Unit 2: DC Motors

SYLLABUS:
Principle and construction, significance of back EMF and torque equation, performance
characteristics of D.C. motors; starting of DC Motor: 3-point and 4-point starter; speed control of
D.C. motors: field control, armature control and Ward Leonard method; efficiency and testing of
D.C. machines (Swinburne’s test, Hopkinson’s and Field test)
*****

Principle of a DC motor:
When a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, a mechanical force is
experienced by it. The direction of this force is determined by Fleming’s Left Hand Rule and its
magnitude is given by the relation:
F = Bil Newton
Where,
B=Flux density in Wb/mt2
i=Current in Ampere
l=Length of the conductor in mt
An electro-mechanical energy conversion device (electrical machine) that converts DC
electrical energy or power (EI) into mechanical energy or power (ω T) is called a DC motor.
Electric motors are used for driving industrial machines, e.g., hammers, presses, drilling
machines, lathes, rollers in paper and steel industry, blowers for furnaces, etc., and domestic
appliances, e.g., refrigerators, fans, water pumps, toys, mixers, etc.

Fig.1. Block diagram of electromagnetic energy conversion (motor action)

The block diagram of energy conversion, when the electro-mechanical device works as a
motor, is shown in Fig.1.
Working principle of DC motor:

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 Fig.2. Working principle of a DC motor

For simplicity, consider only one coil of the armature placed in the magnetic field
produced by a bipolar machine [see Fig. 2(a)]. When DC supply is connected to the coil, current
flows through it which sets up its own field as shown in Fig. 2(b). By the interaction of the two
fields (i.e., field produced by the main poles and the coil), a resultant field is set up as shown in
Fig. 2(c). The tendency of this resultant field is to come to its original position i.e., in straight line
due to which force is exerted on the two coil sides and torque develops which rotates the coil.
Function of a commutator:
The function of a commutator in DC motors is to reverse the direction of flow of current
in each armature conductor when it passes through the M.N.A. to obtain continuous torque.
Construction:
From construction point of view there is no difference between a DC generator and
motor.
Back EMF:

Fig.3. Back EMF

It has been seen that when current is supplied to the armature conductors, as shown in
Fig.3(a), placed in the main magnetic field, torque develops and armature rotates.
Simultaneously, the armature conductors cut across the magnetic field and an EMF is induced in

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these conductors. The direction of this induced EMF in the armature conductors is determined
by Fleming’s Right Hand Rule and is marked in Fig. 3(b). It can be seen that the direction of this
induced EMF is opposite to the applied voltage. That is why this induced EMF is called back EMF
(Eb). The magnitude of this induced EMF is given by the relation;
ZN P
Eb = *
60 A
ZP
Eb = * N or
60 A
ZP
E b  N (Since are constant)
60 A
Eb
Also, N shows that speed of motor is inversely proportional to magnetic field or flux.


Fig. 3(a). Circuit diagram of a DC motor

A simple conventional circuit diagram of the machine working as motor, is shown in Fig.
3(a). In this case, the supply voltage is always greater than the induced or back emf (i.e., V > Eb).
Therefore, current is always supplied to the motor from the mains and the relation among the
various quantities will be; Eb = V – Ia Ra.
Significance of Back EMF:
The current flowing through the armature is given by the relation:
V − Eb
Ia =
Ra
When mechanical load on the motor increases, its speed decreases which reduces the
value of Eb. As a result the value (V – Eb) increases which consequently increases Ia. Hence, motor

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draws extra current from the mains. So we find that Eb acts like a governor i,e., it makes a motor
self-regulating so that it draws as much as is just necessary.
Torque equation of a DC motor:
The electrical power which is supplied to a DC motor is converted into mechanical power.
The conversion of power takes place in the armature as stated below:
Electrical power developed in the armature= Pelectrical = Eb I a Watts

Mechanical power developed in the armature= Pmech = Ta Watts

As per law of conservation of energy,

Pelectrical = Pmech

Eb I a = Ta

Eb I a = (2n)Ta
Where,
ω=2πn=Angular velocity in radians per second
n=N/60=revolutions per second, (r.p.s.)
ZN P
( * ) I a = (2n)Ta
60 A
P
( Z * ) I a = (2n)Ta
A
1 P
Armature torque= Ta = * ZI a * Nm (1)
2 A
For the given DC motor, Z, P, Φ is constant. Hence equation (1) can be written as below
TaI a (2)

i.e. Armature torque is directly proportional to Φ and Ia. Equation (2) is useful for the analysis of
DC motor characteristic.
Shaft Torque:
In DC motors whole of the armature torque (Ta) developed is not available at the shaft. A
part of it is lost to overcome the iron and mechanical (friction and windage) losses. Therefore,
shaft torque (Tsh) is somewhat less than the torque developed in the armature. Thus, in case of

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DC motors, the actual torque available at the shaft for doing useful mechanical work is known as
shaft torque.
Useful output power in Watts = 2nTsh

Usefull..output.. power..in..watts
Tsh = Nm
2n
B.H .P. * 746
Tsh = (BHP is available on the name plate of DC motor)
2n
Brake Horse Power (B.H.P.):
In case of motors, the mechanical power (H.P.) available at the shaft is known as brake
horse power (B.H.P.). If Tsh is the shaft torque in Nm and n is speed in rpm then,
2nTsh
Output in B.H.P. = HP (n in rpm)
746
Lost torque:
(Ta − Tsh ) is called lost torque

Types of DC motors:
On the basis of the connections of armature and their field winding, DC motors can be
classified as;
1. Separately excited DC motor:

Fig.4. Separately excited DC motor -Circuit diagram

The conventional diagram of a separately excited DC motor is shown Fig. 4. Its voltage
equation will be;
Eb = V − I a Ra − 2Vb (Where Vb is voltage drop per brush)

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2. Self excited DC motors:
These motors can be further classified as;
(i) Shunt motor:
Its conventional diagram is shown in Fig. 5.
Important relations:
V
I sh =
Rsh

