Smt. J. J.

Kundalia Commerce College, Rajkot

(Computer Science Department)

UNIT – 1
Introduction
Operating System
An operating system (OS) is system software that
manages computer hardware and software resources and
provides common services for computer programs. All computer
programs, excluding firmware, require an operating system to
function.
Time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks for
efficient use of the system and may also include accounting
software for cost allocation of processor time, mass storage,
printing, and other resources.
For hardware functions such as input and output and
memory allocation, the operating system acts as an intermediary
between programs and the computer hardware, although the
application code is usually executed directly by the hardware
and frequently makes system calls to an OS function or is
interrupted by it. Operating systems are found on many devices that contain a computer –
from cellular phones and video game consoles to web servers and supercomputers.
The dominant desktop operating system is Microsoft Windows with a market
share of around 82%. OS X by Apple Inc. is in second place (9.8%), and Linux is in third
position (1.5%). In the mobile (smartphone and tablet combined) sector, based on
Strategy Analytics Q3 2016 data, Android by Google is dominant with 87.5 percent or
growth by 10.3 percent in one year and iOS by Apple is placed second with 12.1 percent
or decrease by 5.2 percent in one year, while other operating system gets only 0.3
percent. Linux is dominant in the server and supercomputing sectors. Other specialized
classes of operating systems, such as embedded and real-time systems, exist for many
applications.

OPERATING SYSTEM CONCEPTS

Definition: An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between the user
and the computer hardware and controls the execution of all kinds of programs.

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 Smt. J. J. Kundalia Commerce College, Rajkot
(Computer Science Department)

Functions of Operating System.

Memory Management
Memory management refers to management of Primary Memory or Main
Memory. Main memory is a large array of words or bytes where each word or byte has
its own address.
Main memory provides a fast storage that can be accessed directly by the CPU. For a
program to be executed, it must in the main memory. An Operating System does the
following activities for memory management −
• Keeps tracks of primary memory, i.e., what part of it are in use by whom, what
parts are not in uses?
• In multiprogramming, the OS decides which process will get memory when and
how much.
• Allocates the memory when a process requests it to do so.
• De-allocates the memory when a process no longer needs it or has been
terminated.
Processor Management
In multiprogramming environment, the OS decides which process gets the
processor when and for how much time. This function is called process scheduling. An
Operating System does the following activities for processor management −
• Keeps tracks of processor and status of process. The program responsible for this
task is known as traffic controller.
• Allocates the processor (CPU) to a process.
• De-allocates processor when a process is no longer required.
Device Management
An Operating System manages device communication via their respective drivers.
It does the following activities for device management −
• Keeps tracks of all devices. Program responsible for this task is known as the I/O
controller.
• Decides which process gets the device when and for how much time.
• Allocates the device in the efficient way.
• De-allocates devices.
File Management
A file system is normally organized into directories for easy navigation and usage.
These directories may contain files and other directions.
An Operating System does the following activities for file management −
• Keeps track of information, location, uses, status etc. The collective facilities are
often known as file system.
• Decides who gets the resources.
• Allocates the resources.
• De-allocates the resources.
Other Important Activities
Following are some of the important activities that an Operating System performs −
• Security − By means of password and similar other techniques, it prevents
unauthorized access to programs and data.
• Control over system performance − Recording delays between request for a
service and response from the system.

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(Computer Science Department)

• Job accounting − Keeping track of time and resources used by various jobs and
users.
• Error detecting aids − Production of dumps, traces, error messages, and other
debugging and error detecting aids.
• Coordination between other software and users − Coordination and
assignment of compilers, interpreters, assemblers and other software to the
various users of the computer systems.
Features of OS
• Software and hardware management
The operating system is the bridge between computer hardware and software and
makes the communication between them possible. Also communication between
different software’s in the computer is also taken care by operating system.
• Constant API
Application Program Interface (API) is software that allows different applications
that run on a computer to work on other computers also. But they should have same
operating system. So it is very vital to have consistent API in the operating system.
• Execution of programs
Programs running in the computer are completely dependent on the operating
system. But program execution is a tough process. The multitasking and multithreading
features of the operating system are dependent upon the type of program execution
feature of O.S.
• Interruptions
Interruption may happen at any time while using the computers. So the operating
system should allow and handle many numbers of interrupts. Whenever an interruption
occurs, the operating system should respond to it by saving and stopping the current
execution and work on the new execution. This is the most hard-hitting process for the
operating system.
• Managing memory
The operating system provides the memory for the programs that are executed at
any moment. So the operating system should have good memory allocation facility to
execute the programs smoothly. The prioritization and allocation of memory to the
applications running should be taken care by the operating systems.
• Networking
Today computers are nothing without internet connection or some network
connection. This is the age of networking. So if computers are connected to a network, the
there should be definitely communication between one computer and another. So, the
operating system is what makes it possible for one computer to communicate with other
computers.
• Security
Security is the important feature that should be looked for in an operating system.
An operating system in the computer takes care of all security issues of computer and
data in it. Log in passwords, firewall settings, and every such aspect related to security
depends on the ability of the operating system. Some of the computers in network may
involve in file sharing, and other data sharing. So, it is important in such cases to have
powerful secured operating systems.

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 Smt. J. J. Kundalia Commerce College, Rajkot
(Computer Science Department)

Types of OS (USER POINT OF VIEW)

Operating systems are there from the very first computer generation and they
keep evolving with time. We will discuss some of the important types of operating
systems which are most commonly used.
Single User Operating System
In a single user operating system, a single user can access the computer system at
a time. These types of operating systems are commonly found in home computers. There
are two types of single user operating systems called single user, single task operating
system and single user, multi-task operating system.
In a single user, single task operating system, a single user can perform only one
task at a time. Palm OS for Palm handheld computers is an example for a single user,
single task operating system. In a single user multitask system; a single user can perform
multiple tasks at the same time. Microsoft Windows and Apple Mac OS allow a single user
to work on multiple programs at the same time.
For example, a user can work on a word document and browser the World Wide
Web simultaneously. Most modern personal computers and laptops are single user multi-
tasking operating systems.
Multi User Operating System
A multi user operating system allows multiple users to access the computer at the
same time. The operating system manages the memory and resources among the various
users according to the requirements. The task of one user will not affect the tasks of the
other users. UNIX and Linux are two examples of multi user operating systems.
A time sharing operating system allows multiple users in different locations to use
a particular computer system concurrently. In distributed operating system, the data
processing task is divided among the processors accordingly. It is also a multiuser
operating system.
Types of OS (FEATURES POINT OF VIEW)
Batch operating system (BOS)
The users of a batch operating system do not interact with
the computer directly. Each user prepares his job on an off-line
device like punch cards and submits it to the computer operator.
To speed up processing, jobs with similar needs are batched
together and run as a group. The programmers leave their
programs with the operator and the operator then sorts the
programs with similar requirements into batches.
The problems with Batch Systems are as follows
• Lack of interaction between the user and the job.
• CPU is often idle, because the speed of the mechanical I/O devices is slower than the
CPU.
• Difficult to provide the desired priority.

Advantages:
• It is very difficult to guess or know the time required by any job to complete.
Processors of the batch systems knows how long the job would be when it is in
queue
• Multiple users can share the batch systems
• The idle time batch system is very less

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 Smt. J. J. Kundalia Commerce College, Rajkot
(Computer Science Department)

• It is easy to manage large work repeatedly in batch systems

Disadvantages:
• The computer operators should be well known with batch systems
• Batch systems are hard to debug
• It is sometime costly
• The other jobs will have to wait for an unknown time if any job fails
Example: Payroll System, Bank Statements etc.

Time-sharing operating systems(TSOS)

Each task has given some time to execute, so that all the tasks work smoothly.
Each user gets time of CPU as they use single system. These systems are also known as
Multitasking Systems. The task can be from single user or from different users also. The
time that each task gets to execute is called quantum. After this time interval is over OS
switches over to next task.
Advantages:
• Each task gets an equal opportunity
• Less chances of duplication of software
• CPU idle time can be reduced
Disadvantages:
• Reliability problem
• One must have to take care of security and integrity of user programs and data
• Data communication problem
Examples: Multics, UNIX etc.
Distributed Operating System (DOS)
These types of operating system are a recent advancement
in the world of computer technology and are being widely
accepted all-over the world and, that too, with a great pace.
Various autonomous interconnected computers communicate each
other using a shared communication network. Independent
systems possess their own memory unit and CPU. These are
referred as loosely coupled systems or distributed systems.
These systems processors differ in sizes and functions. The
major benefit of working with these types of operating system is
that it is always possible that one user can access the files or
software which are not actually present on his system but on some
other system connected within this network i.e., remote access is enabled within the
devices connected in that network.
Advantages:
• Failure of one will not affect the other network communication, as all systems are
independent from each other
• Electronic mail increases the data exchange speed
• Since resources are being shared, computation is highly fast and durable
• Load on host computer reduces
• These systems are easily scalable as many systems can be easily added to the
network
• Delay in data processing reduces

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 Smt. J. J. Kundalia Commerce College, Rajkot
(Computer Science Department)

Disadvantages:
• Failure of the main network will stop the entire communication
• To establish distributed systems the language which are used are not well defined
yet
• These types of systems are not readily available as they are very expensive. Not only
that the underlying software is highly complex and not understood well yet
Example: LOCUS etc.

Network Operating System (NOS)

This system run on a server and provides the capability
to manage data, users, groups, security, applications, and
other networking functions. These types of operating systems
allow shared access of files, printers, security, applications,
and other networking functions over a small private network.
One more important aspect of Network Operating Systems is
that all the users are well aware of the underlying
configuration, of all other users within the network, their
individual connections etc. and that’s why these computers
are popularly known as tightly coupled systems.
Advantages:
• Highly stable centralized servers
• Security concerns are handled through servers
• New technologies and hardware up-gradation are easily integrated to the system
• Server access are possible remotely from different locations and types of systems
Disadvantages:
• Servers are costly
• User has to depend on central location for most operations
• Maintenance and updates are required regularly
Examples: Microsoft Windows Server 2003, Microsoft Windows Server 2008, UNIX,
Linux, Mac OS X, Novell NetWare, and BSD etc.

Real-Time Operating System (RTOS)

This type of OSs serves the real-time systems. The time interval
required to process and respond to inputs is very small. This time interval
is called response time.
Real-time systems are used when there are times requirements are
very strict like missile systems, air traffic control systems, robots etc.
Two types of Real-Time Operating System which are as follows:

• Hard Real-Time Systems:

These OSs are meant for the applications where time constraints are very strict
and even the shortest possible delay is not acceptable. These systems are built for
saving life like automatic parachutes or air bags which are required to be readily
available in case of any accident. Virtual memory is almost never found in these
systems.
• Soft Real-Time Systems:
These OSs are for applications where for time-constraint is less strict.

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 Smt. J. J. Kundalia Commerce College, Rajkot
(Computer Science Department)

Advantages:
• Maximum Consumption: Maximum utilization of devices and system, thus more
output from all the resources
• Task Shifting: Time assigned for shifting tasks in these systems are very less. For
example, in older systems it takes about 10 micro seconds in shifting one task to
another and in latest systems it takes 3 micro seconds.
• Focus on Application: Focus on running applications and less importance to
applications which are in queue.
• Real time operating system in embedded system: Since size of programs is small,
RTOS can also be used in embedded systems like in transport and others.
• Error Free: These types of systems are error free.
• Memory Allocation: Memory allocation is best managed in these types of systems.

Disadvantages:
• Limited Tasks: Very few tasks run at the same time and their concentration is very
less on few applications to avoid errors.
• Use heavy system resources: Sometimes the system resources are not so good and
they are expensive as well.
• Complex Algorithms: The algorithms are very complex and difficult for the designer
to write on.
• Device driver and interrupt signals: It needs specific device drivers and interrupts
signals to response earliest to interrupts.
• Thread Priority: It is not good to set thread priority as these systems are very less
prom to switching tasks.
Examples: Scientific experiments, medical imaging systems, industrial control
systems, weapon systems, robots, air traffic control systems, etc.

Multitasking
Multitasking is when multiple jobs are executed by the CPU simultaneously by
switching between them. Switches occur so frequently that the users may interact with
each program while it is running. An OS does the following activities related to
multitasking
• The user gives instructions to the operating system or
to a program directly, and receives an immediate
response.
• The OS handles multitasking in the way that it can
handle multiple operations/executes multiple
programs at a time.
• Multitasking Operating Systems are also known as
Time-sharing systems.
• These Operating Systems were developed to provide
interactive use of a computer system at a reasonable
cost.
• A time-shared operating system uses the concept of CPU scheduling and
multiprogramming to provide each user with a small portion of a time-shared CPU.
• Each user has at least one separate program in memory.
• A program that is loaded into memory and is executing is commonly referred to as
a process.

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(Computer Science Department)

• When a process executes, it typically executes for only a very short time before it
either finishes or needs to perform I/O.
• Since interactive I/O typically runs at slower speeds, it may take a long time to
complete. During this time, a CPU can be utilized by another process.
• The operating system allows the users to share the computer simultaneously. Since
each action or command in a time-shared system tends to be short, only a little CPU
time is needed for each user.
• As the system switches CPU rapidly from one user/program to the next, each user is
given the impression that he/she has his/her own CPU, whereas actually one CPU is
being shared among many users.
Multiprogramming
Sharing the processor, when two or more programs reside in memory
at the same time, is referred as multiprogramming. Multiprogramming
assumes a single shared processor. Multiprogramming increases CPU
utilization by organizing jobs so that the CPU always has one to execute.
The following figure shows the memory layout for a multiprogramming
system.
An OS does the following activities related to multiprogramming.
• The operating system keeps several jobs in memory at a time.
• This set of jobs is a subset of the jobs kept in the job pool.
• The operating system picks and begins to execute one of the jobs in the
memory.
• Multiprogramming operating systems monitor the state of all active
programs and system resources using memory management programs to
ensure that the CPU is never idle, unless there are no jobs to process.
Advantages
• High and efficient CPU utilization.
• User feels that many programs are allotted CPU almost simultaneously.
Disadvantages
• CPU scheduling is required.
• To accommodate many jobs in memory, memory management is required.

Interactivity
Interactivity refers to the ability of users to interact with a computer system. An
Operating system does the following activities related to interactivity −
• Provides the user an interface to interact with the system.
• Manages input devices to take inputs from the user. For example, keyboard.
• Manages output devices to show outputs to the user. For example, Monitor.
The response time of the OS needs to be short, since the user submits and waits for
the result.

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 Smt. J. J. Kundalia Commerce College, Rajkot
(Computer Science Department)

UNIT – 1
Process and Thread
Introduction of OS Process
A program/command when executed, a special instance is provided by the system
to the process. This instance consists of all the services/resources that may be utilized by
the process under execution.
• Whenever a command is issued in unix/linux, it creates/starts a new process. For
example, pwd when issued which is used to list the current directory location the user
is in, a process starts.
• Through a 5-digit ID number unix/linux keeps account of the processes, this number
is call process id or pid. Each process in the system has a unique pid.
• Used up pid’s can be used in again for a newer process since all the possible
combinations are used.
• At any point of time, no two processes with the same pid exist in the system because it
is the pid that Unix uses to track each process.
Initializing a process
A process can be run in two ways:
1. Foreground Process:
Every process when started runs in foreground by default, receives input from
the keyboard and sends output to the screen.
When a command/process is running in the foreground and is taking a lot of
time, no other processes can be run or started because the prompt would not be
available until the program finishes processing and comes out.
2. Background Process:
It runs in the background without keyboard input and waits till keyboard input
is required. Thus, other processes can be done in parallel with the process running in
background since they do not have to wait for the previous process to be completed.

PID (Process Identification Number)

PID is an UNIQUE identification number that is automatically assigned to each
process when it is created on an operating system.
Processor
A processor fetches the instruction from the main memory, decodes it and
executes one instruction at a time. It fetches the next instruction in a sequence.
Register
Registers are normally measured by the number of bits they can hold.
For example
An "8-bit register" or a "32-bit register". A processor often contains several kinds
of registers, that can be classified according to their content or instructions that operate
on them:
Program Counter (PC):
A program counter is a register in a computer processor that contains the address
(location) of the instruction being executed at the current time. As each instruction
gets fetched, the program counter increases its stored value by 1. After each instruction is

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(Computer Science Department)

fetched, the program counter points to the next instruction in the sequence. When the
computer restarts or is reset, the program counter normally reverts to 0.
Instruction Register (IR)
The instruction whose address is fetched by the program counter is loaded in the
instruction register.
Memory Address Register (MAR)
If contains the address of the memory location to be accessed. It is directly
connected with address
Memory Data Register (MDR)
If data is to be brought from main memory, it is first loaded into the data register
and then if can be passed to other register. It is directly connected to the external data
bus.

What is Program?
A program is a collection of instructions that performs a specific task when
executed by a computer. A computer requires programs to function, and typically
executes the program's instructions in a central processing unit.

Process State Transition Diagram

The following typical process states are possible on computer systems of all kinds.
In most of these states, processes are "stored" on main memory.

• New (Create) – In this step, process is about to

be created but not yet created, it is the program
which is present in secondary memory that will
be picked up by OS to create the process.
• Ready – New -> Ready to run. After creation of a
process, the process enters the ready state i.e.,
the process is loaded into the main memory. The
process here is ready to run and is waiting to get
the CPU time for its execution. Processes that
are ready for execution by the CPU are
maintained in a queue for ready processes.
• Run – The process is chosen by CPU for execution and the instructions within the
process are executed by any one of the available CPU cores.
• Blocked or wait – Whenever the process requests access to I/O or needs an input
from user or needs access to a critical region (the lock for which is already acquired)
it enters the blocked or wait state. The process continues to wait in the main memory
and does not require CPU. Once the I/O operation is completed the process goes to
ready state.
• Terminated or completed – Process is killed as well as PCB is deleted.
• Suspend ready – Process that were initially in ready state but were swapped out of
main memory (refer Virtual Memory topic) and placed onto external storage by
scheduler are said to be in suspend ready state. The process will transition back to
ready state whenever the process is again brought onto the main memory.

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• Suspend wait or suspend blocked – Similar to suspend ready but uses the process
which was performing I/O operation and lack of main memory caused them to move
to secondary memory. When work is finished, it may go to suspend ready.
Process Control Block (PCB)
PCB stores many different items of data, all needed for correct and efficient
process management. Though the details of these structures are obviously system-
dependent, we can identify some very common parts, and classify them in three main
categories:
1. Process identification data
2. Process state data
3. Process control data
The approach commonly followed to represent this information is to create and
update status tables for each relevant entity, like memory, I/O devices, files and
processes.
Memory tables may contain information about the allocation of main and
secondary (virtual) memory for each process, authorization attributes for accessing
memory areas shared among different processes, etc. I/O tables may have entries stating
the availability of a device or its assignment to a process, the status of I/O operations
being executed, the location of memory buffers used for them, etc.
File tables provide info about location and status of files. Finally, process tables
store the data the OS needs to manage processes. At least part of the process control data
structure is always maintained in main memory, though its exact location and
configuration varies with the OS and the memory management technique it uses.

Process identification data always include a unique identifier for the process (almost
invariably an integer number) and, in a multiuser-multitasking system, data like the
identifier of the parent process, user identifier, user group identifier, etc. The process id is
particularly relevant, since it is often used to cross-reference the OS tables defined above,
e.g., allowing identifying which process is using which I/O devices, or memory areas.

Process state data are those pieces of information that define the status of a process
when it is suspended, allowing the OS to restart it later and still execute correctly. This
always includes the content of the CPU general-purpose registers, the CPU process status
word, stack and frame pointers etc. During context switch, the running process is stopped
and another process is given a chance to run. The kernel must stop the execution of the
running process, copy out the values in hardware registers to its PCB, and update the
hardware registers with the values from the PCB of the new process.

Process control information is used by the OS to manage the process itself. This
includes:
• The process scheduling state: In terms of "ready", "suspended", etc., and other
scheduling information as well, like a priority value, the amount of time elapsed since
the process gained control of the CPU or since it was suspended. Also, in case of a
suspended process, event identification data must be recorded for the event the
process is waiting for.

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• Process structuring information: process's children id's, or the id’s of other

processes related to the current one in some functional way, which may be
represented as a queue, a ring or other data structures.
• Inter process communication information: various flags, signals and messages
associated with the communication among independent processes may be stored in
the PCB.
• Process privileges, in terms of allowed/disallowed access to system resources.
• Process state: State may enter into new, ready, running, waiting, dead depending on
CPU scheduling.
• Process No: a unique identification number for each process in the operating system.
• Program counter: a pointer to the address of the next instruction to be executed for
this process.
• CPU registers: indicates various register set of CPU where process need to be stored
for execution for running state.
• CPU scheduling information: indicates the information of a process with which it
uses the CPU time through scheduling.
• Memory management information: includes the information of page table, memory
limits, Segment table depending on memory used by the operating system.
• Accounting information: includes the amount of CPU used for process exec
• IO status information: includes a list of I/O devices allocated to the process.

