🌞 LESSON 1 — LIGHT-DEPENDENT
REACTION
(ALL MEANINGS, STEPS, PROCESSES, AND TERMS INCLUDED — NOTHING LEFT
OUT)
📌 PHOTOSYNTHESIS OVERVIEW
Definition
Photosynthesis is the process that converts solar energy into chemical energy.
Plants, algae, and some bacteria use sunlight to convert:
● CO₂ (carbon dioxide)
● H₂O (water)
into:
● Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆)
● Oxygen (O₂)
Photosynthesis Equation
6CO₂ + 6H₂O + light → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂
📌 TYPES OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
1. Oxygenic Photosynthesis
● Done by green plants, algae, cyanobacteria
● Produces oxygen
● Uses H₂O as hydrogen source
2. Anoxygenic Photosynthesis
● Done by some bacteria
● Does NOT produce oxygen
● Uses chemicals other than water
📌 WHAT PLANTS NEED FOR
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
● Water (H₂O)
● Sunlight
● Chlorophyll
● CO₂ (carbon dioxide)
📌 LOCATION OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS:
LEAF ANATOMY
● Cuticle
● Upper epidermis
● Mesophyll
● Palisade cells (packed with chloroplasts)
● Spongy mesophyll
● Vascular bundles
● Guard cells
● Lower epidermis
● Stomata – pores for gas exchange
Stomata Meaning
Small openings that take in CO₂ and release O₂. They open and close to regulate water
loss.
📌 CHLOROPLAST STRUCTURES
Outer Membrane
● Smooth
● Semi-permeable
● Allows small molecules to pass
● Gives shape and protection
Inner Membrane
● Controls passage of materials
● Contains transport proteins
Thylakoids
● Disc-shaped membrane sacs
● Contain chlorophyll
● Site of light-dependent reactions
Grana
● Stacks of thylakoids
Stroma
● Fluid-filled space
● Contains enzymes for the Calvin Cycle
🌞 LIGHT-DEPENDENT REACTION (LDR)
Where: Thylakoid Membranes
Uses: Light + Water
Produces: ATP, NADPH, O₂
📌 WHAT LIGHT-DEPENDENT
REACTIONS DO
● Split H₂O
● Release O₂
● Create NADPH
● Produce ATP (by photophosphorylation)
📌 PHOTOSYSTEMS (PSII & PSI)
Photosystem Meaning
Clusters of light-absorbing pigments (chlorophyll + accessory pigments) embedded in the
thylakoid membrane.
Photosystem II (PSII)
● First system activated
● Absorbs light
● Excites electrons
● Splits water (photolysis)
Photosystem I (PSI)
● Re-excites the electrons
● Helps produce NADPH
📌 STEP-BY-STEP PROCESS OF LDR
1️⃣ Light hits PSII
● Sunlight excites electrons
● Electrons jump to a higher energy level
● Electrons are passed to an electron acceptor
2️⃣ Photolysis (Splitting of Water)
H₂O → H⁺ + e⁻ + O
Meaning:
Photolysis is the splitting of water using light energy.
Results
● Electrons (e⁻) replace those lost by PSII
● H⁺ ions stay inside the thylakoid lumen
● Oxygen atoms pair to form O₂, which:
○ Leaves the lumen → stroma → cell → leaf
○ Exits plant through stomata
3️⃣ Electron Transport Chain (ETC)
Meaning:
A series of proteins that transport electrons and use their energy to pump H⁺ ions.
What happens:
● Electrons move from PSII → ETC
● Energy from electrons powers protein pumps
● Pumps push H⁺ ions into lumen
4️⃣ PSI Re-excites Electrons
● Electrons that arrive from ETC have low energy
● PSI absorbs light
● Electrons become high-energy again
5️⃣ Ferredoxin Receives Electrons
Ferredoxin (Fd) meaning:
A protein that transfers high-energy electrons to the next enzyme.
6️⃣ Formation of NADPH
Enzyme:
FNR (Ferredoxin–NADP⁺ reductase)
Reaction:
NADP⁺ + e⁻ + H⁺ → NADPH
Meaning of NADPH:
A high-energy molecule that carries electrons and hydrogen to the Calvin Cycle.