I a = I L − I sh (IL=Line current)

Eb = V − I a Ra − 2Vb

Fig.5. Self excited DC shunt motor -Circuit diagram

(ii) Series motor:

Fig.6. Self excited DC series motor -Circuit diagram

Its conventional diagram is shown in Fig. 6

Important relations:

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I L = I a = I se

Eb = V − I a ( Ra + Rse ) − 2Vb

(iii) Compound motor:

Its conventional diagram (for long shunt) is shown in Fig. 7.
V
I sh =
Rsh

I L = I a = I se

I a = I L − I sh

Eb = V − I a ( Ra + Rse ) − 2Vb

Fig.7. Self excited DC series motor -Circuit diagram

The compound motor can be further subdivided as;

a) Cumulative compound motors:
In these motors, the flux produced by both the windings is in the same direction,
 r =  se +  sh
(b) Differential compound motors:
In these motors, the flux produced by the series field winding is opposite to the flux
produced by the shunt field winding, i.e.,
 r =  se −  sh
Problems on DC motor:
1)Calculate the torque in Newton-meter developed by a 440-V DC motor having an armature
resistance of 0.25 Ω and running at 750 RPM when taking armature current of 60 A. [325 Nm]

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Solution:
Given: Ta=?, V=440 V, Ra=0.25 Ω, N=750 RPM, Ia=60 A
Eb = V − I a Ra = 440 − 60 * 0.25 = 425..V

Eb I a 425 * 60
Ta = = = 324.67..Nm
2n 2 * (750 / 60)
2) A 4-pole, lap-connected DC motor has 576 conductors and draws an armature current of 10 A.
If flux per pole is 0.02 Wb, calculate the armature torque developed. [18.3 Nm]
Solution:
Given: P=4, A=P=4 (lap), Z=576, Ia=10 A, Φ=0.02 Ω, Ta+?
1 P 1 4
Ta = * ZI a = * 576 * 0.02 * 10 * = 18.33..Nm
2 A 2 4
3) The armature of a 6-pole, 6-circuit DC motor takes 400A at a speed of 350 RPM. The flux per
pole is 80 mWb, the number of armature turns is 600, and 3% of the torque is lost in windage,
friction and iron loss. Calculate the brake horse-power. [291 h.p.]
Solution:
Given: P=6, A=6, Ia=400 A, N=350 RPM, Φ=80 mWb=0.08 Wb, T=600, Z=600*2=1200, Tlost=3%Ta,
BHP=?
1 P 1 1 6
Ta = * ZI a = * = Ta = * 1200 * 0.08 * 400 * = 6111.54..Nm
2 A 2 2 6
Tsh = Ta − Tlost = 6111.54 − 3% * 6111.54 = 5928.19..Nm

2nTsh 2 * (350 / 60) * 5928.19

BHP = = = 291.59..HP
746 746
4) The armature current of a series motor is 60 A when on full load. If the load is adjusted such that this
current decreases to 40 A. Find the new torque expressed as a percentage of the full load torque. The flux
for a current of 40 A is 70% of that when current is 60 A. [46%]
Solution:
Given: Ia1=60 A, Ia2=40 A,Ta1=?, Ta2=?, Φ1, Φ2=70%Φ1
From torque equation the relation is
TI a

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Ta1 1 I a1  * 60
= = 1 = 2.14
Ta 2 2 I a 2 0.71 * 40
Ta1
Ta 2 = = 0.4666Ta1
2.14
Ta 2 = 46.66%Ta1
5) A series motor of resistance 1 Ω between terminals runs at 800 RPM at 200 V with a current of 15 A.
Find the speed at which it will run when connected in series with a 5 Ω resistance and taking the same
current at the same supply voltage [476 RPM]
Solution:
Given: ( Ra + Rse )1 =1 Ω, N1=800 RPM, V=200 V, IL=Ise=Ia=15 A, N2=?, Ra,se1=5 Ω

When ( Ra + Rse )1 =1Ω

E1 = V − I a1 ( Ra + Rse )1 = 200 − 15 *1 = 185..V

When ( Ra + Rse ) 2 =5Ω

E2 = V − I a 2 ( Ra + Rse ) 2 = 200 − 15 * 5 = 125..V

From EMF equation the relation is
EN (1)

In series motor
I a
Hence equation (1) can be written as
EI a N

E1 I a1 N1
= (2)
E 2 I a1 N 2
But I a1 = I a 2

Hence equation (2) can be written as

E1 N1
=
E2 N 2
E2 N1 125 * 800
N2 = = = 540.54..RPM
E1 185

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6) A DC shunt machine has armature and field resistances of 0.025 Ω and 80 Ω respectively. When
connected to constant 400-V bus-bars and driven as a generator at 450 RPM, it delivers 120 kW.
Calculate its speed when running as a motor and absorbing 120 kW from the same bus-bars. [435
RPM]
Feeders: Voltage power line transferring power from a distribution substation to the distribution
transformers
Bus-bars: Electrical bus bar collects the electric power at one location from incoming and
outgoing feeders
Solution:
Given: Ra=0.025 Ω, Rsh=80 Ω, Load voltage for generator=V=400 V, Line voltage for motor=V=400
V,N1=450 RPM, P1=120 kW, P2=120 kW, N2=?
As a generator
V 400
I sh = = = 5.. A
Rsh 80

Load current
P1 120,000
I L1 = = = 300.. A
V 400
I a1 = I L1 + I sh = 300 + 5 = 305.. A