Context Switch
The Context switching is a technique or method used by the operating system to
switch a process from one state to another to execute its function using CPUs in the
system. When switching perform in the system, it stores the old running process's status
in the form of registers and assigns the CPU to a new process to execute its tasks. While a
new process is running in the system, the previous process must wait in a ready queue.
The execution of the old process starts at that point where another process stopped it. It
defines the characteristics of a multitasking operating system in which multiple processes
shared the same CPU to perform multiple tasks without the need for additional
processors in the system.
WHY USE?
A context switching helps to share a single CPU across all processes to complete its
execution and store the system's tasks status. When the process reloads in the system,
the execution of the process starts at the same point where there is conflicting.
Following are the reasons that describe the need for context switching in the
Operating system.
1. The switching of one process to another process is not directly in the system. A
context switching helps the operating system that switches between the multiple
processes to use the CPU's resource to accomplish its tasks and store its context. We
can resume the service of the process at the same point later. If we do not store the
currently running process's data or context, the stored data may be lost while
switching between processes.
2. If a high priority process falls into the ready queue, the currently running process will
be shut down or stopped by a high priority process to complete its tasks in the
system.

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3. If any running process requires I/O resources in the system, the current process will
be switched by another process to use the CPUs. And when the I/O requirement is
met, the old process goes into a ready state to wait for its execution in the CPU.
Context switching stores the state of the process to resume its tasks in an operating
system. Otherwise, the process needs to restart its execution from the initials level.
4. If any interrupts occur while running a process in the operating system, the process
status is saved as registers using context switching. After resolving the interrupts, the
process switches from a wait state to a ready state to resume its execution at the same
point later, where the operating system interrupted occurs.
5. A context switching allows a single CPU to handle multiple process requests
simultaneously without the need for any additional processors.
Example
Suppose that multiple processes are stored in a Process Control Block (PCB).
One process is running state to execute its task with the use of CPUs. As the process is
running, another process arrives in the ready queue, which has a high priority of
completing its task using CPU. Here we used context switching that switches the current
process with the new process requiring the CPU to finish its tasks. While switching the
process, a context switch saves the status of the old process in registers. When the
process reloads into the CPU, it starts the execution of the process when the new process
stops the old process. If we do not save the state of the process, we have to start its
execution at the initial level. In this way, context switching helps the operating system to
switch between the processes, store or reload the process when it requires executing its
tasks.
Context switching triggers
Following are the three types of contexts switching triggers as follows.
1. Interrupts
2. Multitasking
3. Kernel/User switch
• Interrupts: A CPU requests for the data to read from a disk, and if there are any
interrupts, the context switching automatic switches a part of the hardware that
requires less time to handle the interrupts.
• Multitasking: A context switching is the characteristic of multitasking that allows the
process to be switched from the CPU so that another process can be run. When
switching the process, the old state is saved to resume the process's execution at the
same point in the system.
• Kernel/User Switch: It is used in the operating systems when switching between the
user mode, and the kernel/user mode is performed.

Thread
Thread is a sequential flow of tasks within a process. Threads in an operating
system can be of the same or different types. Threads are used to increase the
performance of the applications.
Each thread has its own program counter, stack, and set of registers. However, the
threads of a single process might share the same code and data/file. Threads are also
termed lightweight processes as they share common resources.

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Eg: While playing a movie on a device the audio and video are controlled by
different threads in the background.
The above diagram shows the difference between a single-threaded process and a
multithreaded process and the resources that are shared among threads in a
multithreaded process.

Multithreading
In Multithreading, the idea is to divide a single process into multiple threads instead
of creating a whole new process. Multithreading is done to achieve parallelism and to
improve the performance of the applications as it is faster in many ways which were
discussed above. The other advantages of multithreading are mentioned below.
• Resource Sharing: Threads of a single process share the same resources such
as code, data/file.
• Responsiveness: Program responsiveness enables a program to run even if part of
the program is blocked or executing a lengthy operation. Thus, increasing the
responsiveness to the user.
• Economy: It is more economical to use threads as they share the resources of a single
process. On the other hand, creating processes is expensive.

Benefits of Threads
Enhanced throughput of the system: When the process is split into many threads,
and each thread is treated as a job, the number of jobs done in the unit time increases.
That is why the throughput of the system also increases.
• Effective Utilization of Multiprocessor system: When you have more than one
thread in one process, you can schedule more than one thread in more than one
processor.
• Faster context switch: The context switching period between threads is less than the
process context switching. The process context switch means more overhead for the
CPU.
• Responsiveness: When the process is split into several threads, and when a thread
completes its execution, that process can be responded to as soon as possible.
• Communication: Multiple-thread communication is simple because the threads share
the same address space, while in process, we adopt just a few exclusive
communication strategies for communication between two processes.

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• Resource sharing: Resources can be shared between all threads within a process,
such as code, data, and files. Note: The stack and register cannot be shared between
threads. There is a stack and register for each thread.

Process v/s Thread

Process simply means any program in execution while the thread is a
segment of a process. The main differences between process and thread are mentioned
below:
Process Thread
Processes use more resources and Threads share resources and hence they are
hence they are termed as heavyweight termed as lightweight processes.
processes.
Creation and termination times of Creation and termination times of threads are
processes are slower. faster compared to processes.
Processes have their own code and Threads share code and data/file within a
data/file. process.
Communication between processes is Communication between threads is faster.
slower.
Context Switching in processes is Context switching in threads is faster.
slower.
Processes are independent of each Threads, on the other hand, are
other. interdependent. (i.e they can read, write or
change another thread’s data)
Eg: Opening two different browsers. Eg: Opening two tabs in the same browser.

Types of Threads
In the operating system, there are two types of threads.
1. Kernel level thread.
2. User-level thread.

User-level thread
The operating system does not recognize the user-level thread.
User threads can be easily implemented and it is implemented by the
user. If a user performs a user-level thread blocking operation, the whole
process is blocked. The kernel level thread does not know nothing about
the user level thread. The kernel-level thread manages user-level threads

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as if they are single-threaded processes? examples: Java thread, POSIX threads, etc.
Advantages
• The user threads can be easily implemented than the kernel thread.
• User-level threads can be applied to such types of operating systems that do not
support threads at the kernel-level.
• It is faster and efficient.
• Context switch time is shorter than the kernel-level threads.
• It does not require modifications of the operating system.
• User-level threads representation is very simple. The register, PC, stack, and mini
thread control blocks are stored in the address space of the user-level process.
• It is simple to create, switch, and synchronize threads without the intervention of the
process.

Disadvantages
• User-level threads lack coordination between the thread and the kernel.
• If a thread causes a page fault, the entire process is blocked.

Kernel level thread

The kernel thread recognizes the operating system. There is a thread
control block and process control block in the system for each thread and
process in the kernel-level thread. The kernel-level thread is implemented by
the operating system. The kernel knows about all the threads and manages
them. The kernel-level thread offers a system call to create and manage the
threads from user-space. The implementation of kernel threads is more
difficult than the user thread. Context switch time is longer in the kernel
thread. If a kernel thread performs a blocking operation, the Banky thread
execution can continue. Example: Window Solaris.

Advantages
The kernel-level thread is fully aware of all threads.
• The scheduler may decide to spend more CPU time in the process of threads being
large numerical.
• The kernel-level thread is good for those applications that block the frequency.
• Disadvantages of Kernel-level threads
• The kernel thread manages and schedules all threads.
• The implementation of kernel threads is difficult than the user thread.
• The kernel-level thread is slower than user-level threads.

Components of Threads
Any thread has the following components.
• Program counter
• Register set
• Stack space

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UNIT – 1
Process Scheduling
Schedulers
Schedulers are special system software which handles process scheduling in
various ways. Their main task is to select the jobs to be submitted into the system and to
decide which process to run. Schedulers are of three types
• Long-Term Scheduler
• Short-Term Scheduler
• Medium-Term Scheduler
• Long Term Scheduler
It is also called a job scheduler. A long-term scheduler determines which
programs are admitted to the system for processing. It selects processes from the queue
and loads them into memory for execution. Process loads into the memory for CPU
scheduling.
The primary objective of the job scheduler is to provide a balanced mix of jobs,
such as I/O bound and processor bound. It also controls the degree of
multiprogramming. If the degree of multiprogramming is stable, then the average rate
of process creation must be equal to the average departure rate of processes leaving the
system.
On some systems, the long-term scheduler may not be available or minimal. Time-
sharing operating systems have no long term scheduler. When a process changes the
state from new to ready, then there is use of long-term scheduler.
• Short Term Scheduler
It is also called as CPU scheduler. Its main objective is to increase system
performance in accordance with the chosen set of criteria. It is the change of ready state
to running state of the process. CPU scheduler selects a process among the processes
that are ready to execute and allocates CPU to one of them.
Short-term schedulers, also known as dispatchers, make the decision of which
process to execute next. Short-term schedulers are faster than long-term schedulers.
• Medium Term Scheduler
Medium-term scheduling is a part of swapping. It removes the processes from the
memory. It reduces the degree of multiprogramming. The medium-term scheduler is in-
charge of handling the swapped out-processes.
A running process may become suspended if it makes an I/O request. Suspended
processes cannot make any progress towards completion. In this condition, to remove
the process from memory and make space for other processes, the suspended process is
moved to the secondary storage. This process is called swapping, and the process is said
to be swapped out or rolled out. Swapping may be necessary to improve the process mix.

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Long-Term Scheduler Short-Term Medium-Term

Scheduler Scheduler
It is a job scheduler It is a CPU scheduler It is a process swapping
scheduler.
Speed is lesser than short Speed is fastest among Speed is in between both
term scheduler other two short - and long - term
scheduler.
It controls the degree of It provides lesser control It reduces the degree of
multiprogramming over degree of multiprogramming.
multiprogramming
It is almost absent or It is also minimal in time It is a part of Time-sharing
minimal in time sharing sharing system systems.
system
It selects processes from It selects those processes It can re-introduce the
pool and loads them into which are ready to process into memory and
memory for execution execute execution can be continued.

Process Scheduling Queues

The OS maintains all PCBs in Process Scheduling Queues. The OS maintains a
separate queue for each of the process states and PCBs of all processes in the same
execution state are placed in the same queue. When the state of a process is changed, its
PCB is unlinked from its current queue and moved to its new state queue.
The Operating System maintains the following important process scheduling queues

• Job queue: This queue keeps all the processes in the system.
• Ready queue: This queue keeps a set of all processes residing in main memory,
ready and waiting to execute. A new process is always put in this queue.
• Device queues: The processes which are blocked due to unavailability of an I/O
device constitute this queue.
The OS can use different policies to manage each queue (FIFO, Round Robin,
Priority, etc.). The OS scheduler determines how to move processes between the ready
and run queues which can only have one entry per processor core on the system; in the
above diagram, it has been merged with the CPU.

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Scheduling Criteria
Scheduling criteria is also called as scheduling methodology. Key to
multiprogramming is scheduling. Different CPU scheduling algorithm have different
properties. The criteria used for comparing these algorithms include the following:

• CPU Utilization: Keep the CPU as busy as possible. It ranges from 0 to 100%. In
practice, it ranges from 40 to 90%.
• Throughput: Throughput is the rate at which processes are completed per unit of
time.
• Turnaround time: This is the how long a process takes to execute a process. It is
calculated as the time gap between the submission of a process and its completion.
• Waiting time: Waiting time is the sum of the time periods spent in waiting in the
ready queue.
• Response time: Response time is the time it takes to start responding from
submission time. It is calculated as the amount of time it takes from when a request
was submitted until the first response is produced.
• Fairness: Each process should have a fair share of CPU.

Process Scheduling Policies

The act of determining which process in the ready state should be moved to the
running state is known as Process Scheduling.
The prime aim of the process scheduling system is to keep the CPU busy all the
time and to deliver minimum response time for all programs. For achieving this, the
scheduler must apply appropriate rules for swapping processes IN and OUT of CPU.
Schedulers fell into one of the two general categories
• Non-pre-emptive scheduling. When the currently executing process gives up the
CPU voluntarily.
• Pre-emptive scheduling. When the operating system decides to favor another
process, pre-empting the currently executing process.
Non-pre-emptive scheduling
(1) First Come First Served (FCFS)
• First-Come-First-Served algorithm is the simplest scheduling algorithm is the
simplest scheduling algorithm.
• Processes are dispatched according to their arrival time on the ready queue.
• Being a Non preemptive discipline, once a process has a CPU, it runs to completion.
• The FCFS scheduling is fair in the formal sense or human sense of fairness but it is
unfair in the sense that long jobs make short jobs wait and unimportant jobs make
important jobs wait.
• One of the major drawbacks of this scheme is that the average time is often quite
long.
Process P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 Total
Process Time 5 6 7 2 3 23
Waiting Time 0 5 11 18 20 54
Turn Around Time 5 11 18 20 23 77
Average waiting time = 54/5 = 10.8ms
Average Turnaround time = 77/5 = 15.4ms

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(2) Shortest Job First (SJF) / Shortest Process Next (SPN)

• Shortest Job First other name of this algorithm is Shortest Process Next.
• Shortest-Job-First is a non-preemptive discipline in which waiting job (or process)
with the smallest estimated time runs next.
• The SJF scheduling is especially appropriate for batch jobs for which the run times
are known in advance.
• As SJF scheduling algorithm gives the minimum average time for a given set of
processes, it is probably optimal.
• The SJF algorithm favors short jobs (or processors) at the expense of longer ones.
• The obvious problem with SJF scheme is that it requires precise knowledge of how
long a job or process will run, and this information is not usually available.
• The best SJF algorithm can do is to rely on user estimates of run times.
• Like FCFS, SJF is non preemptive therefore, it is not useful in timesharing
environment in which reasonable response time must be guaranteed.

Process P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 Total
Process Time 5 6 7 2 3 23
Waiting Time 5 10 16 0 2 35
Turn Around Time 10 16 23 2 5 56
Process Sequence P4 P5 P1 P2 P3

Average waiting time = 35/5 = 7ms

Average Turnaround time = 56/5 = 11.2ms

Pre-emptive scheduling
(1) Shortest Remaining Time Next
• This is a preemptive version of the Process P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 Total
previous one, in which the scheduler Process Time (ms) 9 4 5 7 3 28
always dispatches that ready process Arrival Time (ms) 0 1 2 3 4
which has the shortest expected remaining time to completion.
• The dispatching decision is always made when a new ms p1 p2 p3 p4 p5
process is submitted: the currently running process has 0 9 x x x x
obviously a smaller remaining time than all other ready 1 8 4 x x x
ones; otherwise, it wouldn't have been dispatched. 2 8 3 5 x x
• But a newly submitted job may have an even shorter one, in 3 8 2 5 7 x
which case the currently running one would be blocked and 4 8 1 5 7 3
put in ready state. This decreases the average turnaround 5 8 0 5 7 3
time with respect to shortest process next (SPN). 8 8 x 5 7 0
• Initially at 0ms arrival time, we have only one process p1. 13 8 x x 7 x
We execute this process for 1ms, now remaining time for 20 8 x x 0 x
p1=8ms. At 1ms we have two processes p1 and p2. The burst 28 0 x x x x
time for p1=8ms and p2=4. Minimum is 4ms. So p2 will be
executed for 1ms as the next process arrives after 1ms
• Now remaining time for p2=3ms. At 2ms we have 3 processes p1=8ms, p2=3ms and
p3=5ms. Minimum=3ms, p2 will be executed for 1ms.

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• At 3ms, there will be four processes p1=8ms, p2=3ms and p3=5ms. Minimum is 3ms,
so p2 will be executed for 1ms
• At 4ms, p2=1 which is minimum, it will be executed and it will be finished. At 5ms
there are 4 process p1=8ms, p3=5ms, p4=7ms and p5=3ms.

Minimum is p5=3ms. It will be executed for next 3ms. At 8ms p3=5ms is minimum
it will be executed for next 5ms. At 13ms p4=7ms is minimum so it will be executed for
next 7ms. At 20ms, p1 process will be executed for next [Link] time = Total waiting
time – Number of milliseconds the process has already executed – arrival time

Total waiting time Already executed Arrival time Waiting time

P1 20 1 0 19ms
P2 4 3 1 0ms
P3 8 0 2 6ms
P4 13 0 3 10ms
P5 5 0 4 1ms
Total waiting time = 36ms
Average waiting time = 36/5 = 7.2ms
Turnaround time = Total Turnaround time – arrival time

Total turnaround Arrival Waiting Total turnaround time = 64ms

time time time Average turnaround time = 64/5
P1 28 0 28ms = 12.8ms
P2 5 1 4ms
P3 13 2 11ms
P4 20 3 17ms
P5 8 4 4ms

(2) Round Robin

• Round-robin (RR) is one of the simplest scheduling algorithms for processes in an
operating system.
• As the term is generally used, time slices are assigned to each process in equal
portions and in circular order, handling all processes without priority (also known
as cyclic executive).
• Round-robin scheduling is simple, easy to implement, and starvation-free. Round-
robin scheduling can also be applied to other scheduling problems, such as data
packet scheduling in computer networks.
• The name of the algorithm comes from the round-robin principle known from
other fields, where each person takes an equal share of something in turn.

Process P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 Total
Process Time (ms) 8 6 2 7 9 32

• Suppose Time quantum (Time interval) is of 4ms. So each will be executed for 4ms
in FCFS order.

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ms p1 p2 p3 p4 p5
0 8 6 2 7 9
4 4 6 2 7 9
8 4 2 2 7 9
10 4 2 0 7 9
14 4 2 x 3 9
18 4 2 x 3 5
22 0 2 x 3 5
24 x 0 x 3 5
27 x x x 0 5
31 x x x x 1
32 x x x x 0

Priority Policy (Preemptive and Non-Preemptive)

• Priority scheduling is a more general case of SJF, in which each job is assigned a
priority and the job with the highest priority gets scheduled first. (SJF uses the inverse
of the next expected burst time as its priority - The smaller the expected burst, the
higher the priority.)
• Note that in practice, priorities are implemented using integers within a fixed range,
but there is no agreed-upon convention as to whether "high" priorities use large
numbers or small numbers. This book uses low number for high priorities, with 0
being the highest possible priority.
• For example, the following Gantt chart is based upon this process burst times and
priorities, and yields an average waiting time of 8.2 ms:

Process P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 Total
Process Time 10 1 2 1 5 19
Waiting Time 6 0 16 18 1 41
Turn Around Time 16 1 18 19 6 60
Priority 3 1 4 5 2
Process Sequence P3 P1 P4 P5 P2

• Priorities can be assigned either internally or externally. Internal priorities are

assigned by the OS using criteria such as average burst time, ratio of CPU to I/O
activity, system resource use, and other factors available to the kernel. External
priorities are assigned by users, based on the importance of the job, fees paid, politics,
etc.
• Priority scheduling can be either preemptive or non-preemptive.
• Priority scheduling can suffer from a major problem known as indefinite blocking,
or starvation, in which a low-priority task can wait forever because there are always
some other jobs around that have higher priority.

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• If this problem is allowed to occur, then processes will either run eventually when the
system load lightens (at say 2:00 a.m.), or will eventually get lost when the system is
shut down or crashes. (There are rumors of jobs that have been stuck for years.)
• One common solution to this problem is aging, in which priorities of jobs increase the
longer they wait. Under this scheme a low-priority job will eventually get its priority
raised high enough that it gets run.

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UNIT – 2
Dead Locks
Operating systems manage and control all the tasks running on a computer. As you
can imagine, conflicts can arise with so many tasks simultaneously. This is where the
term “deadlock” comes into play. Deadlocks can be caused by user actions or by software
malfunctions. In this post, we’ll explore what causes deadlock in the operating system and
how to prevent them.
What is Deadlock?
Deadlocks are a set of blocked processes each holding a resource and waiting to
acquire a resource held by another process.

In the above figure, process T0 has

resource1, it requires resource2 in order to finish
its execution. Similarly, process T1 has resource2
and it also needs to acquire resource1 to finish its
execution. In this way, T0 and T1 are in a
deadlock because each of them needs the
resource of others to complete their execution but
neither of them is willing to give up their
resources.
In General, a process must request a resource before using it and it must release
the resource after using it. And any process can request as many resources as it requires
in order to complete its designated task. And there is a condition that the number of
resources requested may not exceed the total number of resources available in the
system.
Basically, in the Normal mode of Operation utilization of resources by a process is
in the following sequence:
Request: Firstly, the process requests the resource. In a case, if the request cannot be
granted immediately (e.g.: resource is being used by any other process), then the
requesting process must wait until it can acquire the resource.
Use: The Process can operate on the resource (e.g.: if the resource is a printer, then in
that case process can print on the printer).
Release: The Process releases the resource.

When two or more processes try to access the critical section at the same time and
they fail to access simultaneously or stuck while accessing the critical section then this
condition is known as Deadlock.
Every process needs a few resources to finish running. The procedure makes a
resource request. If the resource is available, the OS will grant it; otherwise, the process
will wait. When the process is finished, it is released.

The deadlock has the following characteristics:

• Mutual Exclusion
• Hold and Wait
• No pre-emption
• Circular wait

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Deadlock Detection
Deadlock detection in OS is a critical concept in computer science and operating
systems that deals with the potential problem of deadlocks in concurrent systems. A
deadlock occurs when two or more processes are unable to proceed with their execution
because each process is waiting for a resource that is held by another process within the
same system. This situation results in a standstill where no process can make progress,
effectively halting the system's functionality.
We can prevent a Deadlock by eliminating any of the above four conditions.

