road devices where two or more roads meet.
they are on the same level, which means they are points where they intersect
two or more lanes, leading to crossings and changes in the paths of vehicles
que circulan por ellas. Por otra parte, las ramas de la intersección se consideran a
starting from the point where the typical road profile shows the first variation, in
plant or elevation, intended to allow or facilitate any of said maneuvers of
crossing or change of direction; the links are those that resolve conflicts
interchange (grade-separated intersections).
Figure 1. Main surfaces that configure an intersection

Roads: paved surface used by vehicles to carry out all the

permitted movements in the intersection area.
Surfaces treated, adjacent to the roadway, free of obstacles, that
They can be invaded by vehicles during occasional maneuvers.
Islands: surfaces that remain immersed in the roadway, resulting from the
specialization and delimitation of parts of the latter to address the different
movements that occur at an intersection.
FIELDS OF INFLUENCE AND APPLICATION: It must be taken into account that a
intersection is part of a road system, so its design depends on the
characteristics of the system, while also affecting its functioning.
Intersections can also condition the classification of the roads.
committed, which can be:
 Highways
Author routes
Primary roads
Collector roads
Local roads
Development paths
In the first three, the continuity of transit is of primary interest. For
To achieve this objective, access control must be employed, fully in the case.
of highways and with restrictions in the case of expressways and roads
primaries.
On highways, intersections should not be projected but rather interchanges, and that
those should be carefully planned on the roads with partial control of
accesses.
In the other classes, access and service are of primary concern.
adjacent land, postponing the continuity of the flow to a secondary level.
STRUCTURE OF THE PROBLEM: The intersection of two roads at the same level of origin, in
lower or higher degree, to a point of discontinuity for both. The crossings between
vehicles, as well as the turning movements that occur there, generate a series of
conflict points, which can be minimized through a special design and
careful of the entire area affected by the intersection.
Figure 2. Design execution process.

a) The mentioned background is studied.

b) Possible solution schemes are prepared. These must be studied as well.
in plan as in profile, considering different alternative designs that
adapt to the aforementioned background.
c) Estimation of costs and benefits of the different alternatives considered,
to compare them not only taking into account their virtues as solutions
techniques of the problem, but also from an economic perspective.
d) The solution that best reconciles both terms is decided.
 e) Execution of the final project that fully specifies the design with
all its elements and attached works.
The geometric definition of an intersection is a central activity of its physics. It is
an inseparable activity of the operational design of the device and around it
develop a series of studies that converge, in an interrelated manner, to the
final project. The most common of these studies are related to the
following practices: hydrology, drainage and sewerage, design of structures,
pavements and coatings; safety, signaling and control; landscaping and
public services in any of its forms.

Factors to consider in the design of an intersection

The objective of intersection design is to reduce the probability and severity of
the conflicts that can arise between pedestrians, bicycles, cars,
trucks, buses, and the vertical elements present in the device; contributing
In addition, convenience, ease, and comfort for its users; where the design must
adapt in the best way to the trajectories and operational characteristics of
the same.
The first stage of the intersection project consists of the production,
analysis, interpretation and use of a series of data, circumstances and criteria that
constitute a body of concurrent factors in the choice of a type of
specific intersection among the many possible, and its design. The factors are
they are grouped into four basic categories, which will give rise to the topics that follow
the present section. These topics, organized more or less according to what they could
are successive stages within the project, are:
HUMAN FACTORS: The factors involved in the design of intersections
it has to do with the capabilities and uses and habits of drivers and
passersby; highlighting among the first the skill and speed to take
decisions and the speed of reaction once a decision has been made; secondly, the
pedestrian and cycling use assigned to the public platform and behaviors
usual habits that occur in these uses and in the choice of trajectories. For
last the expectations of drivers in relation to the design of an intersection.
TRAFFIC CONSIDERATIONS: The main factors that condition the
selection of the type solution and characteristics of geometric elements with which
It will define the intersection as the volumes of transits that access separately.
at an intersection that performs the possible maneuvers there, its distribution and
projection that these movements must make to thus determine the capacities
of the design of its constituent units; the composition of the flows by type of
vehicle, its operating speeds and the peculiarities of its interactions
while using the device; their relationships with pedestrians and cyclists, and the
experience related to traffic accidents.
Vehicle type selection
For intersections, vehicle types are grouped into four categories:
L: Light vehicle (car and pickup truck).
C: Truck (simple truck of 11 m and intercity bus of 12.1 m, 13.2 m, and 14
m).
- VA1: Vehicle articulated current (truck tractor with
standard semi-trailer 18.6
m).
VA2: Special articulated vehicle
tractor-trailer with
semi-trailer for
automobiles 22.4 m)