E1 = V + I a1 Ra = 400 + 305 * 0.025 = 407.625..V

As a motor
V 400
I sh = = = 5.. A
Rsh 80
Line current

P2 120,000
I L2 = = = 300.. A
V 400
I a1 = I L1 − I sh = 300 − 5 = 295.. A

E2 = V − I a 2 Ra = 400 − 295 * 0.025 = 392.625..V

From EMF equation
EN

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E1 N1
=
E2 N 2
E2 N1 392.625 * 450
N2 = = = 433.44..RPM
E1 407.625
7) A 4-pole DC shunt motor has a flux per pole of 0.04 Wb and the armature is lap-wound with 720
conductors. The shunt field resistance is 240 Ω and the armature resistance is 0.2 Ω. Brush contact drop
is 1 V per brush. Determine the speed of the machine when running (a) as a motor taking a line current of
60 A and (b) as a generator supplying a load current of 120 A. The terminal voltage in each case is 480 V.
[972 RPM, 1055 RPM]
Solution:
Given: P=4, Φ=0.04 Wb, A=P=4 (lap), Z=720, Rsh=240 Ω, Ra=0.2 Ω, Vb=1 V, N1=?, IL1=60 A, N2=?, IL2=120 A,
V=480 V
As a motor
V 480
I sh = = = 2.. A
Rsh 240

I a1 = I L1 − I sh = 60 − 2 = 58.. A

E1 = V − I a1 Ra − 2Vb = 480 − 58 * 02 − 2 *1 = 466.4..V

60 AE1 60 * 4 * 466.4
N1 = = = 971.66..RPM
ZP 720 * 0.04 * 4
As a generator
V 480
I sh = = = 2.. A
Rsh 240

I a 2 = I L 2 + I sh = 120 + 2 = 122.. A

E2 = V + I a 2 Ra + 2Vb = 480 + 122 * 0.2 + 2 *1 = 506.4..V

60 AE2 60 * 4 * 506.4
N2 = = = 1055..RPM
ZP 720 * 0.04 * 4
Characteristics of DC motors:
The performance of a DC motor can be easily judged from its characteristic curves, known
as motor characteristics. The characteristics of a motor are those curves which show relation

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between the two quantities. On the basis of these quantities, the following characteristics can be
obtained:
1. Speed and armature current (i.e., N – I a) characteristics:
It is the curve drawn between speed N and armature current Ia. It is also known as speed
characteristics.
2. Torque and armature current (i.e., T–Ia) Characteristics:
It is the curve drawn between torque developed in the armature T and armature current
Ia. It is also known as electrical characteristic.
3. Speed and torque (i.e., N–T) characteristics:
It is the curve drawn between speed N and torque developed in the armature T. It is also
known as mechanical characteristics.
The following important relations must be kept in mind while discussing the motor
characteristics:
Eb
E b  N or N or TI a

Characteristics of Shunt Motors:

Fig.8. Self excited DC shunt motor -Circuit diagram

The conventional diagram of this motor is shown in Fig. 8. In these motors, the shunt field
current Ish = V/Rsh remains constant since the supply voltage V is constant. Hence, the flux in DC
shunt motors is practically constant (although at heavy loads, somewhat flux decreases due to
armature reaction).
1. Speed-armature current (N – Ia) characteristic:

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 Eb
We know that, N

Since flux is constant; NEb or N (V − I a Ra )

If the armature drop (Ia Ra) is negligible, the speed of the motor will remain constant for
all values of load as shown by the dotted line AB in Fig. 9. But strictly speaking, as the armature
current increases due to the increase of load, armature drop Ia Ra increases and speed of the
motor decreases slightly as shown by the straight line A C in Fig. 9 (neglecting armature reaction).
Moreover, the characteristic curve does not start from a point of zero armature current because
a small current, no-load armature current Ia0, is necessary to maintain rotation of the motor at
no-load.

Fig.9. Self excited DC shunt motor –(N-Ia) characteristic

Since there is no appreciable change in the speed of a DC shunt motor from no-load to
full load that is why it is considered to be a constant speed motor. This motor is best suited where
almost constant speed is required and the load may be thrown off totally and suddenly.
2. Torque-armature current (T – la) Characteristic:
We know that, TI a

Since flux is constant, TI a

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 Fig.10. Self excited DC shunt motor –(T-Ia) characteristic

Hence, the electrical characteristic (i.e., T – Ia) is a straight line passing through the origin
as shown in Fig. 10. It is clear from the characteristic curve that a large armature current is
required at the start if machine is on heavy load. Thus, shunt motor should never be started on
load.
3. Speed-torque (N – T) characteristic:

Fig.10. Self excited DC shunt motor –(N-T) characteristic

The N – T characteristic is derived from the first two characteristics. When load torque
increases, armature current Ia increases but speed decreases slightly. Thus with the increase in
load or torque, the speed decreases slightly as shown in Fig. 10.
Characteristics of Series Motors:

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 Fig.11. Self excited DC series motor

The conventional diagram a series motor is shown in Fig. 11. In these motors, the series
field winding carries the armature current. Therefore, the flux produced by the series field
winding is proportional to the armature current before magnetic saturation, but after magnetic
saturation flux becomes constant.
1. N – Ia Characteristics

Fig.12. Self excited DC series motor: (N-Ia) characteristic

Eb
We know that N

Where,
Eb = V − I a ( Ra + Rse )

When armature current increases, the induced emf (back emf) Eb decreases, due to
I a ( Ra + Rse ) drop whereas flux  increases as I a before magnetic saturation. However, under

normal conditions I a ( Ra + Rse ) drop is quite small and may be neglected.