• Eliminate Mutual Exclusion: It is not possible to dis-satisfy the mutual

exclusion because some resources, such as the tape drive and printer, are inherently
non-shareable.
• Eliminate Hold and wait: Allocate all required resources to the process before the
start of its execution, this way holds and wait condition is eliminated but it will lead to
low device utilization. for example, if a process requires a printer at a later time and
we have allocated a printer before the start of its execution printer will remain
blocked till it has completed its execution. The process will make a new request for
resources after releasing the current set of resources. This solution may lead to
starvation.
• Eliminate No Pre-emption: Preempt resources from the process
when resources are required by other high-priority processes.
• Eliminate Circular Wait: Each resource will be assigned a
numerical number. A process can request the resources to
increase/decrease. order of numbering. For Example, if the P1
process is allocated R5 resources, now next time if P1 asks for R4,
R3 lesser than R5 such a request will not be granted, only a
request for resources more than R5 will be granted.
• Detection and Recovery: Another approach to dealing with deadlocks is to detect
and recover from them when they occur. This can involve killing one or more of the
processes involved in the deadlock or releasing some of the resources they hold.

Deadlock Prevention
Deadlock avoidance uses dynamic information, such as the current state of the
system and the resource allocation, to ensure that a deadlock never occurs. Deadlock
prevention uses static information, such as the maximum number of resources a process
can request, to prevent a deadlock from occurring. Resource allocation algorithms such as
the Banker’s Algorithm can be used for deadlock prevention.
Deadlock prevention is a technique used in operating systems to avoid the
situation where two or more processes are unable to proceed because each is waiting for
one of the others to release a resource. This can be achieved by imposing a set of
constraints on the way resources are requested and released by the processes.
Methods of deadlock prevention include:
• Resource allocation: By allocating resources in a way that ensures that a process can
never enter a deadlock state, such as using the Banker’s Algorithm, which checks for
safe states before allocating resources.

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• Limit on resources: By limiting the number of resources a process can request, a

deadlock state can be prevented from occurring.
• Timeout: By setting a timeout for resource requests, a process will release a resource
if it is unable to acquire it within a certain time period.
• Priority-based resource allocation: By allocating resources based on the priority of
the process, a deadlock state can be prevented from occurring.
• Pre-emptive resource allocation: By pre-empting resources from a process that has
been holding them for a long time, a deadlock state can be prevented from occurring.
These are some of the common methods used in operating systems to prevent
deadlocks. The best method to use depends on the specific requirements of the system
and the resources being used.

Deadlock avoidance
Deadlock avoidance is a technique used in operating systems to prevent the
situation where two or more processes are unable to proceed because each is waiting for
one of the others to release a resource. Unlike deadlock prevention, which uses static
information to prevent a deadlock from occurring, deadlock avoidance uses dynamic
information, such as the current state of the system and the resource allocation, to ensure
that a deadlock never occurs. Some common methods of deadlock avoidance include:
• Wait/Die: In this method, a process that requests a resource that is not available will
wait until the resource becomes available. If a process that holds the resource is also
requesting a resource that is not available, the process that has been waiting the
longest will be allowed to proceed.
• Wound/Wait: In this method, a process that requests a resource that is not available
will be killed (wounded) if a process that holds the resource is also requesting a
resource that is not available. The process that was killed will have to request the
resource again later.
• Resource allocation graph: By representing the resources and the processes as
nodes in a graph, the operating system can use algorithms to check for safe states
before allocating resources.
• Banker’s Algorithm: This algorithm is a variant of Resource Allocation Graph
algorithm, it uses the available and maximum resource information for each process,
the algorithm checks for safe state before allocating resources.
• Time-stamp ordering: In this method, a process is only allowed to request a
resource if its time stamp is greater than the time stamp of the process that holds the
resource.
These are some of the common methods used in operating systems for deadlock
avoidance. The best method to use depends on the specific requirements of the system
and the resources being used.

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UNIT – 2
Memory Management
• An operating system manages the memory of computer so that it can be efficiently
used.
• The task of operating system for the memory management are as follows
➢ Protecting program including itself from any accidental erase of memory.
➢ Handling programs that exceed the physical limitation of main memory.
➢ Protecting user and programs from one another that are sharing of the single main
memory among multiple user and multiple programs.
➢ Providing memory protection, preventing programming interference with one
another.
➢ Users will be prevented from interference with the work of other users.
• In any computer systems normally, we have four kinds of memory available.
• From available memories three are physical memory and one is virtual memory

Physical Memory
Physical memory is the only memory that is directly accessible to the CPU. CPU
reads the instructions stored in the physical memory and executes them continuously.
The data that is operated will also be stored in physical memory in uniform manner.

CACHE MEMEORY
Cache memory, also called CPU memory, is random access memory (RAM) that a
computer microprocessor can access more quickly than it can access regular RAM. This
memory is typically integrated directly with the CPU chip or placed on a separate chip
that has a separate bus interconnect with the CPU.
The basic purpose of cache memory is to store program instructions that are
frequently re-referenced by software during operation. Fast access to these instructions
increases the overall speed of the software program.
As the microprocessor processes data, it looks first in the cache memory; if it finds
the instructions there (from a previous reading of data), it does not have to do a more
time-consuming reading of data from larger memory or other data storage devices.
Most programs use very few resources once they have been opened and operated
for a time, mainly because frequently re-referenced instructions tend to be cached. This
explains why measurements of system performance in computers with slower processors
but larger caches tend to be faster than measurements of system performance in
computers with faster processors but more limited cache space.
Multi-tier or multilevel caching has become popular in server and desktop
architectures, with different levels providing greater efficiency through managed tiering.
Simply put, the less frequently access is made to certain data or instructions, the lower
down the cache level the data or instructions are written.

Cache memory levels

Cache memory is fast and expensive. Traditionally, it is categorized as "levels" that
describe its closeness and accessibility to the microprocessor:

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Level 1 (L1) cache is extremely fast but relatively small, and is usually embedded in the
processor chip (CPU).
Level 2 (L2) cache is often more capacious than L1; it may be located on the CPU or on a
separate chip or coprocessor with a high-speed alternative system bus interconnecting
the cache to the CPU, so as not to be slowed by traffic on the main system bus.

Level 3 (L3) cache is typically specialized memory that works to improve the
performance of L1 and L2. It can be significantly slower than L1 or L2, but is usually
double the speed of RAM. In the case of multi core processors, each core may have its own
dedicated L1 and L2 cache, but share a common L3 cache. When an instruction is
referenced in the L3 cache, it is typically elevated to a higher tier cache

Buffer Cache
• The buffer cache contains data buffers that are used by the block device drivers.
• These buffers are of fixed sizes (for example 512 bytes) and contain blocks of
information that have either been read from a block device or are being written to it.
A block device is one that can only be accessed by reading and writing fixed sized
blocks of data. All hard disks are block devices.
• The buffer cache is indexed via the device identifier and the desired block number and
is used to quickly find a block of data. Block devices are only ever accessed via the
buffer cache. If data can be found in the buffer cache, then it does not need to be read
from the physical block device, for example a hard disk, and access to it is much faster.

Page Cache
• This is used to speed up access to images and data on disk.
• It is used to cache the logical contents of a file a page at a time and is accessed via the
file and offset within the file. As pages are read into memory from disk, they are
cached in the page cache.

Swap Cache
• Only modified (or dirty) pages are saved in the swap file.
• So long as these pages are not modified after they have been written to the swap file
then the next time the page is swapped out there is no need to write it to the swap file
as the page is already in the swap file. Instead, the page can simply be discarded. In a
heavily swapping system this saves many unnecessary and costly disk operations.

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Hardware Caches
• One commonly implemented hardware cache is in the processor; a cache of Page
Table Entries. In this case, the processor does not always read the page table directly
but instead caches translations for pages as it needs them. These are the Translation
Look-aside Buffers and contain cached copies of the page table entries from one or
more processes in the system.
• When the reference to the virtual address is made, the processor will attempt to find a
matching TLB entry. If it finds one, it can directly translate the virtual address into a
physical one and perform the correct operation on the data. If the processor cannot
find a matching TLB entry then it must get the operating system to help. It does this
by signaling the operating system that a TLB miss has occurred. A system specific
mechanism is used to deliver that exception to the operating system code that can fix
things up. The operating system generates a new TLB entry for the address mapping.
When the exception has been cleared, the processor will make another attempt to
translate the virtual address. This time it will work because there is now a valid entry
in the TLB for that address.

The drawback of using caches, hardware or otherwise, is that in order to save

effort Linux must use more time and space maintaining these caches and, if the caches
become corrupted, the system will crash

Primary Memory
• It is the main memory of computer and also knows as RAM. It a volatile memory.
• OS’s data and our important data will be stored in this memory.
• We can also say that waiting queue data will be stored in primary memory and ready
queue data will be stored in cache memory.
• The speed of primary memory is less compared to cache memory.

Secondary Memory
• Secondary memory, also known as secondary storage, is the slower and cheaper form
of memory.
• CPU does not access the secondary memory directly. The content in it must first be
copied into the primary storage RAM for CPU to process.
• Secondary memory devices include hard drives, floppy disks, CDs, Pen drive, etc.

Fragmentation
Fragmentation is an unwanted problem in the operating system in which the
processes are loaded and unloaded from memory, and free memory space is fragmented.
Processes can't be assigned to memory blocks due to their small size, and the memory
blocks stay unused.
Contiguous memory allocation allocates space to processes whenever the
processes enter RAM. These RAM spaces are divided either by fixed partitioning or by
dynamic partitioning. As the process is loaded and unloaded from memory, these areas
are fragmented into small pieces of memory that cannot be allocated to coming
processes.

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What is Fragmentation?
Fragmentation is an unwanted problem in the operating system in which the
processes are loaded and unloaded from memory, and free memory space is fragmented.
Processes can't be assigned to memory blocks due to their small size, and the memory
blocks stay unused. It is also necessary to understand that as programs are loaded and
deleted from memory, they generate free space or a hole in the memory. These small
blocks cannot be allotted to new arriving processes, resulting in inefficient memory use.
The conditions of fragmentation depend on the memory allocation system. As the
process is loaded and unloaded from memory, these areas are fragmented into small
pieces of memory that cannot be allocated to incoming processes. It is called
fragmentation.
Causes
User processes are loaded and unloaded from the main memory, and processes
are kept in memory blocks in the main memory. Many spaces remain after process
loading and swapping that another process cannot load due to their size. Main memory is
available, but its space is insufficient to load another process because of the dynamical
allocation of main memory processes.
Types of Fragmentation
There are mainly two types of fragmentation in the operating
system. These are as follows:

1. Internal Fragmentation:
Internal fragmentation happens when the memory is split into
mounted-sized blocks. Whenever a method is requested for the memory,
the mounted-sized block is allotted to the method. In the case where the
memory allotted to the method is somewhat larger than the memory
requested, then the difference between allotted and requested memory is
called internal fragmentation. We fixed the sizes of the memory blocks,
which has caused this issue. If we use dynamic partitioning to allot space
to the process, this issue can be solved.
The above diagram clearly shows the internal fragmentation
because the difference between memory allocated and required space or
memory is called Internal fragmentation.
2. External Fragmentation:
External fragmentation happens when there’s a
sufficient quantity of area within the memory to satisfy the
memory request of a method. However, the process’s
memory request cannot be fulfilled because the memory
offered is in a non-contiguous manner. Whether you apply a
first-fit or best-fit memory allocation strategy it’ll
cause external fragmentation.
In the above diagram, we can see that, there is
enough space (55 KB) to run a process-07 (required 50 KB)
but the memory (fragment) is not contiguous. Here, we use
compaction, paging, or segmentation to use the free space
to run a process.

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NO Internal fragmentation External fragmentation

1. In internal fragmentation fixed-sized In external fragmentation, variable-sized
memory, blocks square measure memory blocks square measure
appointed to process. appointed to the method.
2. Internal fragmentation happens when External fragmentation happens when the
the method or process is smaller than method or process is removed.
the memory.
3. The solution of internal fragmentation The solution to external fragmentation is
is the best-fit block. compaction and paging.
4. Internal fragmentation occurs when External fragmentation occurs when
memory is divided into fixed-sized memory is divided into variable size
partitions. partitions based on the size of processes.
5. The difference between memory The unused spaces formed between non-
allocated and required space or contiguous memory fragments are too
memory is called Internal small to serve a new process, which is
fragmentation. called External fragmentation.
6. Internal fragmentation occurs with External fragmentation occurs with
paging and fixed partitioning. segmentation and dynamic partitioning.
7. It occurs on the allocation of a process It occurs on the allocation of a process to
to a partition greater than the process’s a partition greater which is exactly the
requirement. The leftover space causes same memory space as it is required.
degradation system performance.
8. It occurs in worst fit memory allocation It occurs in best fit and first fit memory
method. allocation method.

Type of Memory Allocation

Contiguous memory allocation

• Contiguous memory allocation is one of the oldest memory allocation schemes.
• When a process needs to execute, memory is requested by the process. The size of the
process is compared with the amount of contiguous main memory available to
execute the process.
• If sufficient contiguous memory is found, the process is allocated memory to start its
execution. Otherwise,
• It is added to a queue of waiting processes until sufficient free contiguous memory is
available.

Memory Protection (Memory Mapping and Protection)

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The system shown in below Figure allows protection against user programs
accessing areas that they should not, allows programs to be relocated to different
memory starting addresses as needed, and allows the memory space devoted to the OS to
grow or shrink dynamically as needs change.

Memory Allocation
One method of allocating contiguous memory is to divide all available memory
into equal sized partitions, and to assign each process to their own partition. This
restricts both the number of simultaneous processes and the maximum size of each
process, and is no longer used.
An alternate approach is to keep a list of unused (free) memory blocks (holes),
and to find a hole of a suitable size whenever a process needs to be loaded into memory.
There are many different strategies for finding the "best" allocation of memory to
processes, including the three most commonly discussed:

• First fit - Search the list of holes until one is found that is big enough to satisfy the
request, and assign a portion of that hole to that process. Whatever fraction of the
hole not needed by the request is left on the free list as a smaller hole. Subsequent
requests may start looking either from the beginning of the list or from the point at
which this search ended.
Advantage : - Fastest algorithm because it searches as little as possible.
Disadvantage: The remaining unused memory areas left after allocation
become waste if it is too smaller. Thus, request for larger memory requirement
cannot be accomplished.

• Best fit - Allocate the smallest hole that is big enough to satisfy the request. This saves
large holes for other process requests that may need them later, but the resulting
unused portions of holes may be too small to be of any use, and will therefore be
wasted. Keeping the free list sorted can speed up the process of finding the right hole.
Advantage
Memory utilization is much better than first fit as it searches the smallest free
partition first available.
Disadvantage
It is slower and may even tend to fill up memory with tiny useless holes.

• Worst fit - Allocate the largest hole available, thereby increasing the likelihood that
the remaining portion will be usable for satisfying future requests.
Simulations show that either first or best fit are better than worst fit in terms
of both time and storage utilization. First and best fits are about equal in terms of
storage utilization, but first fit is faster.
Advantage
Reduces the rate of production of small gaps.
Disadvantage
If a process requiring larger memory arrives at a later stage, then it cannot be
accommodated as the largest hole is already split and occupied.

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Non-Contiguous memory allocation

• When a process needs to execute, memory is requested by the process.
• The size of the process is compared to the total main memory available to execute
the process.
• If sufficient total memory is found (random or in sequence), the process is
allocated memory to start its execution. Otherwise
• It is added to a queue of waiting processes until sufficient free memory is
available.

Paging

A computer can address more memory than the amount physically installed on
the system. This extra memory is actually called virtual memory and it is a section of a
hard that's set up to emulate the computer's RAM. Paging technique plays an important
role in implementing virtual memory.

Paging is a memory management technique in which process address space is

broken into blocks of the same size called pages (size is power of 2, between 512 bytes
and 8192 bytes). The size of the process is measured in the number of pages.

Similarly, main memory is divided into small fixed-sized blocks of (physical)

memory called frames and the size of a frame is kept the same as that of a page to have
Optimum utilization of the main memory and to avoid external fragmentation.
Address Translation
Page address is called logical address and represented by page number and
the offset.
Logical Address = Page number + page offset

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Frame address is called physical address and represented by a frame number and
the offset.
Physical Address = Frame number + page offset
A page map table is used to keep track of the relation between a page of a process
to a frame in physical memory.

When the system allocates a frame to any page, it translates this logical address
into a physical address and creates entry into the page table to be used throughout
execution of the program.
When a process is to be executed, its corresponding pages are loaded into any
available memory frames. Suppose you have a program of 8Kb but your memory can
accommodate only 5Kb at a given point in time, then the paging concept will come into
picture. When a computer runs out of RAM, the operating system (OS) will move idle or
unwanted pages of memory to secondary memory to free up RAM for other processes
and brings them back when needed by the program.
This process continues during the whole execution of the program where the OS
keeps removing idle pages from the main memory and write them onto the secondary
memory and bring them back when required by the program.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Paging
• Paging reduces external fragmentation, but still suffers from internal fragmentation.
• Paging is simple to implement and assumed as an efficient memory management
technique.
• Due to equal size of the pages and frames, swapping becomes very easy.
• Page table requires extra memory space, so may not be good for a system having
small RAM.
Demand Paging
A demand paging system is quite similar to a
paging system with swapping where processes reside
in secondary memory and pages are loaded only on
demand, not in advance. When a context switch
occurs, the operating system does not copy any of the
old program’s pages out to the disk or any of the new
program’s pages into the main memory Instead, it just
begins executing the new program after loading the
first page and fetches that program’s pages as they
are referenced.

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While executing a program, if the program references a page which is not

available in the main memory because it was swapped out a little ago, the processor
treats this invalid memory reference as a page fault and transfers control from the
program to the operating system to demand the page back into the memory.
Advantages
• Large virtual memory.
• More efficient use of memory.
• There is no limit on degree of multiprogramming.
Disadvantages
• Number of tables and the amount of processor overhead for handling page interrupts
are greater than in the case of the simple paged management techniques.
Segmentation
Segmentation is a memory management technique in which each job is divided
into several segments of different sizes, one for each module that contains pieces that
perform related functions. Each segment is actually a different logical address space of
the program.
When a process is to be executed, its corresponding segmentation is loaded into
non-contiguous memory though every segment is loaded into a contiguous block of
available memory.
Segmentation memory management works very similar to paging but here
segments are of variable-length where as in paging pages are of fixed size.
A program segment contains the program's main function, utility functions, data
structures, and so on. The operating system maintains a segment map table for every
process and a list of free memory blocks along with segment numbers, their size and
corresponding memory locations in main memory. For each segment, the table stores
the starting address of the segment and the length of the segment. A reference to a
memory location includes a value that identifies a segment and an offset.

Segmentation without paging

Associated with each segment is information that indicates where the segment is
located in memory— the segment base. When a program references a memory location
the offset is added to the segment base to generate a physical memory address.
An implementation of virtual memory on a system using segmentation without
paging requires that entire segments be swapped back and forth between main memory
and secondary storage. When a segment is swapped in, the operating system has to
allocate enough contiguous free memory to hold the entire segment. Often memory
fragmentation results in there being not enough contiguous memory even though there
may be enough in total.

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Segmentation with paging

Instead of an actual memory location the segment information includes the
address of a page table for the segment. When a program references a memory location
the offset is translated to a memory address using the page table. A segment can be
extended simply by allocating another memory page and adding it to the segment's page
table.
An implementation of virtual memory on a system using segmentation with paging
usually only moves individual pages back and forth between main memory and
secondary storage, similar to a paged non-segmented system. Pages of the segment can
be located anywhere in main memory and need not be contiguous. This usually results in
a reduced amount of input/output between primary and secondary storage and reduced
memory fragmentation

Virtual Memory
A computer can address more memory than the amount physically installed on
the system. This extra memory is actually called virtual memory and it is a section of a
hard disk that's set up to emulate the computer's RAM.
The main visible advantage of this scheme is that programs can be larger than
physical memory. Virtual memory serves two purposes. First, it allows us to extend the
use of physical memory by using disk. Second, it allows us to have memory protection,
because each virtual address is translated to a physical address.
Following are the situations, when entire program is not required to be loaded fully
in main memory.
• User written error handling routines are used only when an error occurred in the
data or computation.
• Certain options and features of a program may be used rarely.
• Many tables are assigned a fixed amount of address space even though only a
small amount of the table is actually used.
• The ability to execute a program that is only partially in memory would counter
many benefits.
• Less number of I/O would be needed to load or swap each user program into
memory.
• A program would no longer be constrained by the amount of physical memory
that is available.
• Each user program could take less physical memory, more programs could be run
the same time, with a corresponding increase in CPU utilization and throughput.

Modern microprocessors intended for

general- purpose use, a memory management
unit, or MMU, is built into the hardware. The
MMU's job is to translate virtual addresses into
physical addresses.

Virtual memory is commonly implemented

by demand paging. It can also be implemented in

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a segmentation system. Demand segmentation can also be used to provide virtual

memory.

Virtual Memory with Paging

A paging system is same as swapping where processes reside in secondary
memory and pages are loaded only on demand, not in advance. When a context switch
occurs, the operating system does not copy any of the old program’s pages out to the
disk or any of the new program’s pages into the main memory Instead, it just begins
executing the new program after loading the first page and fetches that program’s pages
as they are referenced.
While executing a program, if the program references a page which is not
available in the main memory because it was swapped out a little ago, the processor
treats this invalid memory reference as a page fault and transfers control from the
program to the operating system to demand the page back into the memory.

Advantages
• Large virtual memory.
• More efficient use of memory.
• There is no limit on degree of multiprogramming.
Disadvantages
• Number of tables and the amount of processor overhead for handling page
interrupts are greater than in the case of the simple paged management
techniques.