Vehicle Buses Truck Truck with

lightweight intercity trailer semi-trailer
(AASGHTO – P) (AASHTO – P) (AASHTO – WB (AASHTO - WB -
20)
 Demand and modeling
Demand is the most significant transit variable in terms of design of a
intersection, since the resulting capacity of that design must satisfy it; the
which implies the sizing in geometric and structural terms of its
constituent units, the operation of traffic lights (if any) and coordination (if
is part of an axis or a well-regulated network). On the other hand, it is necessary to have
count the future vehicle flows and the way and amount in which it is expected
presence of bicycles and pedestrians.
With the physical and operational modeling of roadway devices, it allows predicting the
time and fuel consumption under such conditions and therefore compare
economically distinct projects with a baseline situation, and therefore evaluate,
in social terms, the profitability of the investment associated with such projects.
These models also help predict the degrees of saturation that the
intersections, isolated or in coordination with others, will present under the
future demand conditions, considering it as a tool for
design.
(3) Selection of the type of control

To avoid conflicts between vehicle traffic and pedestrian circulation, it is

necessary the installation of signs or traffic lights at the intersections. The choice
The type of control at an intersection should be done by analyzing the characteristics.
of traffic, pedestrian movements, and accident statistics.
In the analysis of the traffic flowing through the intersection, a study of is required:
Traffic on the main road.
Traffic on the secondary road incident.
Arrival and departure times of vehicles on both routes.
Percentage of delayed vehicles on the secondary road due to effects of
transit.
The choice of a type of control for an intersection, which conditions its
Geometry will be the application of experience, together with analysis.
computational what will allow quantify the benefits of designs in
discussion.
(4) Intersections without traffic lights

This implies that one of the intersecting roads always has priority over the other.
and consequently the capacity of this main road must be calculated
as if there were no intersection. In these intersections are present the
"yield" signs or the "stop" sign; these signs are made based on criteria of
visibility and not by the greater importance of one over the other.
A section of braiding is the area where different currents intersect.
of traffic that follow the same direction of circulation. The level of service in this
The segment depends on its length, number of lanes, acceptable level of congestion and
the demand for each movement, in amount and distribution at the moments
analyzed. These segments can be simple or multiple.

Figure 3. Example of braided sections.

 Figure 4. Types of braidings

PHYSICAL ELEMENTS: The landscape, its topography, and natural and artificial elements, and
the character and use of the adjacent land constitute physical backgrounds that may
facilitate or hinder the location, visibility, channeling of flows
vehicles in an economical manner, drainage, aesthetic and functional compatibility
of the work with the existing environment.

ECONOMIC BACKGROUND: The cost of construction and the benefits it brings

reports are the economic factors that mostly condition a solution.
The cost of the secondary negative effects of the design must be considered.
proposed, such as the drawbacks that the elimination represents
certain movements concerning the inhabitants of the crossing area; it must also
incorporate into the profitability analysis the aspects of an environmental nature that are
find those involved in the affected area, this implies in the decisions of
to build.

Selection of the type solution

Intersections are classified according to their shape and operation.
NOMENCLATURE AND PLANNING OF INTERSECTIONS: The types of intersection are
defined by the number of confluent branches and by their way of operating with respect to
to the trajectory conflicts.
Frank intersections are those in which at least one of the movements
vehicles collide with another in a reduced and predetermined area of the device;
while in roundabouts, the movements have different origins and destinations,
and these interact by intertwining their paths along an annular section of the
device. The intersections of three branches are the terminal connection of a
secondary road with another (primary) that receives or provides the flows of the
First. The intersections of four branches can also be distinguished by the
general, a primary lane, with predominant demand and layout, and another secondary,
whose geometry appears subordinate to the previous one and whose flows, comparatively
minors show a greater component of turns to and from the main one.
Types of intersections
Links: movements in different planes.
- Intersections: movements in the same plane.
Controlled intersections by traffic lights: with temporal separation.
Roundabouts: without time separation and without crossings.
Controlled intersections by right of way: without temporal separation, and
with crosses.
Diseño geométrico de una intersección
BASIC ASPECTS OF THE LAYOUT: Each point of conflict must be addressed.
carefully, using all available elements so that the
resulting device avoids difficult or dangerous maneuvers and is easily
signalizable. To achieve a design, the following must be considered:

Preference for the most important movements: priority should be given

about the secondaries; thus limiting the secondary movements with signals
adequate, reduction of road width, introduction of curves with radius
small.
Reduction of conflict areas: it is usual for large surfaces
paved surfaces invite vehicles and pedestrians to erratic movements,
that promote accidents and decrease the capacity of the intersection.
Perpendicularity of the paths when they intersect: it is desirable that the
intersections occur at right angles, since in that case the areas of
conflicts are minimal; thus reducing clashes and facilitating the
maneuvers. Intersections with angles between are recommended.
65° and 135°
Separation of conflict points: this allows vehicles not to
they need to attend to several vehicles simultaneously.
Separation of movements: when the hourly intensity of the project
a certain movement is important, on the order of 25 or more vehicles,
it is advisable to provide it with a one-way street, completing it with paths
of acceleration or deceleration if necessary.
Speed control: through channeling, speed can be controlled.
speed of traffic entering an intersection, with curves of
adequate radio to reduce speed and avoid overtaking in areas
of conflict.
Control of turning points: avoid turns at inconvenient points
using suitable islands that make them materially very difficult.
(8) Creation of protected areas: the islands provide vehicles with zones
protected on the sidewalks. Used when a vehicle needs to cross
several traffic lanes.
Visibility: this limits the speed of vehicles that access the
intersection.
(10) Forecast: wide surfaces are required at intersections; this must
take into account when authorizing constructions on the margin of the
road.
(11) Simplicity and clarity: those intersections are not convenient.
complicated where drivers give way to doubt; that is why
They must avoid annoying movements or overly long routes.
VISIBILITY DISTANCE: This is one of the most important elements within
The safety of a road and its provision enables efficient operation. The
minimum visibility distances that are considered safe at an intersection
they are directly related to the speed of vehicles and distances
during normal times of perception, reaction, and braking, under certain assumptions
of physical conditions and behavior of the drivers.
(1) Visibility and stopping distance at intersections: the driver, in
any of the trajectories it takes must have visibility over the
intersection and its accesses with enough time to stop your vehicle
before the crossing (maneuver necessary to avoid the accident).
(2) Visibility triangles: it is an obstacle-free area that allows for the
drivers who access simultaneously, see each other and observe the
intersection at a distance such that it is possible to avoid conflicts.
(3) Minimum visibility triangle: which is considered safe, corresponding
to the triangular area that has as a side, along each path, a length
equal to the stopping distance. At each intersection, the space-time relationship
time-speed indicates the visibility triangle free of obstacles.
(4) Intersection signaling: each intersection must be regulated
through informative, preventive signals
and regulatory; where the first must
have a distance that allows for the
driver decide in advance the
maneuvers that must be executed, and the second
must indicate the type and category of the
roads that form the intersection,
indicating which has preference over another,
and the last one has to do with the indication
which path will prevail over the other
(yield sign, stop sign).
Influence of gradients on visibility
at the intersection: if the slope has an inclination
negative, a vehicle needs a greater
stopping distance; on the contrary,
with a positive gradient, it requires a
shorter distance. For minimum visibility
the slopes should not be secure
greater than 3%.
PLANT LAYOUT OF THE TRACKS OF THE
INTERSECTION: The importance of the intersection
and the availability of resources to design a
Optimal solution is a basic design factor.
Absolute minimum edge layouts in
turns without channeling
When the available space for the intersection
be very limited, or the rotational movements of very little importance, it will be able to
use minimum path intersections (minimum turning trajectories). As it
as the turning angle increases and the designed vehicle is larger, the
minimums are transformed into simple circular curves but with setbacks and wedges
which improve the turning conditions and reduce the paved surface.
The drawings
minimums are
frequent in areas
rural The
election of these
it will depend of the type
and size of the
vehicles that there will be
of turning and of the
facilities what
they should
to be granted to the
same for sus
maneuvers.
Also
it depends on the
nature and
location of the
paths that he
crossing and of the
demands
respective; the flow
vehicular that carry out
movements of turn
and of the effect what
this cause in front of
the others flows.
(2)
Layouts
absolute minimums of curves in channelized intersections
The paved area in the intersection zone increases as the
Right-turn angles become sharper and the vehicle type is larger.
wingspan.
DEFINITION OF ELEVATION:
Case of a single platform
When the intersection surface is small and its various elements are
close to each other, the elevations of these elements are conditioned to each other
the others, while they rigidly depend on the features in profile of
the crossing paths.
Extension of existing surfaces: when this is possible, it is
it is advisable to keep the cross-section of the tracks unchanged
main roads, adapting both the intersection and the secondary roads to the
need to coherently splice with the beginning. This implies the
 prolongation of the surface of its runways, with the slopes that in this
They have a point, until covering the necessary area for the intersection.