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Considering Eb to be constant,
1 1
N 
 Ia
Thus, before magnetic saturation, the N – Ia curve follows the hyperbolic path as shown
in Fig. 12. In this region, the speed decreases abruptly with the increase in load or armature
current. After magnetic saturation, flux becomes constant, then
NEb (V − I a ( Ra + Rse )

Thus, after magnetic saturation, the (N – Ia) curve follows a straight line path and speed
decreases slightly as shown in Fig. 12.
From this characteristic, it is concluded that the series motor is a variable speed motor,
i.e., its speed changes when the armature current (or load) changes. As the load on this motor
decreases, speed increases. If this motor is connected to the supply without load, armature
current will be very small and hence speed will be dangerously high which may damage the
motor due to heavy centrifugal forces.
Therefore, a series motor is never started on no-load. However, to start a series motor,
mechanical load (not belt driven load because belt slips over the pulley) is put on it first then
started.
2. T – Ia Characteristics

Fig.13. Self excited DC series motor: (T-Ia) characteristic

We know that, TI a

In series motors, before magnetic saturation TI a

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 Hence, before magnetic saturation the electromagnetic torque produced in the armature
is proportional to the square of the armature current. Therefore, this portion of the curve (OA) is
a parabola passing through the origin as shown in Fig. 13. However, after magnetic saturation,
the flux  becomes constant. So TI a . Hence, after magnetic saturation, the curve (AB) becomes

a straight line.
It is seen that before magnetic saturation TI a2 . When load is applied to this motor at

start, it takes large current and heavy torque is produced which is proportional to square of this
current. Thus, series motor is capable to pick up heavy loads at the start and best suited for
electric traction.
3. N – T Characteristics
This characteristic is derived from the first two characteristics. At low value of load, Ia is small,
torque is small but the speed is very high. As load increases, Ia increases, torque increases but
the speed decreases rapidly. Thus for increasing torque, speed decreases rapidly as shown in
Fig. 14.

Fig.14. Self excited DC series motor: (T-Ia) characteristic

Characteristics of compound motor:

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 Fig.15. Self excited DC cumulative compound motor characteristics

There are two types of compound wound DC motors namely; cumulative compound
motors and differential compound motors. Cumulative compound motors are most common.
The characteristic of these motors lies between the shunt and series motors. The N – Ia
characteristics, T – Ia characteristics and N – T characteristics are shown in Figs. 15(a), (b) and (c),
respectively.

Fig.16. Self excited DC differential compound motor characteristics

However the N–Ia, T–Ia and N–T characteristics of a differentially compound motor are
shown in Figs. 16(a), (b) and (c), respectively.
Applications of DC Motors:
As per the characteristics of DC motors, different types of DC motors are applied for
different jobs as explained below:
1. Separately excited motors:

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 Very accurate speeds can be obtained by these motors. Moreover, these motors are best
suited where speed variation is required from very low value to high value. These motors are
used in steel rolling mills, paper mills, diesel – electric propulsion of ships, etc.
2. Shunt motors:
From the characteristics of a shunt motor we have seen that it is almost constant speed motor.
It is, therefore, used;
(i) Where the speed between no-load to full load has to be maintained almost constant.
(ii) Where it is required to drive the load at various speeds (various speeds are obtained by speed
control methods) and any one of the speed is required to be maintained almost constant for a
relatively long period. As such the shunt motors are most suitable for industrial drives such as
lathes, drills, grinders, shapers, spinning and weaving machines, line shafts in the group drive,
etc.
3. Series motors:
The characteristic of a series motor reveal that it is variable speed motor i.e., the speed is
low at higher torques and vice-versa. Moreover, at light loads or at no-load, the motor attains
dangerously high speed. It is, therefore, employed:
(i) Where high torque is required at the time of starting to accelerate heavy loads quickly.
(ii) Where the load is subjected to heavy fluctuations and speed is required to be adjusted
automatically. As such the series motors are most suitable for electric traction, cranes, elevators,
vacuum cleaners, hair driers, sewing machines, fans and air compressors, etc.
Note: The series motors are always directly coupled with loads or coupled through gears. Belt
loads are never applied to series motor, because the belt may slip over the pulley or it may break.
Then the motor will operate at light loads or at no-load and will attain dangerously high speed
which may damage the motor.
4. Compound motors: The important characteristic of this motor is that the speed falls
appreciably on heavy loads as in a series motor, but at light loads, the maximum speed is limited
to safe value. It is, therefore, used;
(i) Where high torque is required at the time of starting and where the load may be thrown off
suddenly.

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(ii) Where the load is subjected to heavy fluctuations.
As such the cumulative compound, motors are best suited for punching and shearing machines,
rolling mills, lifts and mine - hoists, etc.
Necessity of starter for a DC motor:

Fig.17. Principle of starter for a shunt DC motor

Under normal operating conditions, the voltage equation for a motor is given as
V − Eb
Eb = V − I a Ra and the armature current is given by the relation; I a =
Ra
When the motor is at rest, the induced EMF Eb in the armature is zero (EbαN).
Consequently, if full voltage is applied across the motor terminals, the armature will draw heavy
current (Ia = V/Ra) because armature resistance is relatively small. This heavy starting current has
the following effects:
(i) It will blow out the fuses and prior to that it may damage the insulation of armature winding
due to excessive heating effect if starting period is more.
(ii) Excessive voltage drop will occur in the lines to which the motor is connected. Thus, the
operation of the appliances connected to the same line may be impaired and in some cases they
may refuse to work. To avoid this heavy current at start, a variable resistance is connected in
series with the armature, as shown in Fig. 17, called a starting resistance or starter, and thus the
V
armature current is limited safe value I a = . . Once the motor picks up speed, emf is built
Ra + R

V − Eb
up and current is reduced I a = . After that the starting resistance is gradually reduced.
Ra + R
Ultimately, whole of the resistance is taken out of circuit when the motor attains normal speed.

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Three-point Shunt Motor Starter:
The schematic connection diagram of a shunt motor starter is shown in Fig. 18. It consists
of starting resistance R divided into several sections. The tapping points of starting resistance
are connected to number of studs. The last stud of the starting resistance is connected to
terminal A to which one terminal of the armature is connected. The + ve supply line is connected
to the line terminal L through main switch. From line terminal, supply is connected to the starting
lever SL through over load release coil OLRC. A spring S is placed over the lever to bring it to the
off position, when supply goes off. A soft iron piece SI is attached with the starting lever which
is pulled by the no volt release coil under normal running condition. The far end of the brass strip
BS is connected to the terminal Z through a no volt release coil NVRC. One end of the shunt field
winding in connected to Z terminal of the starter. An iron piece is lifted by OLRC under abnormal
condition to short circuit the no-volt release coil. The negative supply line is connected directly
to the other ends of shunt field winding and armature of the DC shunt motor.