Virtual Memory with Segmentation

Another type of virtual memory is the segmented memory. With this kind of
virtual memory, programs are built based on segments, which are defined by a
programmer or a compiler. Segments have their own identifiers, determined length and
independent address spaces. Segments contain sequences of data or instructions written
under consecutive addresses. Segments have determined owners and access rights from
the side of other users. In this respect, segments can be "private" for a given user or
shared, i.e., available for accessing by other users. Segment parameters can be changed
during program execution, to set dynamically the segment length and the rules for
mutual access by many users. Segments are placed in a common virtual address space
defined by their names and lengths. They can reside in the main memory or in the
auxiliary store - usually disk memory. Segments requested by currently executed
programs are automatically fetched to the main memory by the segmented memory
control mechanism, which is implemented by the operating system.

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Segmentation is the way to increase the address space of user programs but also a
mechanism for conscious structured program organization with determined access
rights and segment protection in a system used by many users.
Examples of different segments in a program

Virtual address in segmentation is composed of two fields: a segment number and

word (byte) displacement (offset) in the segment. Each segment has a descriptor stored
in the segment table. In a descriptor, the parameters of a segment are determined such as
control bits, segment address, segment length, protection bits. The control bits usually
contain: the presence in the main memory bit, a segment type code, allowed access type
code (read, write, and execution), size extension control. The protection bits contain the
privilege code of the segment in the general data protection system. On each try to access
a segment contents, the accessing program privilege level is compared to the privilege
level of the segment and the access rules are checked. If the access rules are not fulfilled,
access to the segment is blocked and the exception "segment access rules violation" is
generated.
Segmented virtual address translation is performed by reading the segment
descriptor from the segment table stored in the main memory. The descriptor determines
if the segment resides in the main memory. If so, the physical data address is calculated
by adding the offset given the virtual address to the base segment address read from the
segment descriptor. Before that, the system checks if the given displacement does not
overcome the segment length given in the descriptor. If it overcomes the segment length,
the "segment length violation" exception is generated and program execution is broken. If
the requested segment is out the main memory, the "missing segment" exception is
generated. This exception is processed by the operating system which brings the
requested segment from the auxiliary memory, updates the segment descriptor and
activates the interrupted program. The scheme of virtual address translation with
segmentat
ion is
shown in
the figure
below.

Virtual address translation scheme with segmentation

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(Computer Science Department)

Paging Segmentation
A page is a contiguous range of memory A segment is an independent address space.
addresses which is mapped to physical Each segment has addresses in a range from 0
memory. to maximum value.
It has only one linear address space. It has many address spaces.
Programmer does not know that it is Programmer knows that it is implemented.
implemented
Procedures and data cannot be separated Procedures and data can be separated
Procedures cannot be shared between users Procedures can be shared between users
Procedures and data cannot be protected Procedures and data can be protected
separately separately
Compilation cannot be done separately Compilation can be done separately
A page is a physical unit A segment is a logical unit
A page is of fixed size A segment is of arbitrary size.

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UNIT – 3
Getting Started With UNIX

UNIX Architecture:
The main concept that unites all versions of UNIX is the following four basics:
➢ Kernel: The kernel is the heart of the operating
system. It interacts with hardware and most of the
tasks like memory management, tash scheduling
and file management.
➢ Shell: The shell is the utility that processes your
requests. When you type in a command at your
terminal, the shell interprets the command and
calls the program that you want. The shell uses
standard syntax for all commands. C Shell, Bourne
Shell and Korn Shell are most famous shells which
are available with most of the UNIX variants.
➢ Commands and Utilities: There are various
command and utilities which you would use in
your day-to-day activities. cp, mv, cat and grep
etc. are few examples of commands and utilities. There are over 250 standard
commands plus numerous others provided through 3rd party software. All the
commands come along with various optional options.
➢ Files and Directories: All data in UNIX is organized into files. All files are organized
into directories. These directories are organized into a tree-like structure called the
file system.

UNIX Features
➢ Multiuser
• The main part of Unix install in the host(server) computer which is known as
server
• The number of terminals connected to the host machine
• The number of terminal is depended upon number of ports available on the
controller part.
• The terminal can be of different type which are as follow
Dumb terminal
o The terminal consist of input device and with output device having no
memory or hard disk off is or on
o For example:-ATM machine
Online terminal
o A computer having its own input-output device with a hard disk, processer and
ram are known as online terminal
o Same as the dumb terminal a request will be same to the host machine and will
receive output from it
o Special software is installed on the user computer to make pc work like a dumb
terminal is known as terminal evaluation

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o Vtarm and xtalk are the two popular software which are used to connect the
host machine
Dial up terminal
o This terminal will use a telephone line to connect with the host machine
o Modem is a require on the terminal side as well as host side to make a
communication channel
➢ Multitasking
• It is the main important feature of a Unix operating system. which is capable of
carrying more than one task at a time
• It will allow to user to write down a program while a same another program is
begging executed
➢ Communication
• Unix has expellant provirus of the communication with each & every user
• A communication may be done between two computers or more than two
computers in the network
• The user can easily share date, program, message etc through network
➢ Security
• The Unix allow to share data between the user but has three inherited provision
• The 1st is user name & password for login
• It provides three basic permission (read, write, executed). Which will define
(decide) who can access a particular file, who can modify a file and who can
execute the program
• The 3rd provision is the file encryption which will encode the file in to the
unreadable format. So that no one can understand the information even they
access it
• The above three provision will be implemented(to be consider) for each & every
file of the Unix system and of user
➢ Portability
• One of the main reasons of the universal popularity of UNIX system is that it can be
ported to the all most any computer system.

Types of Shell
Bourne shell
Bourne shell was developed by Stephen Bourne at AT & T bell labs and first
released in 1977 in the version 7 UNIX distributed to college and universities. It was used
in earlier versions of UNIX. It is the most primitive shell, its later version called Bash Shell
is having extended feature than the Bourne Shell.
The Bourne shell or sh was the default UNIX Shell of UNIX version 7 and replaced
the original UNIX Shell. Bourne Shell introduced the feature of using file descriptor 2 for
error message and keeping error message separate from data.
Features of Bourne Shell include file name expression using meta – character,
command substitution, pipes, positional parameter , built in shell command and shell
variables. It works as a command interpreter as well as programming language. Other
shells like Korn shell and bash shell have the backward compatibility with the Bourne
Shell. All the script which is written in Bourne Shell could be executed in these Shells as
well. Bourne shell is known as the UNIVESAL Shell. Currently the Linux system uses the
bash as a direct descendent of Bourne Shell.

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C Shell
C Shell was developed by William Joy at University of California, Berkeley, it can be
used to interpret user command and also as a programming language to create shell
script.
There are three standard streams supported by C Shell, standard input, standard
error, they are connected to the terminal. It supports other features like redirected,
command substituted, pipes and job control.
C Shell allows you to store values into variables. These variables are broadly
classified as user defined variables and pre defined variables. The pre defined variables
include the shell variables and environmental variables
C Shell executes any commands in six sequence steps.
1. It parses the command into word
2. It looks for the variable names starting with $ sign.
3. It looks for the command substituted using back quotes.
4. It checks the command for the redirected files and verifies the files.
5. If wildcard characters are found, shell replaces it with the original file names.
6. In the last step, it uses the PATH variable to locate the directory containing the
actual command.
Korn Shell
The Korn Shell was developed by David G. Korn at AT & T Bell Laboratories. The
major advantages of ksh over other shell are: it allows users to use vi or emacs- style
editing commands on your command lines. It provides the functionally of several UNIX
command, including test, expr , echo and patten matching , which are integrated into the
shell itself. Utilities like grep and awk have been added to the standard set of the filename
wildcards and to the shell variables facility. Advanced I/O features, including in the Korn
shell. New optional and variables that give different ways to customize the environment
are also included. Efforts are made to increase the speed of shell code executed.
Korn Shell allows the use of function in the script; this function can be placed in
the file. It also provides the extensive command history capability consisting of various
combinations of command, environmental variables and files. The command can be
recalled and re - executed without typing, It again. It also uses the same steps to execute
the command as in the C Shell.

File Structure of UNIX

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/bin Contains the executable programs that are part of the Linux operating
system. Many Linux commands such as cat, cp, ls, more, and tar are
located in /bin.
Example ls, cat, cp.
/dev All the devices like input devices, sound card, modems are stored. It is a
virtual directory that contains devices files.
Example : /dev/udp, /dev/urandom, /dev/sda1
/etc Contains config folder of entire operating system. All the global setting
like ssh, telnet, and smtp/pop3 mail servers. Also contains system’s
password file like group lists, user skeletons, and cron jobs.
Example: /etc/[Link], /etc/[Link]
/home Default directory for users to store the personal files.
Example /home/saugat, /home/sachit
/sbin contains binary executables typtically used by system admnistrator only
available to root. Mostly used for system maintenance purpose
Commands such as mount, shutdown, umount, reside here
Example: /sbin/halt/ /sbin/ip6tables
/usr contains shareable and read only data contains binaries, libraries,
documentation and source code for second level program
/usr/bin Contains executable files for many Linux commands. It is not part of the
core Linux operating system.
/usr/include Contains header files for C and C++ programming languages
/usr/lib Contains libraries for C and C++ programming languages.
/usr/local Contains local files. It has a similar directories as /usr contains.
/usr/sbin Contains administrative commands
/usr/share Contains files that are shared, like, default configuration files, images,
documentation, etc.
/usr/src Contains the source code for the Linux kernel.
/var Includes user specific files such as mail message, database of installed
programs, log files etc.
/var/cache Storage area for cached data for applications.
/var/lib Contains information related to the current state of applications.
Programs modify this when they run.
/var/lock Contains lock files which are checked by applications so that a resource
can be used by one application only.
/var/log Contains log files for different applications.
/var/mail Contains users emails
/var/opt Contains variable data for packages stored in /opt directory.
/var/run Contains data describing the system since it was booted.
/var/spool Contains data that is waiting for some kind of processing.
/var/tmp Contains temporary files preserved between system reboots
/tmp All the temporary files are store here. The files under this directory are
deleted when system is rebooted.
For example: when new program is installed it use /tmp/ to put files
during installation that won’t be needed after the program is installed.
/mnt Default location for mouting devices like cdrooms, floppy disk dries, USB

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memory sticks etc.

Example : /mnt/cdroom
/proc contains information about system process virtual file system that
contains information about file system.
Example /proc/cpuinfo, /proc/swaps
/lib share libraries are stored(perl, python, C, etc.) /lib/ are also a kernel
modules
Example: [Link], [Link].5.7
/opt Config file for add on Application software are found here. Third party
application should be installed in this directory.
/root Home directory of system administrator.’root’. Root user has write
privilege under this directory
/boot Contains everything required for boot process. Stores data that is used
before the kernel begins executing user-mode program.
Example: /boot/boot.b, /boot/chain.b, /boot/config-kernel-version
Types of Files
By default UNIX have only 3 types of files. They are
1. Regular files
2. Directory files
3. Special Files (This category is having 5 sub types in it.)
So in practical we have total 7 types (1+1+5) of files in Linux/Unix. And in Solaris we
have 8 types. And you can see the file type indication at leftmost part of “ls -l” command.
Here are those files type.
1. Regular File (-)
2. Directory Files(d)
3. Special or Device Files
a) Block file (b)
b) Character device file (c)
c) Named pipe file or just a pipe file (p)
d) Symbolic link file (l)
e) Socket file (s)

For your information there is one more file type called door File (D) which is
present in Sun Solaris as mention earlier. A door is a special file for inter-process
communication between a client and server (so total 8 types in UNIX machines). We will
learn about different types of files as below sequence for every file type.

Ordinary or Regular Files

A large majority of the files found on UNIX and Linux systems are ordinary files.
Ordinary files contain ASCII (human-readable) text, executable program, binaries
program data, and image file, Compress File and more.
Directories
A directory is a binary file used to track and locate other files and directories. The
binary format is used so that directories containing large numbers of filenames can be
search quickly.

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Device (Special)/ Block Files

Device or special files are used for device I/O on UNIX and Linux systems. They
appear in a file system just like an ordinary file or a directory.
On UNIX systems there are two flavors of special files for each device, character
special files and block special files. Linux systems only provide one special file for each
device.
When a character special file is used for device I/O, data is transferred one
character at a time. This type of access is called raw device access.
When a block special file is used for device I/O, data is transferred in large fixed-
size blocks. This type of access is called block device access.
Links
A link is a tool used for having multiple filenames that reference a single file on a
physical disk. They appear in a file system just like an ordinary file or a directory.
Like special files, links also come in two different flavors. There are hard links and
symbolic links.
Hard links do not actually link to the original file. Instead they maintain their own
copy of the original file's attributes (i.e. location on disk, file access permissions, etc.). If
the original file is deleted, its data can still be accessed using the hard link.
On the other hand, symbolic links contain a pointer, or pathname, to the original
file. If the original file is deleted, its data can no longer be accessed using the symbolic
link, and the link is then considered to be a stale link.
Named Pipes
Named pipes are tools that allow two or more system processes to communicate
with each other using a file that acts as a pipe between them. This type of communication
is known as inter process communication or IPC for short.
Sockets
Sockets are also tools used for inter process communication. The difference
between sockets and pipes is that sockets will facilitate communication between
processes running on different systems, or over the network.
With so many different types of files, it's often wise to identify a file's type before
performing any operation with it. The ls -l command and the file command are useful for
determining file types.
Consider the long listing of the livefirelabs1 file:
-rw-rw-r-- 1 student1 student1 0 Jun 27 18:55 livefirelabs1
The first character of the first field indicates the file type. In this example, the first
character is a - (hyphen) indicating that livefirelabs1 is an ordinary or regular file.
Consider the long listing of the live1 file:
rwxrwxrwx 1 student1 student1 13 Jun 27 17:57 live1 -> livefirelabs1
The first character of the first field is the letter l indicating live1 is a symbolic link.
The following is a table listing what characters represent what types of files:
Ordinary or Regular File
d - Directory
c - Character special file
b - Block special file
l - Symbolic link
p - Named pipe
s - Socket

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The file command is also helpful for determining file types. The syntax for this
command is: $ file filename.
File Type First Description
Character in
File Listing
Regular file - Normal files such as text, data, or executable files
Directory d Files that are lists of other files
Link l A shortcut that points to the location of the actual file
Special file c Mechanism used for input and output, such as files in /dev
Socket s A special file that provides inter-process networking
protected by the file system’s access control
Pipe P A special file that allows processes to communicate with
each other without using network socket semantics

File and Directory Permissions

there are already a lot of good security features built into Linux-based systems,
one very important potential vulnerability can exist when local access is granted - - that is
file permission-based issues resulting from a user not assigning the correct permissions
to files and directories. So based upon the need for proper permissions, I will go over the
ways to assign permissions and show you some examples where modification may be
necessary.

Basic File Permissions

Permission Groups
Each file and directory has three user based permission groups:
Type Description
Owner The Owner permissions apply only the owner of the file or directory; they will not
impact the actions of other users.
Group The Group permissions apply only to the group that has been assigned to the file
or directory; they will not affect the actions of other users.
all The All Users permissions apply to all other users on the system; this is the
users permission group that you want to watch the most.

Permission Types
Type Description
Read The Read permission refers to a user's capability to read the contents of the file.
Write The Write permissions refer to a user's capability to write or modify a file or
directory.
Execute The Execute permission affects a user's capability to execute a file or view the
contents of a directory.

Viewing the Permissions

You can view the permissions by checking the file or directory permissions in your
favorite GUI File Manager (which I will not cover here) or by reviewing the output of
the \"ls -l\" command while in the terminal and while working in the directory which
contains the file or folder.

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1. The '-' file type indicates that this is a regular file

2. User rights/Permissions
A. The first character that I marked with an underscore is the special permission
flag that can vary.
B. The following set of three characters (rwx) is for the owner permissions.
C. The second set of three characters (rwx) is for the Group permissions.
D. The third set of three characters (rwx) is for the All Users permissions.
3. Following that grouping since the integer/number displays the number of hard links
to the file.
4. The file is owned by user 'walbert' and group 'support'.

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UNIT – 3
UNIX Shell Command
Connecting Unix Shell
Telnet
Telnet is a protocol, which is used on internet or Local Area Networks (LAN) to
connect with UNIX remote machine. Lot of times when user needs to connect with the
remote UNIX terminal through network. Telnet utility is one of the important utility,
which is used to connect with remote machine and work on that machine remotely.
• TELNET command is used to communicate with another host with using TELNET
protocol.
• Just like the FTP command if telnet enters in to its command mode. The prompt of
telnet is
Syntax: telnet [host [port]]
$telnet [Link]
Options Description
-4 Force IPv4 address resolution.
-6 Force IPv6 address resolution.
-8 Request 8-bit operation. This causes an attempt to negotiate the TELNET
BINARY option for both input and output. By default telnet is not “8-bit
clean” (it does not recognize 8-bit character encodings such as Unicode).
-E Disables the escape character functionality; that is, sets the escape
character to “no character”.
-L Specifies an 8-bit data path on output. This causes the TELNET BINARY
option to be negotiated on just output.
-a Attempt automatic login. Currently, this sends the username via the
USER variable of the ENVIRON option if supported by the remote
system. The username is retrieved via the getlogin system call.
-b address Use bind on the local socket to bind it to a specific local address.
-d Sets the initial value of the debug toggle to TRUE.
-r Emulate rlogin. In this mode, the default escape character is a tilde. Also,
the interpretation of the escape character is changed: an escape
character followed by a dot causes telnet to disconnect from the remote
host. A ^Z (Control-Z) instead of a dot suspends telnet, and
a ^] (Control-Close Bracket, the default telnet escape character)
generates a normal telnet prompt. These codes are accepted only at the
beginning of a line.
-S tos Sets the IP type-of-service (TOS) option for the telnet connection to the
value tos.
- Sets the escape character to escapechar. If no character is supplied, no
eescapechar escape character will be used. Entering the escape character while
connected causes telnet to drop to command mode.
-l user Specify user as the user to log in as on the remote system. By sending the
specified name as the USERenvironment variable, so it requires that the
remote system support the TELNET ENVIRON option. This option
implies the -a option, and may also be used with the open command.
-n tracefile Opens tracefile for recording trace information. See the set tracefile

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command below.
host Specifies a host to contact over the network.
port Specifies a port number or service name to contact. If not specified, the
telnet port (23) is used.
Login Command
1. Passwd
passwd command is used to change the password of system users. If the passwd
command is executed by non-root user then it will ask for the current password and then
set the new password of a user who invoked the command. When this command is
executed by super user (Administrator) or root then it can reset the password for any
user including root without knowing the current password.
Options DESCRIPTION
-a, --all This option can be used only with -S and causes show status for all users.
-d, --delete Delete a user's password (make it empty). This is a quick way to disable a
password for an account. It will set the named account passwordless.
-e, --expire Immediately expire an account's password. This in effect can force a user to
change his/her password at the user's next login.
-h, --help Display help message and exit.
-g, -- Do not print a header line.
noheadings
-h, --help Display help text and exit.
-i, --inactive This option is used to disable an account after the password has been expired
INACTIVE for a number of days. After a user account has had an expired password for
INACTIVE days, the user may no longer sign on to the account.
-k, --keep- Indicate password change should be performed only for expired
tokens authentication tokens (passwords). The user wishes to keep their non-expired
tokens as before.
-l, --lock Lock the password of the named account. This option disables a password by
changing it to a value which matches no possible encrypted value (it adds a '!'
at the beginning of the password).
Note that this does not disable the account. The user may still be able to login
using another authentication token (e.g. an SSH key). To disable the account,
administrators should use usermod --expiredate 1 (this set the account's
expire date to Jan 2, 1970).
Users with a locked password are not allowed to change their password.
-n, --mindays Set the minimum number of days between password changes to MIN_DAYS. A
MIN_DAYS value of zero for this field indicates that the user may change his/her
password at any time.
-q, --quiet Quiet mode.
-r, -- change password in REPOSITORY repository
repository
REPOSITORY
-R, --root Apply changes in the CHROOT_DIR directory and use the configuration files
CHROOT_DIR from the CHROOT_DIR directory.
-S, --status Display account status information. The status information consists of 7 fields.
The first field is the user's login name. The second field indicates if the user
account has a locked password (L), has no password (NP), or has a usable
password (P). The third field gives the date of the last password change. The
next four fields are the minimum age, maximum age, warning period, and
inactivity period for the password. These ages are expressed in days.