Recreations: when it is not desired to modify the existing roads, but we

it is necessary to expand the intersection area to provide better service, it
it can carry out a resurfacing of the pavements at those points where
It is desired to widen the turning radii.

(2) Case of independent axle

When branches of great development are planned at the intersection, or with
project speeds above 40 km/h, it is advisable to define axes
independent longitudes for said branches. On one hand, because the
Large surfaces that are committed may not be susceptible to being predefined.
without considerable earth movements, and on the other hand, because such speeds
They require a homogeneous and normalized longitudinal profile.

DEFINITION OF CROSS SECTIONS:

Once the plant of the intersection and its elevation have been defined, it is time to address those.
aspects of the design that are related to the transverse inclinations of
the elements arranged, respecting the conditions arising from the application of
criteria for resolving the elevation of the platforms, or of the joints if applicable
of the branches.

Relationship between radii and cant based on project speed

Transition of superelevation
Conditions of the common edge to the passing road and the turning branch
ROUNDABOUT INTERSECTIONS: The roundabout is an intersection
roundabout at level and is distinguished because the vehicle flows that access it through
its branches maneuver inside a ring road that connects them. The points of
conflicts in this are less than in other types of intersections since the
path of the vehicles on the ring is similar to the intersections. The
The operation of a roundabout is based on the priority of passage of vehicles.

If the traffic volumes of the access branches are of the same order of
magnitude, or if the turning movements prevail over the passing ones, the roundabouts
are usually very advantageous. Some types of roundabouts are:

- Normal roundabout: it has a central island (diameter greater than 4 m), its
Entrances are flared to allow the entry of vehicles through multiple
clues.
- Mini Roundabout: it has a central island (diameter less than 4 m), at level.
 Double Roundabout: it consists of two normal or mini roundabouts connected.
by a connecting stretch or an island; it serves to connect roads separated by
linear obstacles, such as rivers, railroads, or highways.
Roundabout at a different level: at least one of its branches connects with a
road which passes at a different level.

(1) Advantages and disadvantages

Some of the advantages of a roundabout are that when they are well designed,
they make traffic flow in an orderly and continuous manner, with few delays and
great safety; it has a lower cost than those intersections with overpass;
are the only solution for intersections with five or more branches; their simplicity and
the simplicity of operation facilitates its understanding by users;
allow for abrupt alignment changes that could not be achieved with
minimum radios.

On the other hand, their disadvantages are that they do not always have greater capacity than the
well-designed and regulated intersections at grade; they are not suitable when the
the volume of pedestrians or collective transport activity is significant; it does not
They can be easily expanded and therefore do not adapt to construction plans.
in stages.
Within the design elements of roundabouts, the plan layout is found;
As shown in the figure, a plan layout of a normal roundabout is presented. In it
the most relevant factors in the design of these devices are highlighted:
Trajectory of vehicles through the roundabout and curvature of the
entry trajectory. Minimum radius of the outer edge at the entrance, between 6
and 100 m, with a minimum of 20 m if long vehicles are expected.
The entry angle to the roundabout, which must be in the range of 20° to 60°.
Minimum output radius of about 40 m but no less than 20 m.
Swelling of the input branches and the ring.
The roundabout must have a minimum longitudinal slope of 0.65% and
transverse slope of 2% in this last one to ensure surface drainage.
The points of conflict
its crosses of
trajectories what
they represent a
possibility of accidents at intersections.
Dependent on:
Number of accesses.
Allowed turning movements.
Type of traffic control.

The design of an intersection essentially consists of combining the elements most

suitable for their specific circumstances so that these movements can be
carry out with comfort and safety.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
[1] Highway Manual; Volume No. 3 "Instructions and Design Criteria"
Intersections.
[2][Link]
ion_Index-2012/Index MC-V3_2012.pdf