Fig.18. Three-point starter

Operation:

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 First of all the main switch is closed with starting lever resting in off position. The handle
is then turned clockwise to the first stud and brass strip. As soon as it comes in contact with first
stud, whole of the starting resistance R is inserted in series with the armature and the field
winding is directly connected across the supply through brass strip. As the handle is turned
further the starting resistance is cut out of the armature circuit in steps and finally entire starting
resistance is cut out of armature circuit.
No-volt Release Coil and its Function:
A no-volt release coil (NVRC) is a small electromagnet having many turns of fine wire. It
is connected in series with shunt field winding and therefore, carries a small field current. When
the handle is turned to on position, the no-volt release coil is magnetized by the field current and
holds the starting lever at on position. In case of failure or disconnection of the supply, this coil
is demagnetized and the lever comes to the off position due to spring tension. Consequently, the
motor is disconnected from the supply. If the spring with the no-volt release coil is not used the
lever would remain in ON-position in case of supply failure. And again, when the supply comes,
the motor would be connected directly to the lines without starter. The other important
advantage of connecting the no-volt release coil in series with the shunt field winding is that due
to an accident if the circuit of field winding becomes open, the NVRC will be demagnetized and
the starting lever is immediately pulled back to off position by the spring. Otherwise the motor
would have attained dangerously high speed.
Over-load Release Coil and its Function:
An over-load release coil (OLRC) is an electromagnet having small number of turns of
thick wire. It is connected in series with the motor and carries the line current. When the motor
is over loaded (or short circuited) a heavy current more than predetermined value will flow
through it. Then, the iron piece (armature or plunger) is lifted and short circuits the no-volt
release coil. Hence the starting lever is released and pulled back to the off position due to spring
tension. Thus the motor is disconnected from the supply and is protected against over loading.
FOUR-POINT STARTER:
For speed control of DC shunt or compound motors, a rheostat (variable resistor Rb) is
connected in series with the field winding, as shown in Fig. 19. In this case, if a three-point starter

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is used and the value of Rb is so adjusted that the current flowing through the shunt field winding
is very small. It may be seen that the same current flows through the no-volt release coil, then
the magnetic strength of the coil may be insufficient to hold the plunger at its ON position. This
is an undesirable feature of a three-point starter. This feature makes a three-point starter
unsuitable for such applications. Accordingly, a four-point starter is designed, as shown in Fig. 19,
in which the current flowing through the no-volt release coil is made independent of the shunt
field circuit. Figure 19(a) shows a four-point starter used with a shunt wound motor whereas Fig.
19(b) shows a starter used with a compound wound machine.
Operation:
The working of a four-point starter is similar to a three-point starter with slight changes.
In this case, when the plunger touches the first stud, the line current is divided into the following
three parts:
(i) First part passes through starting resistance and armature (as well as in series field for
compound motors).
(ii) Second part passes through the field winding (and speed control resistance if applied) and
(iii) The third part passes through no-volt release coil and protective resistance connected in
series with the coil.

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EM-II, Unit-II,DC Motor, NBK EEE, RU Page 24
 Fig. 19. Four point DC motor starter

It is evident that is a four-point starter, the no-volt release coil circuit is independent of
the field circuit. Therefore, the change of current in the field circuit do not affect the pull exerted
by the holding coil which remains always sufficient to prevent the spiral spring from restoring the
plunger to its OFF position.
While starting a motor with a four-point starter it is necessary to ensure that the field
circuit is closed and the rheostat connected in series with the shunt field winding must be at zero
resistance position. Moreover, whole of the starting resistance must come in series with the
armature.
Whenever a shunt motor is required to be stopped, it must be stopped by opening the
line switch. In fact this switch can be opened without any appreciable arc since the motor
develops back EMF nearly equal to applied voltage and the net voltage across the switch contacts

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is very small. The electromagnetic energy stored in the field does not appear at the switch but it
gradually discharges through the armature. The motor should never be stopped by bringing the
plunger (starting arm) back to the OFF position, because in such cases, when the field circuit
breaks at the last stud placed near the OFF position, a heavy spark occurs owing to the inductive
nature of the field. Usually, this sparking burns the contact.
Moreover, while stopping the motor, the value of resistance connected in the field circuit
should always be reduced to zero so that speed of motor falls to its normal value. This ensures
that, when the motor is started next time, it must start with a strong field and higher starting
torque.
SPEED CONTROL OF SHUNT MOTORS:
1. Field Control Method

Fig. 20. Speed control of DC shunt motor by flux control method

The speed of a DC motor can be increased by weakening the field and it can be decreased
by strengthening the field. The flux produced by the shunt field winding depends upon the

EM-II, Unit-II,DC Motor, NBK EEE, RU Page 26

 V
current flowing through it [i.e., I sh and I sh = ]. When a variable resistance R (rheostat) is
Rsh

connected in series with the shunt field winding as shown in Fig. 20(a), the shunt field current
V
I sh = is reduced and hence the flux Φ. Consequently, the motor runs at a speed higher
R + Rsh

1
than the normal speed (since N ) ), as shown in Fig. 20(b)

Advantage:
i). Power loss due to resistance R is less since Ish is less for more speed ( I sh2 R )

Disadvantage:
i). Speed cannot be reduced below normal speed
2. Armature Control Method:
In a shunt motor, flux is constant when applied terminal voltage and shunt field resistance
are constant. Therefore, speed of the motor is directly proportional to induced EMF (i.e., NEb

and Eb = V − I a Ra ). The value of Eb depends upon the drop in the armature circuit. When a

variable resistance is connected in series with the armature as shown in Fig. 21(a) the induced
EMF [ Eb = V − I a ( Ra + R) )] is reduced and hence the speed. Thus, the motor runs at a speed

lower than the normal speed as shown in Fig. 21(b).