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-u, --unlock Unlock the password of the named account. This option re-enables a password
by changing the password back to its previous value (to the value before using
the -l option).
-w, -- Set the number of days of warning before a password change is required. The
warndays WARN_DAYS option is the number of days prior to the password expiring that
WARN_DAYS a user will be warned that his/her password is about to expire.
-x, --maxdays Set the maximum number of days a password remains valid. After MAX_DAYS,
MAX_DAYS the password is required to be changed.
$ passwd
output:
$ passwd
Changing password for ubuntu.
(current) UNIX password:
Enter new UNIX password:
Retype new UNIX password:
passwd: password updated successfully
2. LOGOUT
logout command allows you to programmatically logout from your session.
Causes the session manager to take the requested action immediately. Logging out
of UNIX may be achieved simply by typing logout, or <ctrl-D> or exit
$ logout
output:
no output on screen, current user session will be logged out.
Option Description
-a, --all same as -b -d --login -p -r -t -T -u
-b, --boot time of last system boot
-d, --dead print dead processes
-H, --heading print line of column headings
-l, --login print system login processes
--lookup attempt to cannibalize hostnames via DNS
-m only hostname and user associated with stdin
-p, --process print active processes spawned by init
-q, --count all login names and number of users logged on
-r, --runlevel print current run level
-s, --short print only name, line, and time (default)
-t, --time print last system clock change
-T, -w, --mesg add user’s message status as +, - or ?
-u, --users list users logged in
--message same as –T
--writable same as -T
--help display this help and exit
--version output version information and exit
3. Who am i
Who am i prints the effective user ID. This command prints the username associated
with the current effective user ID. Running who am i is the same as running the id
command with the options -un.
Syntax: who am i [OPTION]

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Option Description
--help display this help and exit
--version output version information and exit
4. clear
clear is a standard Unix computer operating system command that is used to clear
the terminal screen. This command first looks for a terminal type in the environment and
after that, it figures out the terminfo database for how to clear the screen. And this
command will ignore any command-line parameters that may be present. Also,
the clear command doesn’t take any argument and it is almost similar to cls command on
a number of other operating systems.
Syntax:$ clear

[Link]
Uname stands for UNIX name. It is a utility to check the system information of your
Linux computer. The uname command is commonly used to check Linux kernel version,
kernel release details, and hardware architecture (32-bit or 64-bit). The information from
uname comes useful for troubleshooting (identifying potential mismatches), system
upgrades (knowing the current kernel version and architecture can be pivotal), and
scripting.
When used without any options, the uname command displays only the operating
system name. However, you can use various options to display specific system
information, such as -a for all information, -n for network node hostname, -r displays the
kernel release version, etc.
The basic syntax of the uname command: uname [option]
Where option indicates a specific type of system information you want to retrieve.
Note: The uname command does not require any special privileges. Any user on a Linux
or Unix-like system can run uname to obtain basic system information
The following table list some of the useful options of uname with its description.
Options Description
-a Display all available system information.
-n Display only the network node hostname.
-s Display the kernel name.
-r Display the Kernel release version.
-v Display the kernel version build information.
-m Display the hardware platform name of the system.
-p Display the processor type. (This option may not be supported on all platforms.)
-i Display the hardware platform. (This option might not be available on all
systems.)
-o Display the operating system name.

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File / Directory Related Commands

1. LS COMMAND
“ls” command is used to list directory contents.
Syntex: - ls [OPTION]… [FILE]..
• It is a command to list files in UNIX and Unix-like operating systems.
• It is specified by POSIX and the Single UNIX Specification.
• It is works same as DIR command of DOS operating System
• The command can display files and directory of working present directory or any
other directory.
• It is one of the most frequently used commands in UNIX.
• Various options are available to list directory and file which are as under

2. Cat Command
The cat command (short for “concatenate “) is one of the most frequently used
command in Linux/Unix.
• Cat command allows us to create single or multiple files, view contain of file,
concatenate files and redirect output in terminal or files.
• It is a standard UNIX program used to concatenate and display files.
• Cat command display file contents to a screen.
• Cat command concatenate FILE(s), or standard input, to standard output. With no
Options Description
Ls List Files using ls with no option
Ls –l Display All Information About Files/Directories
Ls –a View Hidden Files
Ls –lh List Files with Human Readable Format with option
Ls –F List Files and Directories with ‘/’ Character at the end
Ls –r List Files in Reverse Order
Ls –R Recursively list Sub-Directories
Ls-ltr Reverse Output Order
Ls – lS Sort Files by File Size
Ls – i Display Inode number of File or Directory
Ls –-version Shows version of ls command
Ls –help Show Help Page
Ls –l / tmp List Directory Information
Ls – n Display UID and GID of Files
Alias ls = ls command and its Aliases
“ls –l”
Unalias ls Remove ls command and its Aliases
ls – 1 Display One File Per Line

FILE, or when FILE is -,

• It reads standard input. Also, you can use cat command for quickly creating a file.
• The cat command can read and write data from standard input and output devices.
• It has three main functions related to manipulating text files: creating them,
displaying them, and combining them.

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The cat command is used for:

• Display text file on screen $ cat filename
• Create a new text file (>) $cat > filename
• Read text file
• Modifying file (>>) $ cat >> filename
• File concatenation
Options Description
-A, --show-all Equivalent to -vET.
-b, --number- Number non-empty output lines. This option overrides -n.
nonblank
-e Equivalent to -vE.
-E, --show-ends Display "$" at end of each line.
-n, --number Number all output lines.
-s, --squeeze-blank Suppress repeated empty output lines.
-t Equivalent to -vT.
-T, --show-tabs Display TAB characters as ^I.
-v, --show- Use ^ and M- notation, except for LFD and TAB.
nonprinting
--help Display a help message, and exit.
--version Output version information, and exit.
3. Cd Command
To change directory - change the current working directory to a specific Folder.
Syntax: cd [Options] [Directory]
If directory is given, changes the shell's working directory to directory. If not,
changes to HOME (shell variable). If the shell variable CDPATH exists, it is used as a
search path. If directory begins with a slash, CDPATH is not used. If directory is '-', this
will change to the previous directory location (equivalent to $OLDPWD). The return
status is zero if the directory is successfully changed, non-zero otherwise.
Options Description
-P Do not follow symbolic links
-L Follow symbolic links (default)
Options Description
cd directory_name This command is used to navigate to a directory with white spaces.
Instead of using double quotes we can use single quotes then also this
command will work.
cd / This command is used to change directory to the root directory, The
root directory is the first directory in your filesystem hierarchy.
cd This command is used to move inside a directory from a directory
dir_1/dir_2/dir_3
cd ~ / cd This command is used to change directory to the home directory.
cd .. This command is used to move to the parent directory of current
directory, or the directory one level up from the current directory. “..”
represents parent directory.

4. PWD command

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pwd‘ stands for ‘Print Working Directory‘. As the name states, command ‘pwd‘
prints the current working directory or simply the directory user is, at present. It prints
the current directory name with the complete path starting from root (/). This command
is built in shell command and is available on most of the shell – bash, Bourne shell,
ksh,zsh, etc.
Options Description
-L (logical) Use PWD from environment, even if it contains symbolic links
-P (physical) Avoid all symbolic links
–help Display this help and exit
–version Output version information and exit
If both ‘-L‘ and ‘-P‘ options are used, option ‘L‘ is taken into priority. If no option is
specified at the prompt, pwd will avoid all symlinks, i.e., take option ‘-P‘ into account.
Exit status of command pwd:
Options Description
0 Success
Non-zero Failure
5. MV Command
mv stands for move. mv is used to move one or more files or directories from one
place to another in file system like UNIX. It has two distinct functions:
• It rename a file or folder.
• It moves group of files to different directory.
No additional space is consumed on a disk during renaming. This command normally
works silently means no prompt for confirmation.
Syntax: mv [options] source dest
option description
-f force move by overwriting destination file without prompt
-i interactive prompt before overwrite
-u update - move when source is newer than destination
-v verbose - print source and destination files
man mv help manual
6. CP command
cp stands for copy. This command is used to copy files or group of files or
directory. It creates an exact image of a file on a disk with different file name. cp
command require at least two filenames in its arguments.
Syntax: cp [options]... Source Dest
cp [options]... Source... Directory

Options Description
-a same as -dpR
-b make backup before removal
-de preserve links
-f remove existing destinations, never prompt
-i prompt before overwrite
-l link files instead of copying
-p preserve file attributes if possible
-P append source path to DIRECTORY
-r copy recursively, non-directories as files

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--sparse=WHEN control creation of sparse files

-R copy directories recursively
-s make symbolic links instead of copying
-S override the usual backup suffix
-u copy only when the SOURCE file is newer than the destination file or
when the destination file is missing
-v explain what is being done
-V override the usual version control
-x stay on this file system
--help display this help and exit
--version Output version information and exit.

7. ln command
The ln command is used to create links between files. Before going into the
application of the ln command in detail, please refer the below link for a clear
understanding of the hard link and soft link in Linux.
Syntax:
ln [OPTION]... [-T] TARGET LINK_NAME (1st form)
ln [OPTION]... TARGET... DIRECTORY (2nd form)
ln [OPTION]... -t DIRECTORY TARGET... (3rd form)
Basically, ln command is used to create hard links and soft links for files in Linux.
Let’s discuss all the three forms one by one.
• 1st Form: This form is simple, the source file with destination link name you have to
specify:
• 2nd Form: Here, we have to give source file and directory as a link, simply the source
file will be copied to the directory which you specify. See the example below.
• 3rd Form: Here, we will specify the directory name and a file to be linked to the
directory. It is mostly same to 2nd form.

Options Description
-backup[=CONTROL] Use this option to additionally create a backup of each existing
destination file. The style of backup is optionally defined by the value
of CONTROL.
-b This functions like --backup, but you cannot specify the CONTROL; the
default style (simple) is used.
-d, -F, --directory This option allows the super user to attempt to hard link directories
(although it will probably fail due to system restrictions, even for the
superuser).
-f, --force If the destination file or files already exist, overwrite them.
-i, --interactive Prompt the user before overwriting destination files.
-L, --logical Dereference TARGETs that are symbolic links. In other words, if you
are trying to create a link (or a symlink) to a symlink, link to what it
links to, not to the symlink itself..
-n, --no-dereference Treat LINKNAME as a normal file if it is a symbolic link to a directory.
-P, --physical Make hard links directly to symbolic links, rather than dereferencing
them.
-r, --relative Create symbolic links relative to link location.
-s, --symbolic Make symbolic links instead of hard links.
-S, --suffix=SUFFIX Use the file suffix SUFFIX rather than the default suffix "~".
-t, --target- Specify the DIRECTORY in which to create the links.

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directory=DIRECTORY
-T, --no-target- Always treat LINKNAME as a normal file.
directory
-v, --verbose Operate verbosely; print the name of each linked file.
--help Display a help message, and exit.
--version Display version information, and exit.

8. rm command
rm command is used to remove objects such as files, directories, symbolic links
and so on from the file system like UNIX. To be more precise, rm removes references to
objects from the file system, where those objects might have had multiple references
By default, it does not remove directories.
This command normally works silently and you should be very careful while
running rm command because once you delete the files then you are not able to recover
the contents of files and directories.
Syntax: rm [OPTION]... FILE...
Options Description
-f, Ignore nonexistant files, and never prompt before removing.
--force
-i Prompt before every removal.
-I Prompt once before removing more than three files, or when removing
recursively. This option is less intrusive than -i, but still gives protection
against most mistakes.
--interactive[=WHEN] Prompt according to WHEN: never, once (-I), or always (-i). If WHEN is
not specified, then prompt always.
--one-file-system When removing a hierarchy recursively, skip any directory that is on a
file system different from that of the corresponding command line
argument
--no-preserve-root Do not treat "/" (the root directory) in any special way.
--preserve-root Do not remove "/" (the root directory), which is the default behavior.
-r, Remove directories and their contents recursively.
-R,
--recursive
-d,--dir Remove empty directories. This option permits you to remove a
directory without specifying -r/-R/--recursive, provided that the
directory is empty. In other words, rm -d is equivalent to using rmdir.
-v, --verbose Verbose mode; explain at all times what is being done.
--help Display a help message, and exit.
--version Display version information, and exit.
9. Rmdir
rmdir command is used remove empty directories from the filesystem in Linux.
The rmdir command removes each and every directory specified in the command line
only if these directories are empty. So if the specified directory has some directories or
files in it then this cannot be removed by rmdir command.
Syntax: rmdir [-p] [-v | --verbose] [--ignore-fail-on-non-empty] directory ...
Options Description
-p Each directory argument is treated as a pathname of which all components will
be removed, if they are empty, starting with the last component.
-v, Display verbose information for every directory processed.
--verbose

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--ignore- Do not report a failure which occurs solely because a directory is non-empty.
fail-on- Normally, when rmdir is instructed to remove a non-empty directory, it reports
non-empty an error. This option suppresses those error messages.
--help Display a help message, and exit.
--version Output version information and exit.

10. Mkdir
mkdir command in Linux allows the user to create directories (also referred to
as folders in some operating systems ). This command can create multiple directories
at once as well as set the permissions for the directories. It is important to note that
the user executing this command must have enough permissions to create a directory
in the parent directory, or he/she may recieve a ‘permission denied’ error.
Syntax: mkdir [options...] [directories ...]
Options Description
directory The name of the directory to be created. If the specified directory
does not already exist, mkdir creates it. More than one directory may be
specified.
A specified directory can include path information. For instance, if
the current directory is /home/hope, and you'd like to create the
directory /home/hope/Documents/writing, you can use the
command mkdir Documents/writing. If the Documents folder does not
already exist, you should specify the -p option to create it automatically,
otherwise the command will fail.
-m=mode, You can use the -m option to set a file mode (permissions, etc.) for the
--mode=mode created directories. The syntax of mode is the same as with
the chmod command.
-p, Create parent directories as necessary. When this option is specified,
--parents no error is reported if a directory already exists.
-v, Verbose output. Print a message for each created directory.
--verbose
-Z=context, If you are using SELinux, this option sets the security context of each
-- created directory to context. For detailed information about security
context=context contexts, consult your SELinux documentation.
--help Display a help message, and exit.
--version Display version information, and exit.
11. Chmod
The chmod command is used to change the access mode of a file. The name is an
abbreviation of change mode Throughout this section, user refers to the owner of the file, as
a reminder that the symbolic form of the command uses "u".
Syntax: chmod [options] mode[,mode] file1 [file2 ...]
Usual implemented options include:
-R Recursive, i.e. include objects in subdirectories.
-v verbose, show objects changed (unchanged objects are not shown).
-m mode, sets the file mode (chmod), not a r=rwx -umask.
If a symbolic link is specified, the target object is affected. File modes directly
associated with symbolic links themselves are typically not used. To view the file mode, the
ls or stat commands may be used:
$ ls -l [Link]
-rwxr-xr-- 1 dgerman staff 823 Dec 16 15:03 [Link]

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$ stat -c %a [Link]
754
The r, w, and x specify the read, write, and execute access. The first character of
the ls display denotes the object type; a hyphen represents a plain file. This script can be
read, written to, and executed by the user ; read and executed by members of the staff
group; and only read by any other users.
Octal modes
The main parts of the chmod permissions:
For example: drwxrwx---
The characters to the right of the "d" define permissions for each class:
• The three leftmost(first) characters, rwx, define permissions for the user class
• The middle three characters, rwx, define permissions for the Group class.
• The last three characters, ---, define permissions for the Others class.

In this example, users who are not the owner of the file and who are not members
of the Group (and, thus, are in the Others class) have no permission to access the file.
Numerical permissions
The chmod numerical format accepts up to four octal digits. The three rightmost
digits define permissions for the file user, the Group, and Others. The optional leading
digit, when 4 digits are given, specifies the special setuid, setgid, and sticky flags. Each
digit of the three rightmost digits represents a binary value, which controls the "read",
"write" and "execute" permissions respectively. A value of 1 means a class is allowed that
action, while a 0 means it is disallowed.
# Permission rwx Binary
7 read, write and execute rwx 111
6 read and write rw- 110
5 read and execute r-x 101
4 read only r-- 100
3 write and execute -wx 011
2 write only -w- 010
1 execute only --x 001
0 none --- 000
For example, 754 would allow:
• "read", "write", and "execute" for the user class, as the binary value of 7 is 111.
• "read" and "execute" for the Group class, as the binary value of 5 is 101.
• Only "read" for the Others class, as the binary value of 4 is 100.
Numeric example
Change permissions to permit members of the programmers group to update a file.
$ ls -l sharedFile
-rw-r--r-- 1 jsmith programmers 57 Jul 3 10:13 sharedFile
$ chmod 664 sharedFile
$ ls -l sharedFile
-rw-rw-r-- 1 jsmith programmers 57 Jul 3 10:13 sharedFile
Since the setuid, setgid and sticky bits are not specified, this is equivalent to:
$ chmod 0664 sharedFile
Symbolic modes[edit]

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The chmod command also accepts a finer-grained symbolic notation,which allows

modifying specific modes while leaving other modes untouched. The symbolic mode is
composed of three components, which are combined to form a single string of text:
$ chmod [references][operator][modes] file ...
Classes of users are used to distinguish to whom the permissions apply. If no
classes are specified “all” is implied. The classes are represented by one or more of the
following letters:
Reference Class Description
u user file owner
g group members of the file's group
o others users who are neither the file's owner nor members of the file's group
a all all three of the above, same as ugo
The chmod program uses an operator to specify how the modes of a file should be
adjusted. The following operators are accepted:
Operator Description
+ adds the specified modes to the specified classes
- removes the specified modes from the specified classes
= the modes specified are to be made the exact modes for the specified classes
The modes indicate which permissions are to be granted or removed from the
specified classes. There are three basic modes which correspond to the basic
permissions:
Mode Name Description
r read read a file or list a directory's contents
w write write to a file or directory
x execute execute a file or recurse a directory tree
X special which is not a permission in itself but rather can be used instead of x. It
execute applies execute permissions to directories regardless of their current
permissions and applies execute permissions to a file which already has at
least one execute permission bit already set (either User, Group' or Others).
It is only really useful when used with + and usually in combination with
the -R flag for giving Group or Others access to a big directory tree without
setting execute permission on normal files (such as text files), which would
normally happen if you just used chmod -R a+rx ., whereas with X you can
do chmod -R a+rX . instead
Multiple changes can be specified by separating multiple symbolic modes with
commas (without spaces). If a user is not specified, chmod will check the umask and the
effect will be as if "a" was specified except bits that are set in the umask are not affected.
Symbolic examples
Add write permission (w) to the Group's (g) access modes of a directory, allowing
users in the same group to add files:

$ ls -ld shared_dir # show access modes before chmod

drwxr-xr-x 2 teamleader usguys 96 Apr 8 12:53 shared_dir
$ chmod g+w shared_dir
$ ls -ld shared_dir # show access modes after chmod
drwxrwxr-x 2 teamleader usguys 96 Apr 8 12:53 shared_dir
Remove write permissions (w) for all classes (a), preventing anyone from writing
to the file:
$ ls -l ourBestReferenceFile

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-rw-rw-r-- 2 teamleader usguys 96 Apr 8 12:53 ourBestReferenceFile

$ chmod a-w ourBestReferenceFile
$ ls -l ourBestReferenceFile
-r--r--r-- 2 teamleader usguys 96 Apr 8 12:53 ourBestReferenceFile
Set the permissions for the user and the Group (ug) to read and execute (rx) only
(no write permission) on referenceLib, preventing anyone to add files.
$ ls -ld referenceLib
drwxr----- 2 teamleader usguys 96 Apr 8 12:53 referenceLib
$ chmod ug=rx referenceLib
$ ls -ld referenceLib
dr-xr-x--- 2 teamleader usguys 96 Apr 8 12:53 referenceLib
12. chown
The chown command is most commonly used by Unix/Linux system administrators
who need to fix a permissions problem with a file or directory, or many files and many
directories.
Syntax:
• chown [Options]... NewOwner File...
• chown [Options]... :Group File...
• chown [Options]... --reference=RFILE File...
if used, NewOwner specifies the new owner and/or group as follows(with no
embedded white space):
chown [OWNER] [ [:.] [GROUP] ]
Following are the examples of how the owner/group can be specified: If only an
OWNER (a user name or numeric user id) is given, that user is made the owner of each
given file, and the files' group is not changed.
chown OWNER
If the OWNER is followed by a colon or dot and a GROUP (a group name or
numeric group id), with no spaces between them, the group ownership of the files is
changed as well (to GROUP).
chown [Link]
chown OWNER:GROUP
If a colon or dot but no group name follows OWNER, that user is made the owner
of the files and the group of the files is changed to OWNER's login group.
chown OWNER.
chown OWNER:
If the colon or dot and following GROUP are given, but the owner is omitted, only
the group of the files is changed; in this case, 'chown' performs the same function as
'chgrp'.
chown .GROUP
chown :GROUP
OPTIONS
Tag Description
-c –changes Verbosely describe the action for each File whose ownership
actually changes.
--dereference Do not act on symbolic links themselves but rather on what they
point to.
-f –silent –quiet Do not print error messages about files whose ownership cannot
be changed.

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-h --no-dereference Act on symbolic links themselves instead of what they point to.
This is the default. This mode relies on the 'lchown' system call.
On systems that do not provide the 'lchown' system call, 'chown'
fails when a file specified on the command line is a symbolic link.
By default, no diagnostic is issued for symbolic links encountered
during a recursive traversal, but see '--verbose'.
--reference=FILE Use the user and group of the reference FILE instead of an
explicit NewOwner value.
-R –recursive Recursively change ownership of directories and their contents.
-v –verbose Verbosely describe the action (or non-action) taken for every
FILE. If a symbolic link is encountered during a recursive
traversal on a system without the 'lchown' system call, and '--no-
dereference' is in effect, then issue a diagnostic saying neither the
symbolic link nor its referent is being changed.
EXAMPLES
• Change the owner of file.
$ chown user1 [Link]
• Change the group of file.
$ chown :mygroup [Link]
• Change both the owner and group of file in single command.
$ chown user1:mygroup [Link]
Print
13. Find
find command in UNIX is a command line utility for walking a file hierarchy. It can be
used to find files and directories and perform subsequent operations on them. It supports
searching by file, folder, name, creation date, modification date, owner and permissions.
By using the ‘-exec’ other UNIX commands can be executed on files or folders found.
Syntax : $ find [where to start searching from] [expression determines what to find] [-
options] [what to find]
Option Description
-exec CMD: The file being searched which meets the above criteria and returns 0 for
as its exit status for successful command execution.
-ok CMD It works same as -exec except the user is prompted first.
-inum N Search for files with inode number ‘N’.
-links N Search for files with ‘N’ links.
-name Search for files that are specified by ‘demo’.
demo
-newer file Search for files that were modified/created after ‘file’.
-perm octal Search for the file if permission is ‘octal’.
-print Display the path name of the files found by using the rest of the criteria.
-empty Search for empty files and directories.
-size +N/-N Search for files of ‘N’ blocks; ‘N’ followed by ‘c’can be used to measure
: size in characters; ‘+N’ means size > ‘N’ blocks and ‘-N’ means size < 'N'
blocks.
-user name Search for files owned by user name or ID ‘name’.
\(expr \) True if ‘expr’ is true; used for grouping criteria combined with OR or
AND.