7️⃣ Formation of ATP
ATP Synthase meaning:
Enzyme that creates ATP as H⁺ ions flow through it.
Process:
● High concentration of H⁺ inside lumen
● H⁺ flows back to stroma through ATP synthase
● Movement of H⁺ powers ATP formation
● Reaction:
ADP + Pi → ATP
ATP Meaning:
Main energy molecule used by the plant in the Calvin Cycle.
📌 PRODUCTS OF LIGHT-DEPENDENT
REACTION
1. Oxygen (O₂)
● Waste product
● Released into atmosphere
2. ATP
● Energy carrier
● Used to power Calvin Cycle
3. NADPH
● High-energy electron carrier
● Used in Calvin Cycle
📌 SUMMARY OF THE ENTIRE
PROCESS
1. Sunlight is absorbed by chlorophyll
2. Water is split → O₂ released
3. Electrons travel through ETC
4. H⁺ pumped into lumen
5. PSI re-excites electrons
6. NADP⁺ is reduced → NADPH
7. ATP synthase makes ATP
8. ATP & NADPH sent to Calvin Cycle
🌱 LESSON 2 — LIGHT-INDEPENDENT
REACTION (CALVIN CYCLE)
(FULL DETAILED NOTES — EVERY MEANING AND STEP FROM THE PDF INCLUDED)
📌 INTRODUCTION
What is the Light-Independent Reaction?
● Also called the Calvin Cycle or Dark Reaction.
● Does NOT require light to occur.
● Uses ATP and NADPH produced from the light-dependent reaction.
● Occurs in the stroma of the chloroplast.
● Main purpose: to produce G3P, which becomes glucose.
📌 CALVIN CYCLE NAMED AFTER
Dr. Melvin Calvin
● American biochemist
● Discovered the Calvin Cycle
● Won the 1961 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for this work
📌 WHERE DOES IT HAPPEN?
Stroma
● Fluid space in the chloroplast
● Contains enzymes needed for the Calvin Cycle
📌 OVERVIEW OF THE CALVIN CYCLE
The Calvin Cycle uses:
● CO₂
● ATP
● NADPH
To produce:
● G3P (Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate) → used to make glucose
📌 3 MAIN PHASES OF THE CALVIN
CYCLE
1. Carbon Fixation
2. Reduction
3. Regeneration of RuBP
ALL three phases repeat until enough G3P exits to form glucose.
🌿 PHASE 1: CARBON FIXATION
Key Terms
● CO₂ – enters through stomata
● RuBP (Ribulose bisphosphate) – 5-carbon molecule
● RuBisCO – enzyme that attaches CO₂ to RuBP
● 3-PGA (3-phosphoglycerate) – formed after the 6-carbon molecule splits
Step-by-Step Process
1. CO₂ Enters the Leaf
● CO₂ enters the stomata
● Moves to chloroplast stroma
2. RuBP Is Ready
● RuBP = 5-carbon molecule
● Waits to attach to CO₂
3. RuBisCO Combines CO₂ and RuBP
● Enzyme RuBisCO attaches CO₂ to RuBP
● Forms an unstable 6-carbon compound
4. The 6-Carbon Compound Splits
● Instantly breaks into two 3-carbon molecules called 3-PGA
IMPORTANT CHECKPOINT
● Every 1 CO₂ produces 2 molecules of 3-PGA
🌿 PHASE 2: REDUCTION
Key Terms
● ATP
● ADP (after ATP is used)
● NADPH
● NADP⁺ (after NADPH is used)
● 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate
● G3P (Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate)
Step-by-Step Process
1. Start With 3-PGA
● For every 3 CO₂ fixed → 6 molecules of 3-PGA form
2. ATP Adds Energy
● Each 3-PGA receives a phosphate group → becomes 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate
● ATP becomes ADP
● ADP returns to the light-dependent reaction
3. NADPH Reduces the Molecule
● NADPH donates electrons + hydrogen
● 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate becomes G3P
● NADPH becomes NADP⁺ and goes back to the thylakoid
4. G3P Is Produced
● 6 total G3P produced
● 5 stay in the cycle
● 1 exits to help make glucose
🌿 PHASE 3: REGENERATION OF RuBP
Key Terms
● RuBP regeneration
● ATP requirement
Step-by-Step Process
1. Rearrangement of G3P
● 5 G3P molecules are rearranged
● Enzyme-controlled reactions convert them back into three RuBP molecules
2. ATP Powers Regeneration
● ATP provides the energy
● ADP goes to thylakoid for recharging
3. Cycle Restarts
● RuBP is ready to accept new CO₂
● Cycle repeats continuously
📌 HOW MANY TURNS TO MAKE
GLUCOSE?