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 Fig. 21. Speed control of DC shunt motor br armature voltage control method

For a constant load, the armature current remains the same so the input to the motor
remains the same but the output decreases in proportion to the speed. Therefore, for the loads
such as fans and centrifugal pumps where the load torque decreases with the fall in speed, this
method of speed control is quite convenient and economical.
Advantage:
i). The speed of the motor can be reduced to any low value and even to creeping speed (only a
few rpm), as shown in Fig. 21(c)
Disadvantage:
i). There is heavy loss of power in the control rheostat ( I a2 R )

[Link]-Leonard method of speed control for separately excited DC motor:

This system is used to supply variable voltage to the motor. As shown in Fig. 22, a DC
generator G is mechanically coupled with a prime mover PM which rotates the generator at

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constant speed. The field winding of the DC generator is connected to a constant voltage DC
supply line through a field is connected directly to a constant DC supply line.

Fig. 22. Ward-Leonard method of speed control

The voltage of the generator fed to the motor, can be varied from zero to its maximum
value by means of its field regulator. By reversing the direction of the field current by means of
the reversing switch, the polarity of the generated voltage can be reversed and hence the
direction of rotation of motor M. Hence, by this method, the speed and direction of rotation both
can be controlled very accurately.
Advantage:
i) This system of speed control is best suited where almost unlimited speed control in either
direction of rotation is required,
Disadvantage:
i) The capital investment in this system is very high as two extra machines (a generator and a
prime mover) are required.
Application:
In steel rolling mills, paper machines, elevators, cranes, diesel-electric propulsion of ships, etc.
Efficiency and testing of D.C. machines:
Losses in a DC Machine:
A DC machine is used to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy or vice-versa.
While doing so, the whole of input energy does not appear at the output but a part of it is lost in
the form of heat in the surroundings. This wasted energy is called losses in the machine. These

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losses affect the efficiency of the machine. A reduction in these losses leads to higher efficiency.
Thus, the major objective in the design of a DC machine is to reduce these losses. The various
losses occurring in a DC machine can be sub-divided as:
1. Copper losses.
2. Iron losses.
3. Mechanical losses
1. Copper losses:
The various windings of the DC machine, made of copper, have some resistance. When
current flows through them, there will be power loss proportional to the square of their
respective currents. These power losses are called copper losses. In general, the various copper
losses in a DC machine are:
(i) Armature copper loss = I a2 Ra

(ii) Shunt field copper loss = I sh2 Rsh

(iii) Series field copper loss = I se2 Rse

(iv) Interpole winding copper loss = I i2 Ri = I a2 Ri

(v) Brush contact loss = I a2 Rb = 2 I aVb

(vi) Compensating winding copper loss = I a2 Rc

The loss due to brush contact is generally included in armature copper loss.
2. Iron losses:
The losses which occur in the iron parts of a DC machine are called iron losses or core
losses or magnetic losses. These losses consist of the following:
(i) Hysteresis loss:
Whenever a magnetic material is subjected to reversal of magnetic flux, this loss occurs.
It is due to retentivity (a property) of the magnetic material. It is expressed with reasonable
accuracy by the following expression:
Ph = K hVfBm1.6

Where,

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Kh = hysteresis constant in J/m3 i.e., energy loss per unit volume of magnetic material during one
magnetic reversal, its value depends upon nature of material;
V = Volume of magnetic material in m3.
f = frequency of magnetic reversal in cycle/second and
Bm = maximum flux density in the magnetic material in Tesla. It occurs in the rotating armature.
To minimize this loss, the armature core is made of silicon steel which has low hysteresis
constant.
(ii) Eddy current loss:
When flux linking with the magnetic material changes (or flux is cut by the magnetic
material) an EMF is induced in it which circulates eddy currents through it. These eddy currents
produce eddy current loss in the form of heat. It is expressed with reasonable accuracy by the
expression:
Pe = K eVf 2 t 2 Bm2

Where,
Ke = constant called co-efficient of eddy current, its value depends upon the nature of magnetic
material;
t = thickness of lamination in m; V, f and Bm are the same as above.
The major part of this loss occurs in the armature core. To minimize this loss, the armature
core is laminated into thin sheets (0·3 to 0·5 mm) since this loss is directly proportional to the
square of thickness of the laminations.
3. Mechanical losses:
As the armature of a DC machine is a rotating part, some power is required to overcome:
(i) Air friction of rotating armature (windage loss).
(ii) Friction at the bearing and friction between brushes and commutator (friction loss).
These losses are known as mechanical losses. To reduce these losses proper lubrication
is done at the bearings.
Constant and Variable Losses:
The losses in a DC machine may also be sub-divided into two categories, i.e.,
1. Constant losses; 2. Variable losses.

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1. Constant losses:
The losses in a DC machine which remain the same at all loads are called constant losses.
The constant losses in a DC machine are:
(i) Iron losses; (ii) Mechanical losses; (iii) Shunt field copper losses.
2. Variable losses:
The losses in a DC machine which vary with load are called variable losses. The variable
losses in a DC machine are:
(i) Armature copper loss; (ii) Series field copper loss; (iii) Inter pole winding copper loss.
Stray Losses:
The sum of the iron loss and mechanical loss in a DC machine are known as stray losses i.e.,
Stray losses = Iron loss + Mechanical loss.
Power Flow Diagram:
(i) When machine is working as a generation

Fig. 23. Power flow diagram (Generator action)

The mechanical power ( Tm ) is supplied to the generator which is converted into

electrical power (VIL). While conversion, various losses occur in the machine. The power flow
diagram for a DC generator is shown in Fig. 23.