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! expr True if ‘expr’ is false.

14. More
• If the output of any file is not fitted on screen means not able to display in a single screen
then the output will be automatically scroll up to its last page
• At that time more command is very helpful to display the file in pausing mode.
• The information will be scrolled as per user direction, if the enter key is pressed a single
line will be scrolled, if the spacebar is pressed then a page will be scrolled
• The more command is having following options
-num Is to set number of lines for page
+num To start output for give number of line of file

15. head
The command is use to display a specified number of line from the starting of a file

16. tail
The command is used to display a specified number of line from the last line of the
file

17. wc
It is use to count words, lines and characters of file(s)

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There are three options available

-l To count number of lines
-c To count number of characters
-w To count number of words

18. Stat command

The stat is a command which gives information about the file and filesystem. Stat
command gives information such as the size of the file, access permissions and the user
ID and group ID, birth time access time of the file. Stat command has another feature, by
which it can also provide the file system information. This is the best tool to use when
we want the information of any file.
syntax: stat --options filenames
Stat can accept one or more filenames as an input to the stat command. Now let’s
see one example
stat /etc/[Link]
The information we get from stat
Following is the information we get about the file when we run the stat command.
• File: The name of the provided file. If the provided file is a symlink, then the name
will be different.
• Size: The size of a given file in Bytes.
• Blocks: Total number of allocated blocks to the file to store on the hard disk.
• IO Block: The size of every allocated block in bytes.
• File type: The file may be of the following types: Regular files, special files,
directories, or symbolic links.
• Device: Device number in hexadecimal format.

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• Inode: Inode number of the file.

• Links: Number of hard links of the file.
• Access: Access permissions in the numeric and symbolic methods.
• Context: The field stores SELinux security context.
• Access: The last time at which the file was accessed.
• Modify: The last time at which file was modified.
• Change: The last time the at which file’s attribute or content was changed.
• Birth: The time at which the file was created.

Options Description
-f, --filesystem display filesystem status instead of file status
-c, --format=FORMAT use the specified FORMAT instead of the default
-L, --dereference follow links
-Z, --context print the SELinux security context
-t, --terse print the information in terse form
--help display this help and exit
--version output version information and exit
The valid format sequences for files (without --filesystem):
%A Access rights in human readable form
%a Access rights in octal
%B The size in bytes of each block reported by '%b'
%b Number of blocks allocated (see %B)
%C SELinux security context string
%D Device number in hex
%d Device number in decimal
%F File type
%f Raw mode in hex
%G Group name of owner
%g Group ID of owner
%h Number of hard links
%i Inode number
%N Quoted File name with dereference if symbolic link
%n File name
%o IO block size
%s Total size, in bytes
%T Minor device type in hex
%t Major device type in hex
%U Username of owner
%u User ID of owner
%X Time of last access as seconds since Epoch
%x Time of last access
%Y Time of last modification as seconds since Epoch
%y Time of last modification
%Z Time of last change as seconds since Epoch
%z Time of last change

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Valid format sequences for file systems:

%a Free blocks available to non-superuser
%b Total data blocks in file system
%c Total file nodes in file system
%C SELinux security context string
%d Free file nodes in file system
%f Free blocks in file system
%i File System id in hex
%l Maximum length of file names
%n File name
%s Optimal transfer block size
%T Type in human readable form
%t Type in hex
Examples
stat [Link]
Reports the status of file [Link], displaying results similar to the following output:
File: `[Link]'
Size: 17137 Blocks: 40 IO Block: 8192 regular file
Device: 8h/8d Inode: 23161443 Links: 1
Access: (0644/-rw-r--r--)
Uid: (17433/comphope) Gid: ( 32/ www)
Access: 2007-04-03 09:20:18.000000000 -0600
Modify: 2007-04-01 23:13:05.000000000 -0600
Change: 2007-04-02
16:36:21.000000000 -0600
19. Alias
Depending on the type of work you do on your Linux system, you may need to
enter the same long and complicated commands frequently. The alias command lets you
create shortcuts for these commands, making them easier to remember and use.
an alias is a shortcut that references a command. An alias replaces a string that
invokes a command in the Linux shell with another user-defined string.
Aliases are mostly used to replace long commands, improving efficiency and
avoiding potential spelling errors. Aliases can also replace commands with additional
options, making them easier to use.
Linux Alias Syntax : alias [option] [name]='[value]'
The different elements of the alias command syntax are:
• alias: Invokes the alias command.
• [option]: Allows the command to list all current aliases.
• [name]: Defines the new shortcut that references a command. A name is a user-
defined string, excluding special characters and 'alias' and 'unalias', which cannot be
used as names.
• [value]: Specifies the command the alias references. Commands can also include
options, arguments, and variables. A value can also be a path to a script you want to
execute.
Creating Permanent Aliases in Linux
To keep aliases between sessions, you can save them in your user’s shell
configuration profile file. This can be:

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• Bash – ~/.bashrc
• ZSH – ~/.zshrc
• Fish – ~/.config/fish/[Link]
The syntax you should use is practically the same as creating a temporary alias. The
only difference comes from the fact that you will be saving it in a file this time. So for
example, in bash, you can open a .bashrc file with your favorite editor like this.
20. Type
The type command is used to describe how its argument would be translated if
used as commands. It is also used to find out whether it is built-in or external binary
file.
Syntax: type [Options] command names
Option Deception
–a display all locations containing an executable named NAME; includes aliases,
built-ins, and functions, if and only if the ‘-p’ option is not also used
-f suppress shell function lookup
-P force a PATH search for each NAME, even if it is an alias, built-in, or function,
and returns the name of the disk file that would be executed
-p returns either the name of the disk file that would be executed or nothing if
`type -t NAME’ would not return `file’.
-t output a single word which is one of `alias’, `keyword’, `function’, `built-in’, `file’
or `’, if NAME is an alias, shell reserved word, shell function, shell built-in, disk
file, or not found, respectively

Operators in Redirection & PIPING

What is Redirection?
Redirection is a feature in Linux such that when executing a command, you can
change the standard input/output devices. The basic workflow of any Linux command is
that it takes an input and gives an output.
• The standard input (stdin) device is the keyboard.
• The standard output (stdout) device is the screen.
With redirection, the above standard input/output can be changed.
Commands are entered at the keyboard and output
resulting from these commands is displayed on the computer
screen. Thus, input (by default) comes from the terminal and
the resulting output (stream) is displayed on (or directed to)
the monitor. Commands typically get their input from a source
referred to as standard input (stdin) and typically display their
output to a destination referred to as standard output (stdout)
as pictured below:

As depicted in the diagram above, input flows (by default) as

a stream of bytes from standard input along a channel, is then
manipulated (or generated) by the command, and command output
is then directed to the standard output. The ls command can then
be described as follows; there is really no input (other than the

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command itself) and the ls command produces output which flows to the destination of
stdout (the terminal screen), as below:
The notations of standard input and standard output are actually implemented in
Unix as files (as are most things) and referenced by integer file descriptors (or channel
descriptors). The file descriptor for standard input is 0 (zero) and the file descriptor for
standard output is 1. These are not seen in ordinary use since these are the default values.
Hear we will learn
• Output Redirection
• Input redirection
• File Descriptors (FD)
• Error Redirection
• Why Error Redirection?
1. Output Redirection
The '>' symbol is used for output (STDOUT) redirection.
Example: ls -al > listings
Here the output of command ls -al is re-directed
to file "listings" instead of your screen.

Use the correct file name while redirecting command output to a file. If there is an
existing file with the same name, the redirected command will delete the contents of that
file and then it may be overwritten."
If you do not want a file to be overwritten but want to add more content to an
existing file, then you should use '>>' operator.

You can redirect standard output, to not just files

2. Input redirection
The '<' symbol is used for input(STDIN) redirection
Example: The mail program in Linux can help you
send emails from the Terminal.
You can type the contents of the email using the standard device keyboard. But if
you want to attach a File to email you can use the input re-direction operator in the
following format.
Mail -s "Subject" to-address < Filename

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This would attach the file with the email, and it would be sent to the recipient. The
above examples were simple. Let's look at some advance re-direction techniques which
make use of File Descriptors.

3. File Descriptors (FD)

In Linux/Unix, everything is a file. Regular file, Directories, and even Devices are
files. Every File has an associated number called File Descriptor (FD).
Your screen also has a File Descriptor. When a program is executed the output is
sent to File Descriptor of the screen, and you see program output on your monitor. If the
output is sent to File Descriptor of the printer, the program output would have been
printed.

4. Error Redirection
Whenever you execute a program/command at
the terminal, 3 files are always open, viz., standard
input, standard output, standard error.
These files are always present whenever a
program is run. As explained before a file descriptor, is
associated with each of these files.

File File Descriptor

Standard Input STDIN 0
Standard Output STDOUT 1
Standard Error STDERR 2
By default, error stream is displayed on the screen. Error redirection is routing the
errors to a file other than the screen.
5. Why Error Redirection?
Error re-direction is one of the very popular features of Unix/Linux. Frequent
UNIX users will reckon that many commands give you massive amounts of errors.
• For instance, while searching for files, one typically gets permission denied
errors. These errors usually do not help the person searching for a particular
file.
• While executing shell scripts, you often do NOT want error messages cluttering
up the normal program output.
Redirection Operator Resulting Operation
Command 1 > file stdout written to file, overwriting if file exists
command 1 >> file stdout written to file, appending if file exists
command 1 < file input read from file
command 2 > file stderr written to file, overwriting if file exsits
command 2 >> file stderr written to file, appending if file exists
command > file 2>&1 stdout written to file, stderr written to same file descriptor

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Pipe Operator
What is a Pipe in Linux?
The Pipe is a command in Linux that lets you use two or more commands such that
output of one command serves as input to the next. In short, the output of each process
directly as input to the next one likes a pipeline. The symbol '|' denotes a pipe.
Pipes help you mash-up two or more commands at the same time and run them
consecutively. You can use powerful commands which can perform complex tasks in a
moment.

We can look at an example of pipes using the who and the wc commands. who
command will list each user logged into a machine and wc command counts characters,
words and lines. Thus if we connect the standard output from the who command to the
standard input of the wc (using the -l (ell) option), we can count the number of users on
the system:
$ who | wc -l
In the first part of this example, each of the four lines from the who command
will be "piped" into the wc command, where the -l (ell) option will enable the wc
command to count the number of lines.
While this example only uses two commands connected through a single pipe
operator, many commands can be connected via multiple pipe operators.

Advance Tools
Metacharacters
Metacharacters are a group of characters that have special meanings to the UNIX
operating system. Metacharacters can make many tasks easier by allowing you to redirect
information from one command to another or to a file, string multiple commands
together on one line, or have other effects on the commands they are issued in. The
following table lists some of the metacharacters for the Rutgers default shell (the T shell).
character Description
(space) UNIX interprets a space as a separator not as a character.
* A wild card character that matches any group of characters of any length, allowing
a user to specify a large group of items with a short string. For example, to specify
all the files that start with 'abc', you use abc*.
? A wild card character that matches any single character. Thus ls ??? lists files in the
current directory whose names are only three characters long, while ls ???.* lists
those files with a three letter main name and any extension.
[..] A set of characters that can be matched. Thus ls [a-c]*.??? lists all files that begin
with a, b, or c and have a three letter extension and lpr [ad]* prints all files that
begin with a or d.
$ Indicates that the following text is the name of a shell (environment) variable
whose value is to be used.
| Separates commands to form a pipe (see redirection in "Intermediate Use Of The
UNIX Operating System").
< Redirect the standard input (see redirection in "Intermediate Use Of The UNIX
Operating System").

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> Redirect the standard output (see redirection in "Intermediate Use Of The UNIX
Operating System") to replace current contents.
>> Redirect the standard output (see redirection in "Intermediate Use Of The UNIX
Operating System") to append to current contents.
>& Redirect the standard output and standard error (see redirection in "Intermediate
Use Of The UNIX Operating System") to replace current contents.
>>& Redirect the standard output an standard error (see redirection in "Intermediate
Use Of The UNIX Operating System") to append to current contents.
% Introduces a job name (see multitasking in "Intermediate Use Of The UNIX
Operating System").
& Place a process into the background (see multitasking in "Intermediate Use Of The
UNIX Operating System").
() Encloses a sequence of commands or pipes to be executed as a single command.
! Precedes a history substitution (see "man history")
; Separates sequences of commands (or pipes) that are on one line.
&& Separates two sequences of commands or pipes the second of which is executed
only if the first succeeds.
|| Separates two sequences of commands or pipes the second of which is executed
only if the first fails.
\ Used to "quote" the following metacharacter so it is treated as a plain character, as
in \*.

Finding pattern in Files

1. GREP
The name grep means "Global regular expression print", but you can think of
the grep command as a “search” command for Unix and Linux systems: It’s used to search
for text strings and regular expressions within one or more files.
Syntax: grep [options] pattern [files]
Options Description
-c This prints only a count of the lines that match a pattern
-h Display the matched lines, but do not display the filenames.
-i Ignores, case for matching
-l Displays list of a filenames only
-n Display the matched lines and their line numbers.
-v This prints out all the lines that do not matches the pattern
-e exp Specifies expression with this option. Can use multiple times
-f file Takes patterns from file, one per line.
-E Treats pattern as an extended regular expression (ERE)
-w Match whole word
-o Print only the matched parts of a matching line with each such part on a separate
output line

Example Output
$cat > [Link] unix is great os. unix is opensource. unix
unix is great os. unix is opensource. unix is free os. is free os.
learn operating system. Unix linux which one you choose.
Unix linux which one you choose. uNix is easy to [Link] is a multiuser
uNix is easy to [Link] is a multiuser [Link] [Link] unix .unix is a powerful.
unix .unix is a powerful.

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$grep -i "UNix" [Link]

2. FGREP
fgrep searches for fixed-character strings in a file or files. "Fixed-character" means
the string is interpreted literally meta characters do not exist, and therefore regular
expressions cannot be used.
fgrep is useful when you need to search for strings which contain lots of regular
expression meta characters, such as "$", "^", etc. By specifying that your search string
contains fixed characters, you don't need to escape each of them with a backslash.
If your string contains newlines, each line will be considered an individual fixed-
character string to be matched in the search.
Running fgrep is the same as running grep with the -F option.
Syntax: fgrep [options] [ -e pattern_list] [pattern] [file]

Option Description
-b Precede each line by the block number on which it was found. This can be
useful in locating block numbers by context (first block is 0).
-c Print only a count of the lines that contain the pattern.
-h Suppress printing of files when searching multiple files.
-i Ignore upper/lower case distinction during comparisons.
-l Print the names of files with matching lines once, separated by new-lines.
Does not repeat the names of files when the pattern is found more than
once.
-n Precede each line by its line number in the file (first line is 1).
-s Work silently, that is, display nothing except error messages. This is useful
for checking the error status.
-v Print all lines except those that contain the pattern.
-x Print only lines matched entirely.
-e Search for a string in pattern-list
pattern_list (useful when the string begins with a "-").
-f Take the list of patterns from pattern-file.
pattern-file
pattern Specify a pattern to be used during the search for input.
file A path name of a file to be searched for the patterns. If no file operands are
specified, the standard input will be used.
Return Value
This command returns the following exit values:
Item Description
0 A match was found.
1 No match was found.
>1 A syntax error was found or a file was inaccessible
(even if matches were found)

3. EGREP
The egrep command searches an input file (standard input by default) for lines
matching a pattern specified by the Patternparameter. These patterns are full regular
expressions as in the ed command (except for the \ (backslash) and \\ (double
backslash)). The following rules also apply to the egrep command:

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• A regular expression followed by a + (plus sign) matches one or more occurrences of

the regular expression.
• A regular expression followed by a?(question mark) matches zero or one occurrence
of the regular expression.
• Multiple regular expressions separated by a | (vertical bar) or by a new-line character
match strings that are matched by any of the regular expressions.
• A regular expression may be enclosed in ( ) (parentheses) for grouping.
The new-line character will not be matched by the regular expressions. The order
of precedence for operators is [, ], *, ?, +, concatenation, | and the new-line character.
Syntax: -egrep [options] PATTERN [FILE...]
Option Description
-b Precedes each line by the block number on which it was found. Use this flag to
help find disk block numbers by context. The -b flag cannot be used with input
from stdin or pipes.
-c Displays only a count of matching lines.
-e Pattern Specifies a Pattern. This works like a simple Pattern but is useful when
the Pattern begins with a - (minus sign).
-f StringFile Specifies a file that contains strings.
-h Suppresses file names when multiple files are being processed.
-i Ignores the case of letters when making comparisons.
-l Lists just the names of files (once) with matching lines. Each file name is
separated by a new-line character. If standard input is searched, a path name
of "(Standard Input)" is returned.
-n Precedes each line with its relative line number in the file.
-p Displays the entire paragraph containing matched lines. Paragraphs are
[Separator] delimited by paragraph separators, as specified by the Separator parameter,
which are patterns in the same form as the search pattern. Lines containing
the paragraph separators are used only as separators; they are never included
in the output. The default paragraph separator is a blank line.
-q Suppresses all output to standard output, regardless of matching lines. Exits
with a 0 status if an input line is selected.
-s Displays only error messages. This is useful for checking status.
-u Causes output to be unbuffered.
-v Displays all lines except those that match the specified pattern.
-w Does a word search.
-x Displays lines that match the specified pattern exactly with no additional
characters.
-y Ignores the case of letters when making comparisons.

Working With Columns and Files

1. CUT
The cut command in UNIX is a command for cutting out the sections from each
line of files and writing the result to standard output. It can be used to cut parts of a
line by byte position, character and field. Basically the cut command slices a line and
extracts the text. It is necessary to specify option with command otherwise it gives
error. If more than one file name is provided then data from each file is not
precedes by its file name.
Syntax: - cut OPTION... [FILE]...

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Option Description
-b, --bytes=LIST Select only the bytes from each line as specified in LIST. LIST
specifies a byte, a set of bytes, or a range of bytes;
-c, -- Select only the characters from each line as specified in LIST.
characters=LIST LIST specifies a character, a set of characters, or a range of
characters
-d, -- use character DELIM instead of a tab for the field delimiter.
delimiter=DELIM
-f, --fields=LIST Select only these fields on each line; also print any line that
contains no delimiter character, unless the -s option is specified.
LIST specifies a field, a set of fields, or a range of fields
-n This option is ignored, but is included for compatibility reasons.
--complement complement the set of selected bytes, characters or fields.
-s, --only- do not print lines not containing delimiters.
delimited
--output- use STRING as the output delimiter string. The default is to use
delimiter=STRING the input delimiter.
--help Display a help message and exit.
--version output version information and exit.

2. PASTE
Paste command is one of the useful commands in Unix or Linux operating system.
It is used to join files horizontally (parallel merging) by outputting lines consisting of
lines from each file specified, separated by tab as delimiter, to the standard output.
When no file is specified, or put dash (“-“) instead of file name, paste reads from
standard input and gives output as it is until a interrupt command [Ctrl-c] is given.
Syntax: paste [OPTION]... [FILES]...
Option Description
-d, --delimiters=LIST Reuse characters from LIST instead of tabs.
-s, --serial Paste one file at a time instead of in parallel.
--help Display a help message, and exit.
--version Display version information, and exit.

3. JOIN
The join command in UNIX is a command line utility for joining lines of two files on a
common field.
Suppose you have two files and there is a need to combine these two files in a way
that the output makes even more sense. For example, there could be a file containing
names and the other containing ID’s and the requirement is to combine both files in such
a way that the names and corresponding ID’s appear in the same line. Join command is
the tool for it. join command is used to join the two files based on a key field present in
both the files. The input file can be separated by white space or any delimiter.
Syntax: $join [OPTION] FILE1 FILE2
Option Description
-a FILENUM Also, print unpairable lines from file FILENUM, where FILENUM is 1 or 2,
corresponding to FILE1 or FILE2.

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-e EMPTY Replace missing input fields with EMPTY.