1 Glucose = 2 G3P
To produce these:
● Calvin Cycle must turn six times
Inputs Needed for 1 Glucose
● 6 CO₂
● 18 ATP
● 12 NADPH
📌 TOTAL ENERGY USE IN THE CYCLE
Per 3 Turns (3 CO₂):
● 9 ATP used
● 6 NADPH used
Per 6 Turns (6 CO₂ → 1 glucose):
● 18 ATP used
● 12 NADPH used
📌 IMPORTANCE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
(FROM PDF)
Photosynthesis:
● Provides O₂ for breathing
● Produces glucose for plant growth
● Supports animals and humans (food chain)
● Maintains balance of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the ecosystem
Nothing is skipped. Everything is here.
🌞 LESSON 1 — LIGHT-DEPENDENT
REACTION TERMS + MEANINGS
ATP
A = Adenosine
T = Tri
P = Phosphate
Meaning: A high-energy molecule that stores and provides energy.
Function: Powers reactions in the Calvin Cycle.
ADP
A = Adenosine
D = Di
P = Phosphate
Meaning: A low-energy version of ATP (only 2 phosphates).
Function: Gets converted back to ATP.
Pi
P = Inorganic
i = Phosphate
Meaning: Free phosphate group used to form ATP (ADP + Pi → ATP).
NADP⁺
N = Nicotinamide
A = Adenine
D = Dinucleotide
P = Phosphate
Meaning: Empty electron carrier.
Function: Accepts electrons + H⁺ to form NADPH.
NADPH
N = Nicotinamide
A = Adenine
D = Dinucleotide
P = Phosphate
H = Hydrogen
Meaning: High-energy electron carrier.
Function: Goes to Calvin Cycle to help make G3P.
PSII (Photosystem II)
PS = Photosystem
II = 2
Meaning: First photosystem activated by light.
Function: Splits water, excites electrons.
PSI (Photosystem I)
PS = Photosystem
I = 1
Meaning: Second photosystem.
Function: Re-excites electrons to form NADPH.
ETC (Electron Transport Chain)
E = Electron
T = Transport
C = Chain
Meaning: A chain of proteins that move electrons.
Function: Pumps H⁺ ions into lumen using electron energy.
FNR (Ferredoxin–NADP⁺ Reductase)
F = Ferredoxin
N = NADP⁺
R = Reductase
Meaning: Enzyme that converts NADP⁺ → NADPH.
Fd (Ferredoxin)
Meaning: A small protein that transfers electrons from PSI to FNR.
H⁺
H = Hydrogen
+ = Positive charge
Meaning: Protons that build up in the lumen.
Function: Power ATP synthase.
ATP Synthase
ATP = Adenosine Triphosphate
Synthase = “makes”
Meaning: Enzyme that makes ATP using H⁺ flow.
Photolysis
Photo = Light
Lysis = Break
Meaning: Light-driven splitting of water.
Function: Produces electrons, H⁺, and oxygen.
Thylakoid
Meaning: Disk-shaped membrane sac in chloroplast.
Function: Site of light-dependent reactions.
Lumen
Meaning: Empty space inside the thylakoid.
Function: Holds H⁺ ions for ATP formation.
Stroma
Meaning: Fluid inside the chloroplast.
Function: Site of Calvin Cycle.
Grana
Meaning: Stacks of thylakoids.
Chlorophyll
Meaning: Green pigment that absorbs sunlight.
Stomata
Meaning: Openings on leaf surface.
Function: Let CO₂ in, release O₂.
🌱 LESSON 2 — LIGHT-INDEPENDENT
REACTION (CALVIN CYCLE) TERMS +
MEANINGS
RuBP
R = Ribulose
u = (nothing, part of word)
B = Bis
P = Phosphate
Meaning: A 5-carbon molecule that starts the Calvin Cycle.