Fig. 24. Power flow diagram (Motor action)

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 Although losses in a DC machine are the same whether it works as a generator or as a
motor but the flow of power is opposite. The power flow diagram for a DC motor is shown in Fig.
24.
Efficiency of a DC Machine:
The ratio of output power to the input power of a DC machine is called its efficiency.
Output
Efficiency,  =
Input
(i) When machine is working as a generator:
Power output = VI L Watts
Power input = Power output + Variable losses + Constant losses
Since the shunt field current Ish is very small as compared to line current,
We may consider, IL  Ia (neglecting Ish)
Variable losses = I L2 Ra

Constant losses = Pc (say)

Then, power input = VI L + I L2 Ra + PC

VI L
=
VI L + I L2 Ra + PC
(ii) When machine is working as a motor:
Power input = VI L Watts
Power output = Power input - Variable losses - Constant losses
Since the shunt field current Ish is very small as compared to line current,
We may consider, IL  Ia (neglecting Ish)
Variable losses = I L2 Ra

Constant losses = Pc (say)

Then, power out put = VI L − I L2 Ra − PC

VI L − I L2 Ra − Pc
=
VI L

Condition for Maximum Efficiency:

The efficiency of a DC generator is given as:
EM-II, Unit-II,DC Motor, NBK EEE, RU Page 33
 Output VI L
= =
Output + Variable..losses + Cons tan t..lossess VI L + I L2 Ra + PC
d
Condition for maximum efficiency is =0
dI L

Differentiating we get
(VI L + I L2 Ra + PC )V − VI L (V + 2 I L Ra + 0)
=0
[VI L + I L2 Ra + PC ]2

(VI L + I L2 Ra + PC − I LV − 2 I L2 Ra ) = 0

( PC − I L2 Ra ) = 0

I L2 Ra = PC (1)

i.e., Variable losses = Constant losses

Hence, the efficiency of a DC machine will be maximum when the line current is such that
constant loss is equal to the variable loss.
The line current at which the efficiency of DC machine will be maximum is given by

PC
IL =
Ra

[Link]’s Test:

Fig. 23. Circuit arrangement for Swinburne’s test

Swinburne’s test is performed to determine the constant losses in a DC shunt machine.

In this test, the machine is operated as a motor on no-load. This no-load test is also known as
Swinburne’s test. A voltmeter and two ammeters A1 and A2 are connected in the circuit as
shown in Fig. 23. The normal rated voltage V is applied to the motor terminals. The ammeter A1

EM-II, Unit-II,DC Motor, NBK EEE, RU Page 34

and A2 measure the no-load line current IL0 and shunt field current Ish respectively. The voltmeter
measures the applied voltage. As there is no output at no-load, all the power supplied to the
motor, given by the product of current IL0 and voltage V, is being utilized to meet with losses only.
The following are the losses at no-load:
(i) Iron losses in the core
(ii) Windage and friction losses at bearing and commutator.
(iii) Shunt field copper losses.
(iv) Armature copper losses at no-load (very small)
Except the armature copper loss all other losses are the constant losses.
No-load input power to the machine = VI Lo Watts

No-load armature current, I ao = I LO − I sh

The resistance of armature circuit including the inter pole winding, etc., is determined
(measured) by disconnecting one end of the shunt field circuit. Let its value be Ra.
2
Then, variable losses = I ao R a Watts

Constant losses Pc = VI LO − I ao
2
Ra Pc Watts

Note: For all practical purposes the copper losses in the armature at no-load may be neglected
being very small. After determining the constant losses, the efficiency of the machine when it is
working as a motor or generator can be calculated at any load, as discussed below:
Let IL be the line current at which efficiency is to be calculated.
(i) When the machine is working as a motor:
Armature current, I a = I L − I sh

Variable or armature copper loss at load = I a2 Ra Watts

Total losses = PC + I a2 Ra

Input power = VI L Watts

Output power = input power – total losses
= VI L − ( PC + I a2 Ra )

Output VI L − ( PC + I a2 Ra )
Efficiency,  = =
Input VI L

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(ii) When the machine is working as a generator
Armature current, I a = I L + I sh

Variable or armature copper loss at load = I a2 Ra Watts

Total losses = PC + I a2 Ra

Output power= VI L
Input power = Output power + total losses
= VI L + ( PC + I a2 Ra )

Output VI L
Efficiency,  = =
Input VI L + ( PC + I a2 Ra )

Hopkinson’s Test:
Hopkinson’s test is basically a regenerative test. It is also known as back-to-back test. To
perform this test, two identical machines are required. These machines are mechanically coupled
to each other. One of them works as a motor which acts as a prime-mover for the other machine
which works as a generator. The electrical power or energy supplied to the motor is converted
into mechanical energy which is further converted into electrical energy by the second machine
coupled to it, and fed back to the motor through supply system. In the process, in fact, the two
machines draw electrical power or energy to meet with the losses of the two machines. Since the
mechanics are identical, the losses in each machine are determined by dividing the input into
two equal parts. Usually, this test is performed on large size machines at full-load for longer
duration.
Circuit Arrangements and Procedure of Performing the Test:
The electrical circuit arrangement is shown in Fig. 24. Connect machine-I to the supply
through its main switch (motor) and starter keeping main switch of the other machine-II open.
Operate machine-I to its rated speed and adjust the field current Ishg of second machine such that
the voltage developed by this machine (working as a generator) is 1 to 2V more than the mains
voltage having same polarity as that of bus-bars. The voltage and polarity can be checked with
the help of a paralleling voltmeter V. Now, connect the second machine (generator) to the mains
through its main switch.

EM-II, Unit-II,DC Motor, NBK EEE, RU Page 36

 It may be noted that a machine with smaller excitation acts as a motor and a machine
with larger excitation acts as a generator.

Fig. 24. Circuit for Hopkinson’s test

To increase the load, the excitation of machine-I (i.e., motor) is decreased gradually. With
the decrease in excitation its back EMF decreases due to which motor draws more current from
the mains. This process goes on till the machine draws its full-load current as per the rating.
During this process, the supply voltage must be maintained at its rated value.
The value of the resistances involved in the armature circuit such as armature winding
resistance including brush contact, inter pole winding resistance, compensating winding
resistance of the two machines are measured by passing full-load current through them after the
completion of whole procedure when these windings attain their final temperature at full-load.
Let various ammeters A1, A2, A3, A4 and A5 connected in the circuit shown in Fig. 24
measure line current IL, motor current Im, motor shunt field current Ishm, generator current Ig and
generator shunt field current Ishg respectively.
Where, motor current, Im = IL + Ig (as per Kirchhoff’s current law)
Motor input = VIm
Generator output = VIg
Where
V is bus = bar voltage.