-i, --ignore- Ignore differences in case when comparing fields.
case
-j FIELD Equivalent to "-1 FIELD -2 FIELD".
-o FORMAT Obey FORMAT while constructing output line.
-t CHAR Use CHAR as input and output field separator.
-v FILENUM Like -a FILENUM, but suppress joined output lines.
-1 FIELD Join on this FIELD of file 1.
-2 FIELD Join on this FIELD of file 2.
--check-order Check that the input is correctly sorted, even if all input lines are pairable.
--nocheck- Do not check that the input is correctly sorted.
order
--header Treat the first line in each file as field headers, print them without trying to
pair them.
--help Display a help message and exit.
--version Display version information and exit.
Tools for Sorting
1. Sort
SORT command is used to sort a file, arranging the records in a particular order. By
default, the sort command sorts file assuming the contents are ASCII. Using options in
sort command, it can also be used to sort numerically.
1. SORT command sorts the contents of a text file, line by line.
2. SORT is a standard command line program that prints the lines of its input or
concatenation of all files listed in its argument list in sorted order.
3. The SORT command is a command line utility for sorting lines of text files. It
supports sorting alphabetically, in reverse order, by number, by month and can
also remove duplicates.
4. The SORT command can also sort by items not at the beginning of the line, ignore
case sensitivity and return whether a file is sorted or not. Sorting is done based on
one or more sort keys extracted from each line of input.
5. By default, the entire input is taken as sort key. Blank space is the default field
separator.
The sort command follows these features as stated below:
1. Lines starting with a number will appear before lines starting with a letter.
2. Lines starting with a letter that appears earlier in the alphabet will appear before
lines starting with a letter that appears later in the alphabet.
3. Lines starting with a lowercase letter will appear before lines starting with the
same letter in uppercase.
Syntax: uniq [OPTION]... [INPUT [OUTPUT]]
Option Description
-b Ignores leading blanks.
-d Considers only blanks and alphanumeric characters.
-f Fold lower case to upper case characters.
-g Compares according to general numerical value.
-i Considers only printable characters.
-M Compares (unknown) < 'JAN' < ... < 'DEC'.
-h Compare human readable numbers (e.g., 2K 1G).
-n Compares according to string numerical value.

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-R Shuffles, but groups identical keys.

-r Reverses the result of comparisons.
2. UNIQ
The uniq command in Linux is a command line utility that reports or filters out the
repeated lines in a file.
In simple words, uniq is the tool that helps to detect the adjacent duplicate lines
and also deletes the duplicate lines. uniq filters out the adjacent matching lines from the
input file(that is required as an argument) and writes the filtered data to the output file.
Syntax : $uniq [OPTION] [INPUT[OUTPUT]]
The syntax of this is quite easy to understand. Here, INPUT refers to the input file
in which repeated lines need to be filtered out and if INPUT isn’t specified then uniq reads
from the standard input. OUTPUT refers to the output file in which you can store the
filtered output generated by uniq command and as in case of INPUT if OUTPUT isn’t
specified then uniq writes to the standard output.

Option Description
-c, --count Prefix lines with a number representing how many times they occurred.
-d, --repeated Only print duplicated lines.
-D, --all- Print all duplicate lines. delimit-method may be one of the following:
repeated[=delimit none Do not delimit duplicate lines at all. This is the default.
-method] prepend Insert a blank line before each set of duplicated lines.
separate Insert a blank line between each set of duplicated lines.
The -D option is the same as specifying --all-repeated=none.
-f N, --skip- Avoid comparing the first N fields of a line before determining uniqueness.
fields=N A field is a group of characters, delimited by whitespace.
This option is useful, for instance, if your document's lines are
numbered, and you want to compare everything in the line except the line
number. If the option -f 1 were specified, the adjacent lines
1 This is a line.
2 This is a line.
would be considered identical. If no -f options were specified, they would
be considered unique.
-i, --ignore-case Normally, comparisons are case-sensitive. This option performs case-
insensitive comparisons instead.
-s N, --skip- Avoid comparing the first N characters of each line when determining
chars=N uniqueness. This is like the -f option, but it skips individual characters
rather than fields.
-u, --unique Only print unique lines.
-z, --zero- End lines with 0 byte (NULL), instead of a newline.
terminated
-w, --check- Compare no more than N characters in lines.
chars=N
--help Display a help message and exit.
--version Output version information and exit.

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Comparing Files
1. cmp
cmp command in Linux/UNIX is used to compare the two files byte by byte and
helps you to find out whether the two files are identical or not.
When cmp is used for comparison between two files, it reports the location of the
first mismatch to the screen if difference is found and if no difference is found i.e the files
compared are identical.
cmp displays no message and simply returns the prompt if the the files compared
are identical.
Syntax: cmp [OPTION]... FILE1 [FILE2 [SKIP1 [SKIP2]]]
The optional SKIP1 and SKIP2 specify the number of bytes to skip at the beginning
of each file (zero by default).
The syntax of cmp command is quite simple to understand. If we are comparing
two files then obviously we will need their names as arguments (i.e as FILE1 & FILE2 in
syntax). In addition to this, the optional SKIP1 and SKIP2 specify the number of bytes to
skip at the beginning of each file which is zero by default and OPTION refers to the
options compatible with this command about which we will discuss later on.
SKIP values may be followed by the following multiplicative suffixes:
kB kilobytes 1000
K kibibytes 1024
MB megabytes 1,000,000
M mebibytes 1,048,576
GB gigabytes 1,000,000,000
G gibibytes 1,073,741,824

Option Description
-b, --print-bytes Print differing bytes.
-i, --ignore-initial=SKIP Skip first SKIP bytes of both files.
-i, --ignore- Skip first SKIP1 bytes of FILE1 and first SKIP2 bytes of FILE2.
initial=SKIP1:SKIP2
-l, --verbose Output byte numbers and differing byte values.
-n, --bytes=LIMIT Compare at most LIMIT bytes.
-s, --quiet, --silent Suppress all normal output.
--help Display a help message and exit.
-v, --version Output version information and exit.
2. Comm
comm compare two sorted files line by line and write to standard output; the lines
that are common and the lines that are unique.
Suppose you have two lists of people and you are asked to find out the names
available in one and not in the other or even those common to both. Comm is the
command that will help you to achieve this. It requires two sorted files which it compares
line by line.
Syntax : $comm [OPTION]... FILE1 FILE2
• As using comm, we are trying to compare two files therefore the syntax of comm
command needs two filenames as arguments.
• With no OPTION used, comm produces three-column output where first column
contains lines unique to FILE1, second column contains lines unique to FILE2 and
third and last column contains lines common to both the files.

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• comm command only works right if you are comparing two files which are already
sorted.
Option Description
-1 suppress column 1 (lines unique to FILE1)
-2 suppress column 2 (lines unique to FILE2)
-3 suppress column 3 (lines that appear in both files)
--check-order check that the input is correctly sorted, even if all input lines are
pairable
--nocheck do not check that the input is correctly sorted
-order
--output separate columns with string STR
-delimiter=STR
--help display a help message, and exit.
--version output version information, and exit.

3. Diff
Diff stands for difference. This command is used to display the differences in the
files by comparing the files line by line. Unlike its fellow members, cmp and comm, it tells
us which lines in one file have is to be changed to make the two files identical.
The important thing to remember is that diff uses certain special symbols and
instructions that are required to make two files identical. It tells you the instructions on
how to change the first file to make it match the second file
Option Description
c Print the differing characters. Display control characters as a '^' followed by a
letter of the alphabet and precede characters that have the high bit set with
'M-' (which stands for "meta").
--ignore- Ignore any differences in the the first BYTES bytes of the input files. Treat
initial=BYTES files with fewer than BYTES bytes as if they are empty.
-l Print the (decimal) offsets and (octal) values of all differing bytes.
--print-chars Print the differing characters. Display control characters as a '^' followed by a
letter of the alphabet and precede characters that have the high bit set with
'M-' (which stands for "meta").
--quiet Do not print anything; only return an exit status indicating whether the files
-s differ.
--silent
--verbose Print the (decimal) offsets and (octal) values of all differing bytes.
-v Output the version number of 'cmp'. The file name '-' is always the standard
--version input. 'cmp' also uses the standard input if one file name is omitted. An exit
status of 0 means no differences were found, 1 means some differences were
found, and 2 means trouble.
Changing Information in Files
1. Tr
The tr command in UNIX is a command line utility for translating or deleting
characters. It supports a range of transformations including uppercase to lowercase,
squeezing repeating characters, deleting specific characters and basic find and
replace. It can be used with UNIX pipes to support more complex translation. tr stands
for translate.
Syntax :$ tr [OPTION] SET1 [SET2]
Option Description

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-C Complement the set of characters in string1, that is "-C ab" includes every character
except for 'a' and 'b'.
-c Same as -C but complement the set of values in string1.
-d Delete characters in string1 from the input.
-s Squeeze multiple occurrences of the characters listed in the last operand
(either string1 or string2) in the input into a single instance of the character. This
occurs after all deletion and translation is completed.
-u Guarantee that any output is unbuffered.
2. SED
SED command in UNIX is stands for stream editor and it can perform lot’s of
function on file like, searching, find and replace, insertion or deletion. Though most
common use of SED command in UNIX is for substitution or for find and replace. By
using SED you can edit files even without opening it, which is much quicker way to
find and replace something in file, than first opening that file in VI Editor and then
changing it.
• SED is a powerful text stream editor. Can do insertion, deletion, search and replace
(substitution).
• SED command in UNIX supports regular expression which allows it perform
complex pattern matching.
Syntax: SED OPTIONS... [SCRIPT] [INPUTFILE...]

Option Description
-n, --quiet, --silent Suppress automatic printing of pattern space.
-e script, -- Add the script script to the commands to be executed.
expression=script
-f script-file, -- Add the contents of script-file to the commands to be executed.
file=script-file
--follow-symlinks Follow symlinks when processing in place.
-i[SUFFIX], --in- Edit files in place (this makes a backup with file extension SUFFIX,
place[=SUFFIX] if SUFFIX is supplied).
-l N, --line-length=N Specify the desired line-wrap length, N, for the "l" command.
--POSIX Disable all GNU extensions.
-r, --regexp-extended Use extended regular expressions in the script.
-s, --separate Consider files as separate rather than as a single continuous long stream.
-u, --unbuffered Load minimal amounts of data from the input files and flush the
output buffers more often.
--help Display a help message, and exit.
--version Output version information and exit.

Examining File Contents

1. od
od command in Linux is used to convert the content of input in different formats
with octal format as the default format. This command is especially useful when
debugging Linux scripts for unwanted changes or characters. If more than one file is
specified, od command concatenates them in the listed order to form the [Link] can
display output in a variety of other formats, including hexadecimal, decimal, and ASCII. It

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is useful for visualizing data that is not in a human-readable format, like the executable
code of a program.
Syntax : od [OPTION]... [FILE]...
Tag Description
-A, --address- decide how file offsets are printed
radix=RADIX
-j, --skip-bytes=BYTES skip BYTES input bytes first
-N, --read-bytes=BYTES limit dump to BYTES input bytes
-S, --strings[=BYTES] output strings of at least BYTES graphic chars
-t, --format=TYPE select output format or formats
-v, --output-duplicates do not use * to mark line suppression
-w, --width[=BYTES] output BYTES bytes per output line
--traditional accept arguments in traditional form
--help display this help and exit
--version output version information and exit

Traditional format specifications may be intermixed; they accumulate:

Tag Description
-a same as -t a, select named characters
-b same as -t o1, select octal bytes
-c same as -t c, select ASCII characters or backslash escapes
-d same as -t u2, select unsigned decimal 2-byte units
-f same as -t fF, select floats
-i same as -t dI, select decimal ints
-l same as -t dL, select decimal longs
-o same as -t o2, select octal 2-byte units
-s same as -t d2, select decimal 2-byte units
-x same as -t x2, select hexadecimal 2-byte units
If first and second call formats both apply, the second format is assumed if the last
operand begins with + or (if there are 2 operands) a digit. An OFFSET operand means -
j OFFSET. LABEL is the pseudo-address at first byte printed, incremented when dump
is progressing. For OFFSET and LABEL, a 0x or 0X prefix indicates hexadecimal; suffixes
may be . for octal and b for multiply by 512.
TYPE is made up of one or more of these specifications:
a named character
c ASCII character or backslash escape
d[SIZE] signed decimal, SIZE bytes per integer
f[SIZE] floating point, SIZE bytes per integer
o[SIZE] octal, SIZE bytes per integer
u[SIZE] unsigned decimal, SIZE bytes per integer
x[SIZE] hexadecimal, SIZE bytes per integer

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Tool for mathematical Calculation

1. bc
bc command is used for command line calculator. It is similar to basic calculator by
using which we can do basic mathematical calculations.
Arithmetic operations are the most basic in any kind of programming language.
Linux or Unix operating system provides the bc command and expr command for doing
arithmetic calculations. You can use these commands in bash or shell script also for
evaluating arithmetic expressions.
Syntax: bc [ -hlwsqv ] [long-options] [ file ... ]
Tag Description
--help Display help
-h, --help Print the usage and exit.
file A file containing the calculations/functions to perform. This can be
piped from standard input.
-i, --interactive Force interactive mode.
-l, --mathlib Define the standard math library.
-w, --warn Give warnings for extensions to POSIX bc.
-s, --standard Process exactly the POSIX bc language.
-q, --quiet Do not print the normal GNU bc welcome.
-v, --version Print the version number and copyright and quit.
2. Factor
The factor command in Linux is used to print the prime factors of the given numbers,
either given from command line or read from standard input. The numbers given through
standard input may be delimited by tabs, spaces or newlines.
Syntax: factor [NUMBER]

Monitoring input and output

1. Tee
tee command reads the standard input and
writes it to both the standard output and one or more
files. The command is named after the T-splitter used
in plumbing. It basically breaks the output of a
program so that it can be both displayed and saved in
a file. It does both the tasks simultaneously, copies
the result into the specified files or variables and also
display the result.
Syntax: tee [OPTION]... [FILE]...
Option Description
-a, --append Append to the given FILEs. Do not overwrite.
-i, --ignore-interrupts Ignore interrupt signals.
2. Script
script command in Linux is used to make typescript or record all the terminal
activities. After executing the script command it starts recording everything printed
on the screen including the inputs and outputs until exit. By default, all the terminal

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information is saved in the file typescript , if no argument is given. script is mostly

used when we want to capture the output of a command or a set of command while
installing a program or the logs generated on the terminal while compiling an
opensource codes, etc. script command uses two files i.e. one for the terminal output
and other for the timing information.
Syntax: script [options] [file]
Option Description
-a, --append Append the output to file or typescript, retaining the prior contents.
-c, -- Run the command rather than an interactive shell. This option makes
command co it easy for script to capture the output of a program that behaves
mmand differently when its standard output is not a tty.
-e, --return Return the exit code of the child process. Uses the same format
as bash termination on signal termination: exit code is 128+n.
-f, --flush Flush output after each write. This option is nice for telecooperation:
one person does "mkfifo foo; script -f foo", and another can supervise
real-time what is being done using "cat foo".
--force Allow the default output destination, i.e. the typescript file, to be
a hard or symbolic link. The command will follow a symbolic link.
-q, --quiet Operate without displaying any output.
-t, -- Output timing data to standard error, or to file when given. This data
timing[=file] contains two fields, separated by a space. The first field indicates
how much time elapsed since the previous output. The second field
indicates how many characters were output this time. This
information can be used to replay typescripts with realistic typing
and output delays.

Tool for displaying Data and Time

1. Cal
If a user wants a quick view of calendar in Linux terminal, cal is the command for you.
By default, cal command shows current month calendar as output. cal command is a
calendar command in Linux which is used to see the calendar of a specific month or a
whole year.
Syntax: cal [month] [year] [-m month] [-y year] [-h] [-3] [-1] [-A num] [-B num]
[-d YYYY-MM] [-j] [-N]
Option Description
-h Don't highlight today's date.
- Specify a month to display. The month specifier can be a full month name
m mont (e.g., Februiary), a month abbreviation of at least three letters (e.g., Feb), or a
h number (e.g., 2). If you specify a number, followed by the letter f or p, the month
of the following or previous year, respectively, will be displayed. For instance, -m
2f displays February of next year.
-y year Specify a year to display. For example, -y 1970 displays the entire calendar of the
year 1970.
-3 Display last month, this month, and next month.
-1 Display only this month. This is the default.
-A num Display num months occurring after any months already specified. For example, -

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3 -A 3 displays last month, this month, and four months after this one; and -y
1970 -A 2 displays every month in 1970, and the first two months of 1971.
-B num Display num months occurring before any months already specified. For
example, -3 -B 2 displays the previous three months, this month, and next month.
- Operate as if the current month is number MM of year YYYY.
d YYYY-
MM
-j Display a Julian calendar, instead of the default Gregorian calendar. All days are
numbered from January 1, rather than from the beginning of the month.
-N Behave as if you ran ncal, using its options and display output.
2. DATE
date command is used to display the system date and time. date command is also
used to set date and time of the system. By default the date command displays the date in
the time zone on which unix/linux operating system is [Link] must be the super-
user (root) to change the date and time.
Syntax: date [-u|--utc|--universal] [MMDDhhmm[[CC]YY][.ss]]

Option Description
-d, --date=STRING Display time described by string STRING, as opposed to the
default, which is 'now'.
-f, -- Like --date, but processed once for each line of file DATEFILE.
file=DATEFILE
-I[TIMESPEC], -- Output date/time in ISO 8601 format. For values of TIMESPEC, use
iso- 'date' for date only (the default), 'hours', 'minutes', 'seconds', or
8601[=TIMESPEC] 'ns' for date and time to the indicated precision.
-r, -- Display the last modification time of file FILE.
reference=FILE
-R, --rfc-2822 Output date and time in RFC 2822 format. Example: Mon, 07 Aug
2006 12:34:56 -0600
--rfc- Output date and time in RFC 3339 format. TIMESPEC can be set to
3339=TIMESPEC 'date', 'seconds', or 'ns' for date and time to the indicated
precision. Date and time components are separated by a single
space, for example: 2006-08-07 12:34:56-06:00
-s, --set=STRING Set time described by string STRING.
-u, --utc, -- Print or set Coordinated Universal Time.
universal
--help Display a help message and exit.
--version Display version information and exit.
Date Format
FORMAT is a sequence of characters which specifies how output will appear. It comprises
some combination of the following sequences:
%% A literal percent sign ("%").
%a The abbreviated weekday name (e.g., Sun).
%A The full weekday name (e.g., Sunday).
%b The abbreviated month name (e.g., Jan).
%B Locale's full month name (e.g., January).
%c The date and time (e.g., Thu Mar 3 23:05:25 2005).

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%C The current century; like %Y, except omit last two digits (e.g., 20).
%d Day of month (e.g., 01).
%D Date; same as %m/%d/%y.
%e Day of month, space padded; same as %_d.
%F Full date; same as %Y-%m-%d.
%g Last two digits of year of ISO week number (see %G).
%G Year of ISO week number (see %V); normally useful only with %V.
%h Same as %b.
%H Hour (00..23).
%I Hour (01..12).
%j Day of year (001..366).
%k Hour, space padded ( 0..23); same as %_H.
%l Hour, space padded ( 1..12); same as %_I.
%m Month (01..12).
%M Minute (00..59).
%n A newline.
%N Nanoseconds (000000000..999999999).
%p Locale's equivalent of either AM or PM; blank if not known.
%P Like %p, but lower case.
%r Locale's 12-hour clock time (e.g., 11:11:04 PM).
%R 24-hour hour and minute; same as %H:%M.
%s Seconds since 1970-01-01 00:00:00 UTC.
%S Second (00..60).
%t A tab.
%T Time; same as %H:%M:%S.
%u Day of week (1..7); 1 is Monday.
%U Week number of year, with Sunday as first day of week (00..53).
%V ISO week number, with Monday as first day of week (01..53).
%w Day of week (0..6); 0 is Sunday.
%W Week number of year, with Monday as first day of week (00..53).
%x Locale's date representation (e.g., 12/31/99).
%X Locale's time representation (e.g., 23:13:48).
%y Last two digits of year (00..99).
%Y Year.
%z +hhmm numeric time zone (e.g., -0400).
%:z +hh:mm numeric time zone (e.g., -04:00).
%::z +hh:mm:ss numeric time zone (e.g., -04:00:00).
%:::z Numeric time zone with ":" to necessary precision (e.g., -04, +05:30).
%Z Alphabetic time zone abbreviation (e.g., EDT).
By default, date pads numeric fields with zeroes. The following optional flags may
follow '%':
- (Hyphen) do not pad the field.
_ Pad with spaces.
0 Pad with zeros.
^ Use upper case if possible.
# Use opposite case if possible.

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After any flags comes an optional field width, as a decimal number; then an
optional modifier, which is either E to use the locale's alternate representations if
available, or O to use the locale's alternate numeric symbols if available.
Communications Commands
1. Wall
wall displays the contents of file or, by default, its standard input, on
the terminals of all currently logged-in users. The command will cut any lines that are
over 79 characters to new lines. Short lines are white space padded to have 79 characters.
The command will always put carriage return and new line at the end of each line.
Only the super-user can write on the terminals of users who have chosen to deny
messages or are using a program which automatically denies messages.
Reading from a file is refused when the invoker is not super-user and the program
is suid(set-user-ID) or sgid(set-group-ID).
Syntax: wall [-n] [-t timeout] [message | file]
Option Description
-n This option will suppress the banner.
-t This option will abandon the write attempt to the terminals after timeout
seconds. This timeout needs to be a positive integer. The by default value is 300
seconds, which is a legacy from the time when peoples ran terminals over
modem lines.
-V This option display version information and exit.
-h This option will display help message and exit
2. Write
The write utility allows you to communicate with other users by copying lines from
your terminal to theirs. When you run the write command, the user you are writing to
gets a message of the format:
Message from yourname@yourhost on yourtty at hh:mm ...
Any further lines you enter will be copied to the specified user's terminal. If the
other user wants to reply, they must run write as well. When you are done, type an end-
of-file or interrupt character. The other user will see the message ‘EOF’ indicating that the
conversation is over.
You can prevent people (other than the super-user) from writing to you with
the mesg command.
If the user you want to write to is logged in on more than one terminal, you can
specify which terminal to write to by specifying the terminal name as the second operand
to the write command. Alternatively, you can let write select one of the terminals and it
will pick the one with the shortest idle time. So, if the user is logged in at work and also
dialed up from home, the message will go to the right place.
The traditional protocol for writing to someone is that the string ‘-o’, either at the
end of a line or on a line by itself, means that it is the other person's turn to talk. The
string ‘oo’ means that the person believes the conversation to be over.
Syntax: write user [tty]
Option Description
user The user to write to.
tty The specific terminal to write to, if the user is logged in to more than one
session.