Function: Binds with CO₂.
RuBisCO
Ru = Ribulose
Bis = Bisphosphate
C = Carboxylase
O = Oxygenase
Meaning: The enzyme that attaches CO₂ to RuBP.
Function: First step of carbon fixation.
3-PGA
3 = 3 carbons
P = Phospho
G = Glycerate
A = Acid
Meaning: First stable molecule after CO₂ is fixed.
1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate
1,3 = Phosphates on carbon 1 & 3
Bis = Two
Phospho = Phosphate
Glycerate = 3-carbon base
Meaning: High-energy form of 3-PGA after ATP adds phosphate.
G3P
G = Glyceraldehyde
3 = 3 carbons
P = Phosphate
Meaning: A small sugar molecule.
Function: Used to make glucose.
CO₂ (Carbon Dioxide)
C = Carbon
O₂ = Oxygen (2 atoms)
Meaning: Gas plants take in.
Function: Provides carbon for sugar.
Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆)
Meaning: Sugar made by plants for energy.
Calvin Cycle
Meaning: A cycle of reactions that builds sugars.
Function: Uses ATP + NADPH + CO₂ → G3P → Glucose.
Reduction Phase
Meaning: 3-PGA is turned into G3P using ATP + NADPH.
Regeneration Phase
Meaning: Remaining G3P is turned back into RuBP using ATP.
CELLULAR RESPIRATION
● Molecules of food undergo chemical reactions with oxygen.
● This process is like burning fuel but slowly and safely inside your body.
● Stored energy is released from the food molecules.
● Food + oxygen = energy release.
● Process by which food in the form of sugar (glucose) is transformed into energy
within cells.
● Cells can store the extracted energy in the form of Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP).
LOCATION
● Mostly occurs in mitochondria; these are tiny structures found in the cytoplasm of
cells.
● Some cells have more mitochondria than others.
EQUATION
Glucose and oxygen are broken down to release energy in the form of ATP, with carbon
dioxide and water released as by-products.
Balanced Equation:
C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → ATP + 6CO₂ + 6H₂O
● 6 molecules of glucose (main energy source for cells)
● 6 molecules of oxygen (required for breaking down glucose)
● Energy for cellular activities
● 6 molecules of CO₂ (by-product)
● 6 molecules of water (by-product)
TYPES
● Cellular
● Aerobic
TYPES OF CELLULAR RESPIRATION
1. Aerobic respiration
2. Anaerobic respiration
AEROBIC RESPIRATION
● When oxygen is used to break down respiratory substrates.
● Main respiratory substrate is glucose.
● Glucose is oxidized to release its energy.
● Oxidized = removes electrons → combined with oxygen.
● Substrate = any organic molecule that can be oxidized during cellular respiration to
release energy in the form of ATP.
● Occurs in the presence of oxygen to release the energy stored in glucose.
Equation:
Glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water + energy
C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + energy
ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION
● Humans can do this for a short time, resulting in lactic acid building up in our
muscles.
● Happens due to lack of oxygen.
● Occurs in the cytoplasm of cells.
● Getting muscle cramps = lactic acid buildup.
Equations
In muscles:
Glucose → lactic acid + energy
C₆H₁₂O₆ → C₃H₆O₃
In yeast:
Glucose → ethanol + carbon dioxide + energy
C₆H₁₂O₆ → C₂H₅OH + CO₂
Aerobic (Characteristics)
● Releases a relatively large amount of energy.
● Oxygen is present.
● Glucose is completely oxidized.
Anaerobic (Characteristics)
● Releases a small amount of energy very quickly.
● Oxygen is absent or not very abundant.
● Glucose is not completely oxidized, and the products still contain energy.
RESPIRATION SUMMARY
Respiration Reactants Products
Aerobic Glucose & oxygen Water & carbon dioxide
Anaerobic Glucose Lactic acid
Energy released:
● Aerobic: More
● Anaerobic: Less
Rate of reaction:
● Aerobic: Slow
● Anaerobic: Fast
Flowchart
Respiration
↓
Glycolysis
→ Aerobic
→ Krebs cycle
→ ETC → Chemiosmosis
→ Anaerobic
→ Fermentation (alcohol)