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If m and g are the efficiencies of motor and generator respectively,
Then motor output = VI m m and

VI g
Generator input =
g

But motor output = Generator input

VI g
VI m m =
g

Ig
 m g =
Im

Since armature, field and stray (iron+windage+friction) power losses in both of the machines are
considered to be equal. Then

Ig Ig Im − IL
m =  g = = =
Im Ig + IL Im

This assumption is true for large machines since there is very slight difference in their
armature and excitation current, but in case of small machines, the difference between the
armature currents and shunt field currents is large. To obtain accurate results, armature and
shunt field losses are determined separately and stray losses are assumed to be equal in both the
machines.
Current supplied by the mains, IL = Im – Ig
Current drawn by motor = Im
Motor shunt field current = Ishm
Motor armature current, Iam = (Im – Ishm)
Current supplied by generator = Ig
Generator shunt field current = Ishg
Generator armature current, Iag = (Ig + Ishg)
Terminal voltage = V
Total losses of both machines = Power supplied by the mains = VIL
Armature copper loss in motor = (Im – Ishm)2 Ram
Armature copper loss in generator = (Ig + Ishg)2 Rag

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Shunt field copper loss in motor = VIshm
Shunt field copper loss in generator = VIshg
Total copper losses = (Im – Ishm)2 Ram + (Ig + Ishg)2 Rag + VIshm + VIshg
Stray losses of both the machines, PS = VIL – [Im – Ishm]2 Ram - (Ig + Ishg)2 Rag - V (Ishm + Ishg)]
Ps
Stray loss of each machine =
2
For efficiency of motor (machine-I)
Motor input = VIm
Ps
Total losses in the motor = Armature loss + field loss + stray loss = ( I m − I shm ) 2 Rm + VI shm +
2
Ps
Motor output = VI m − ( I m − I shm ) 2 Rm − VI shm −
2
Output *100
Motor efficiency =  m =
Input
For efficiency of generator (machine-II)
Generator output = VIg
Total losses in the generator = Armature loss + field loss + stray loss
Ps
= ( I g + I shg ) 2 Rm + VI shg +
2
Ps
Generator input = VI g + ( I g + I shg ) 2 Rm + VI shg +
2
Output *100
Generator efficiency,  g =
Input
Thus, the efficiency of motor and generator can be determined from the data available
from the test.
Advantages:
(i) It is economical since small power is required.
(ii) The performance of the machines regarding commutation and temperature rise, etc., can be
conveniently studied as the machines are tested at full-load, that too for long duration.
(iii) Accurate results are obtained since the efficiency is determined under load conditions and
the stray load loss is being taken into account.

EM-II, Unit-II,DC Motor, NBK EEE, RU Page 39

Disadvantage:
The main disadvantage of this test is that there is necessity of two identical machines which are
rarely available.
Field Test:
To determine efficiency of large DC series machines usually field test is employed. To
perform this test, two identical DC series machines are coupled mechanically, as shown in Fig.
25, and their fields are connected in series so that the iron losses of both the machines are made
equal. One of the machines-I to which supply is given, operates as a motor and drives the other
machine-II. This other machine operates as a separately excited generator. A variable load RL is
connected directly across its terminals without any switch.
Performance:
The machine-I (motor) is switched-ON to the supply in a usual manner and the output of
the other machine-II, working as a generator, is dissipated in the variable load resistor RL.

Fig. 25. Circuit for field test

The voltage across the motor terminals V2 is kept equal to its rated value. It is obvious
that the supply voltage V1 will be more than V2 i.e., V1 = V2 + ImRseg. The load resistor RL is varied
till the ammeter A1, shows full-load motor current. The hot resistances of various windings are
measured by voltmeter-ammeter (or other suitable) method after performing the test. Note
down the readings of various measuring instruments as mentioned below:

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Precautions:
Every effort is to be made to get accurate measurements since the accuracy of the test
depends upon the accuracy of these measurements.
Let, Supply voltage = Reading of voltmeter V1 = V1 volt
Motor input current = Reading of ammeter A1 = Im
Terminal voltage of generator = Reading of voltmeter V3 = V3
Load current or generator current = Reading of ammeter A2 = Ig
Armature resistance of each machine = Ra
Series field resistance of each machine = Rse
Input to the whole set = V1Im
Output = V3Ig
Total losses of the set, PT = V1Im – V3Ig
Series field and armature copper losses of motor = I m2 ( Ra + Rse ) 2

Series field and armature copper losses of generator = I m2 Rse + I g2 Ra

Total copper losses of the set, Pcu = I m2 ( Ra + 2Rse ) + I g2 Ra

Stray power losses for the set = PT – Pcu

PT − Pcu
Stray power losses per machine, Ps =
2
Motor efficiency Motor input = V2Im
Motor losses = I m2 ( Ra + Rse ) 2 + Ps

Motor output = V2 I m − I m2 ( Ra + Rse ) 2 − Ps

V2 I m − I m2 ( Ra + Rse ) 2 − Ps
Motor efficiency,  =
V2 I m

Generator efficiency Generator output = V3Ig

Generator losses = I g2 Ra + I m2 Rse + Ps

Generator input = V3 I g + I g2 Ra + I m2 Rse + Ps

V3 I g
Generator efficiency,  g =
V3 I g + I Ra + I m2 Rse + Ps
2
g

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Disadvantages of Field Test Method:
1. Even for a small error in the measurement of the input to motor or output of generator may
cause a relatively large error in computed the efficiency.
2. Whole of the power supplied to the set is wasted.

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