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3. mail
The Mail command in unix or linux system is used to send emails to the users, to
read the received emails, to delete the emails etc. Mail command will come in handy
especially when writing automated scripts. For example, you have written an automated
script for taking weekly backup of oracle database. How to know the status of backup,
whether it is succeeded or not? In this case, sending an email from the automated script
at the end of the backup will be helpful in knowing the status.
Syntax : mail [options] to-address [-- sendmail-options]
Option Description
-v Verbose mode. The details of delivery are displayed on the user’s terminal.
-i Ignore tty interrupt signals. This is particularly useful when using mail on noisy
phone lines.
-I Forces mail to run in interactive mode even when input isn’t a terminal. In
particular, the '~' special character when sending mail is only active in
interactive mode.
-n Inhibits reading /etc/[Link] upon startup.
-N Inhibits the initial display of message headers when reading mail or editing a
mail folder.
-s Specify subject on command line (only the first argument after the -s flag is
used as a subject; be careful to quote subjects containing spaces.)
-c Send carbon copies to list of users.
-b Send blind carbon copies to list. List should be a comma-separated list of
names.
-f Read in the contents of your mbox (or the specified file) for processing; when
you quit, mail writes undeleted messages back to this file.
-u Is equivalent to: mail -f /var/spool/mail/user
4. News
• The command will help to see the message to user by administrator, even when
they are not online.
• The message will be stored in /usr/news.
5. Finger
• When command is used without any arguments it will display list of all logged
users .
• Similar to who command, but output will be different, in finger it will display user
detail also
• In output first field will be user login name, second field show the user’s full name,
the third field show the terminal of the user, fourth field will show the idle time
(time since they are doing any work), and The last field shows office address.
• The command can display single user detail if user name give as argument, which
is not possible in who command.
6. Mesg
• Users can disallow anyone to send them messages via the mesg utility. Therefore,
before you start attempting to send messages, it’s a good idea to check whether

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messages are allowed. For yourself, you can simply enter the mesg command as
follows:
• The mesg utility is invoked by a users to control write access others have to the
terminal device associated with the standard error output.
• Traditionally, write access is allowed by default. However, as users become more
conscious of various security risks, there is a trend to remove write access by
default, at least for the primary login shell. To make sure your ttys are set the way
you want them to be set, mesg should be executed in your login scripts.

Options Description
n Disallows messages
y Permits messages to be displayed
If no arguments are given, mesg displays the present message status to
the standard error output. The mesg utility exits with one of the following values:
\0 Messages are allowed.
\1 Messages are not allowed.
1 An error has occurred.

7. Ping
PING (Packet Internet Groper) command is used to check the network
connectivity between host and server/host. This command takes as input the IP address
or the URL and sends a data packet to the specified address with the message “PING”
and get a response from the server/host this time is recorded which is called latency.
Fast ping low latency means faster connection. Ping uses ICMP(Internet Control
Message Protocol) to send an ICMP echo message to the specified host if that host is
available then it sends ICMP reply message. Ping is generally measured in millisecond
every modern operating system has this ping pre-installed.
The basic syntax of the ping command contains ping pursued by the hostname, a
website name, or exact IP address.
Syntax: ping [options] hostname or IP address
So, we can type inside our terminal for checking whether the remote host is up:
o from: It tells the target and its IP address.
o Important: The IP address might be different for any website depending on our
geographical location.
o ttl=52: It tells the value, i.e., Time to Live from 1-255. Also, it indicates network
number hops a packet could take before any router removes it.
o icmp_seq=1: It tells the all ICMP packet's sequence number. It increases by a single
number for all subsequent echo requests.
o time=7.68 ms: It tells the Time that it took any packet for reaching the target and
come back to the origin. It expressed in ms (milliseconds).
ping "localhost" for checking Local Network
If we find issues reaching a remote machine or a website, we can ping the localhost to
ensure that we have a network connection. We can use anyone of the following ways for
checking the interface of the local network:
o ping 0: It is one of the quickest option to ping a localhost. The terminal will resolve
determine the IP address and gives a response once we enter this command.

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o ping localhost: We can use the ping localhost name. This name will refer to our
system and when we enter this command, we will say "ping this system".
o ping [Link]: A few people prefer entering the IP address to ping the localhost.
The following are some generally used ping commands:
Option Description
a It produces a sound if the peer could be reached.
b It permits ping the IP address of a broadcast.
B It prevents the ping from changing the probe source address.
c It limits the number of transferred ping requests.
d It sets an option, i.e., SO DEBUG over the used socket.
f It floods the network by transferring several packets per second.
i It describes the interval among the successive transmission of the packet. One
second is the default value.
I It sets the IP address of the source to the described IP address of the interface.
This option is needed if pinging the lack address of IPv6 link. We can use the
name of the device or IP address.
l It specifies several packets to transfer without delaying a response.
q It shows IP addresses in the output of the ping instead of hostnames.
T It fixes the Time To Live.
v It gives verbose output.
V It shows the version of the ping and exits to a newer command prompt line

Process Related Commands

Ps
Linux/unix is a multitasking and multi-user systems. So, it allows multiple
processes to operate simultaneously without interfering with each other. Process is one
of the important fundamental concept of the Linux OS. A process is an executing instance
of a program and carries out different tasks within the operating system.
Linux/unix provides us a utility called ps for viewing information related with the
processes on a system which stands as abbreviation for “Process Status”. ps command is
used to list the currently running processes and their PIDs along with some other
information depends on different options. It reads the process information from the
virtual files in /proc file-system. /proc contains virtual files, this is the reason it’s
referred as a virtual file system.
Stntax : ps [options]
[root@root ~]# ps
PID TTY TIME CMD
12330 pts/0 00:00:00 bash
21621 pts/0 00:00:00 ps
Result contains four columns of information. Where,
• PID – the unique process ID
• TTY – terminal type that the user is logged into
• TIME – amount of CPU in minutes and seconds that the process has been running
• CMD – name of the command that launched the process.

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Option Description
-a Displays all processes on a terminal, with the exception of group leaders.
-c Displays scheduler data.
-d Displays all processes with the exception of session leaders.
-e Displays all processes.
-f Displays a full listing.
-glist Displays data for the list of group leader IDs.
-j Displays the process group ID and session ID.
-l Displays a long listing
-plist Displays data for the list of process IDs.
-slist Displays data for the list of session leader IDs.
-tlist Displays data for the list of terminals.
-ulist Displays data for the list of usernames.
Command to run process in background
1. NICE
Nice command lets you run a command at a priority lower than the command's
normal priority. The nice command Runs a command at a lower or higher priority.
The Command parameter is the name of any executable file on the system. If you do not
specify an Increment value the nice command defaults to an increment of 10. You must
have root user authority to run a command at a higher priority. The priority of a process
is often called its nice value. The nice value can range from -20(most favorable
scheduling) to 19 (least favorable), with 19 being the lowest priority.
For example, if a command normally runs at a priority of 10, specifying an
increment of 5 runs the command at a lower priority, 15, and the command runs slower.
The nice command does not return an error message if you attempt to increase a
command's priority without the appropriate authority. Instead, the command's priority is
not changed, and the system starts the command as it normally would.
The nice value is used by the system to calculate the current priority of a running
process. Use the ps command with the -l flag to view a command's nice value. The nice
value appears under the NI heading in the ps command output.
Syntax : nice [ - Increment| -n Increment ]

Option Description
-Increment Increments a command's priority up or down. You can specify a
positive or negative number. Positive increment values reduce priority.
Negative increment values increase priority. Only users with root
authority can specify a negative increment. If you specify an increment
value that would cause the nice value to exceed the range of -20 to 19,
the nice value is set to the value of the limit that was exceeded. This flag
is equivalent to the -n Increment flag.
-n Increment This flag is equivalent to the -Increment flag.
2. KILL
The Kill command in Unix/Linux operating system is used to send a signal to the
specified process or group. If we don’t specify any signal, then the kill command passes
the SIGTERM signal. We mostly use the kill command for terminating or killing a process.
However we can also use the kill command for running a stopped process.

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syntax
• kill [option]
Option Description
-signal, The name, abbreviated name, or number of the signal to be sent, preceded
-s signal by a dash. For example, -SIGTERM, -TERM, or -15. To view a list of
available signals, use the -l or -L options (see below), or refer to our list of
Linux signals.
pid A numeric process ID. If you're not sure what the PID is of a process, use
the ps command to list it, e.g., ps -aux.
-l, -- List available signal names. With -l or --list, lists all signal names. With --
list[=signal] list=signal, translates a number into its signal name.
-L, --table List available signal names and numbers in a table.
All available UNIX signals have different names, and are mapped to certain
numbers as described below:
Number Name Descripti Used for
(short name) on
0 SIGNULL Null Check access to pid
(NULL)
1 SIGHUP (HUP) Hangup Terminate; can be trapped
2 SIGINT (INT) Interrupt Terminate; can be trapped
3 SIGQUIT Quit Terminate with core dump; can be trapped
(QUIT)
9 SIGKILL Kill Forced termination; cannot be trapped
(KILL)
15 SIGTERM Terminate Terminate; can be trapped
(TERM)
24 SIGSTOP Stop Pause the process; cannot be trapped. This is
(STOP) default if signal not provided to kill command.
25 SIGTSTP (STP) Terminal Stop/pause the process; can be trapped
26 SIGCONT Continue Run a stopped process
(CONT)
3. At / Batch
• at is a UNIX command which allows a script to be executed once at a specified time
and/or date.
• at command should be followed by time and then date on which it is to be
executed.
o If no date is specified, today is assumed.
o If no date is specified and the time is less than now, tomorrow is assumed.
o If no month is specified, the current month is assumed.
o If a month earlier than the current month is given, next year is assumed.
• Using CTRL-D will exit the prompt and offer you a job reference number. When an
at job has run, a message will be written to the UNIX mailbox of the account name
running the job.
• Your queued at jobs can be viewed using the atq command at the UNIX prompt.
This will reveal the job reference number, owners and the date and time that jobs
are due to run.

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• To cancel a job use the command: atrm {job reference}at the UNIX prompt. You
must have appropriate permissions to do this.
• When using these commands, the root user account has the privilege to view or
cancel all at jobs.
4. Cron / Crontab
• On most systems, you must get permission from the system administrator before
you can submit job requests to cron.
• On some shared systems, because there is only one crontab file, only the
administrator has access to the crontab command.
• To schedule one-time only tasks with cron, at or batch command.
• For commands that need to be executed repeatedly (e.g., hourly, daily, or weekly),
you can use the crontab command. The crontab command creates a crontab file
containing commands and instructions for the cron to execute.
• Each entry in a crontab file consists of six fields, specifying in the following order:
minute(s) hour(s) day(s) month(s) weekday(s) command(s)
• The fields are separated by spaces or tabs. The first five are integer patterns and
the sixth is the command to execute. The following table briefly describes each of
the fields:
Field Value Description
minute 0-59 The exact minute that the command sequence executes
hour 0-23 The hour of the day that the command sequence executes
day 1-31 The day of the month that the command sequence executes
month 1-12 The month of the year that the command sequence executes
weekday 0-6 The day of the week that the command sequence executes (Sunday
= 0, Monday = 1, Tuesday = 2, and so forth)
command Special The complete sequence of commands to execute. The command
string must conform to Bourne shell syntax. Commands,
executables (such as scripts), or combinations are acceptable.
5. wait
Wait waits for the process identified by process ID pid (or the job specified by job
ID jobid), and reports its termination status. If an ID is not given, wait waits for all
currently active child processes, and the return status is zero. If the ID is a job
specification, wait waits for all processes in the job's pipeline.
Syntax: wait [pid] [jobid]

Option Description
pid The unsigned decimal integer process ID of a command, for which the utility
is to wait for the termination.
jobid A job control job ID that identifies a background process group to wait for.
The job control job ID notation is applicable only for invocations of wait in
the current shell execution environment, and only on systems supporting the
job control option.
6. Sleep
The sleep command pauses for an amount of time defined by NUMBER. SUFFIX
may be "s" for seconds (the default), "m" for minutes, "h" for hours, or "d" for days.

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Some implementations require that NUMBER be an integer, but modern Linux

implementations allow NUMBER to also be a floating-point value. If more than one
NUMBER is specified, sleep delays for the sum of their values.
Syntax: sleep NUMBER[SUFFIX]...
Where SUFFIX may be:
• s for seconds (the default)
• m for minutes.
• h for hours.
• d for days.
Example
sleep 10
7. TOP
The top command displays all the running process within the environment of your
system. It helps in monitoring system usage and performances. It is mainly used to detect
load on the server by system administrators.
The top command stands for table of processes. It is a task manager program,
detected in several Unix-like operating systems, that shows information about memory
and CPU utilization.
Overview of Top Command
The program generates an ordered list of active processes chosen by user-
specified format and periodically updates it. Default ordering can be done by CPU usage,
and the top CPU consumers are only shown. The top command displays how much
memory and processing power is being utilized, as well as other details of the active
processes.
A few top versions permit extensive customization of display, like sorting methods
or choice of columns. The command is helpful for system administrators because it
displays which processes and users are utilizing the most system resources at a time.
Implementations of Top Command
There are various different top versions available. The classical Unix version was
specified by William LeFebvre and copyrighted in 1984 originally. It's hosted on
SourceForge, and the 3.7 version was revealed in 2008. The Linux release of top is an
element of the procps-ng tool group. Originally, it was specified by Roger Binns but after
that taken over by others shortly. The roughly equivalent function is prstat on Solaris.
Microsoft Windows contains the graphical Task Manager utility and tasklist
command. IBM AIX contains an updating active processes list as a component of the
topas_nmon and topas commands.
In Linux, the load average numbers are known as the sum of the total processes
waiting inside the run-queue plus the total count executing currently. The number is not
relative but absolute. Hence, unlike utilization, it can be unbounded. The instant
variations of the total processes are damped using an exponential decay formula
calculated with fixed point math.
A program, i.e., ps, is the same as the top command but rather generates a process
snapshot taken during invocation. The n (total iterations) option of the top command can
generate a similar result, making the program execute the specified iterations and exit
after showing its result.
Options of Top Command
Options Description
-a This option is used to solve the processes according to the allocated memory.

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-b It begins the top command in batch mode, which can be helpful in sending
results from the top command to other files and programs.
-c It begins the top command with the last remembered state reversed 'c'.
-d It shows the delay between the screen updates and then overrides the
associated value in the startup default or personal configuration file of one.
-h It shows the usage prompt and library version, then quit.
-H It begins a top command with the last remembered state reversed 'H'.
-i It begins a top command with the last remembered state reversed i.
-m It reports USED (rss process sum and swap count) rather than VIRT.
-M It shows memory units and displays floating point values within the memory
summary.
-n It describes the maximum number of frames or iterations; the top command
should generate before completion.
-p It only monitors processes with process IDs.
-s It is far better managed from the system configuration file.
-S All processes are listed using the CPU time that it and its dead children have
utilized when "Cumulative mode" is active.
-U It only monitors processes with an effective username or UID matching that
provided one. It matches saved, effective, real file system UIDs.
-u It only monitors processes with an effective username or UID matching that
provided one.
-v It shows the usage prompt and library version, then quit.
Columns and Fields of Top Command
Some of the important fields or columns available in the top command are explained
below:
o PID: It stands for Process Id or unique process Id of the task, which wraps
periodically, never rebooting at zero.
o RUSER: It stands for the Real User Name of the task's owner.
o PPID: It stands for Parent Process Pid. It is the process ID of the parent of a task.
o UID: It is the effective user Id of the owner of the task.
o USER: It is the effective user name of the owner of the task.
o GROUP: It is the effective group name of the owner of the task.
o TTY: It is the controlling terminal name.
o PR: It shows the task's priority.
o NI: It is the task's nice value. A negative NI defines higher priority, and a positive
NI defines lower priority.
o P: A number indicating the last utilized processor.
o TIME: It shows the CPU time that the task has utilized since it began.
Syntax:
1. top
Look at the above snapshot, its output is
explained here,

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Line1 Line2 Line3

• Time • Total number of tasks • It shows CPU usage in
• how long system is • number of running tasks percentage for
running • number of sleeping tasks • users
• how many users are • number of stopped tasks • system
logged in • and number of zombie • low priority processes
• and load average tasks • idle processes
• io wait
• hardware interrupts
• software interrupts
• steal time
Line4 Line5 Table explanation
• It shows memory usage • It shows swap memory • proces ID
in kilobytes for usage in kilobytes for • user
• total memory • total memory • priority
• used memory • used memory • nice user
• free memory • free memory • virtual memory
• buffered memory • cached memory • resident memory
• shareable memory
• CPU used percentage
• memory used
percentage
• time a process has run
• command

If you want you can hide/show these header lines by pressing some keys.
For example,
press l - to show/hide Line1. Top line
press t - to show/hide Line3. CPU information
press m - to show/hide Line4 and 5. Memory information
Keeping top command running in background
You can keep top command running in the background continuously without typing top
in terminal every time. Use ctrl+z keys to get back your terminal.

Look at the above snapshot, after pressing ctrl+z keys top command has stopped
and we got our terminal [Link] bring back top command in terminal type fg in terminal.

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Sorting top output

By default, top command always display output in the order of CPU usage.
Press M - To display in order of memory usage.

Press O - To display all possible columns that you can sort.

Look at the above snapshot, all the columns are assigned an alphabetic letter. To
sort by column type the respective alphabet and output will be sorted according to that
column. In the first line, current sort field is shown that is N which means currently it is
sorted according to column N. Press R - To display in reverse order.

Killing a task without exiting from top

A task can be stopped without exiting from top command by pressing k key.
It will ask for task's PID number, if you'll have authority to kill that task, then task will be
removed. Otherwise, your command will fail.

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Look at the above snapshot, after pressing k, we got a message asking for PID of task to be
killed.
Renice a task
Renice is done to change the scheduling order. By pressing r, you can change the priority
of a process without killing it. It will also ask for PID of the process.

Look at the above snapshot, after pressing r, we got a message asking for PID of task to be
reniced.
Display processes for selected user
In top command output you can display all the processes for a particular user only
by two options. One through command line and other without existing top.
In command line, use the following command
Syntax:
top -u <userName>
Example:
top -u sssit

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Look at the above snapshot, it displays all the processes only for user sssit. When
top command is running, press u, it will ask for username. Type the username and press
enter.

Look at the above snapshot, after pressing u, it is asking for username.

Updating top output By default, top output is updated after every 3 seconds. When
you want to update it in between 3 seconds press space bar. You can also change
updating frequency by pressing d key while running top command.

Look at the above snapshot, after pressing d key, it is asking for time for which it
will be frequently updated.
Changing colors
Colors can be changed by pressing z key and text can be made bold by pressing b key.

Look at the above snapshot, by pressing b all running processes are highlighted in
white. To change color press z (small z) key.

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Look at the above snapshot, our output is colored after pressing z. Now, if you
want to change the colors for different areas, press Z (capital Z). it will take you to the
menu where you can select different colors for different target.

Suppose we want to apply blue color in column heading and magenta color in the task
information.
Then we'll press 4 with H for heading and 5 with T for task information.

Look at the above snapshot, colors have been changed for their respective target.
Quitting after certain iterations The top command continuously displays output until
you'll quit by pressing q. But you can define certain number of iterations after which top
command will automatically quit from the terminal.
Syntax:

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top -n <number>
Example:
top -n 2
With above example, it will show 2 iterations and exit automatical.

8. Jobs
Jobs command is used to list the jobs that you are running in the background and
in the foreground. If the prompt is returned with no information no jobs are present. All
shells are not capable of running this command. This command is only available in the
csh, bash, tcsh, and ksh shells.
Syntax : jobs [JOB]
Options
• JOB Job name or number.
• -l Lists process IDs in addition to the normal information.
• -n List only processes that have changed status since the last notification.
• -p Lists process IDs only.
• -r Restrict output to running jobs.
• -s Restrict output to stopped jobs.
jobs command examples
To display the status of jobs in the current shell:
Command : $ jobs
Output:
[1] 7893 Running gpass &
[2] 7904 Running gnome-calculator &
[3]- 7955 Running gedit [Link] &
[4]+ 7958 Stopped ping [Link]
To display the process ID or jobs for the job whose name begins with “p,”:
Command
$ jobs -p %p OR $ jobs %p
Output:
[4]- Stopped ping [Link]
The character % introduces a job specification. In this example, you are using the
string whose name begins with suspended command such as %ping.
Pass the -p option to jobs command to display PIDs only:
Command $ jobs -p
Output:
7895
7906
7910
7946
Pass the -r option to jobs command to display only running jobs only:
Command : $ jobs -r
Output:
[1] Running gpass &
[2] Running gnome-calculator &
[3]- Running gedit [Link] &

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Concept of Mounting a File Systems

1. Mount Command
All files in a Linux filesystem are arranged in form of a big tree rooted at ‘/‘.These
files can be spread out on various devices based on your partition table, initially your
parent directory is mounted(i.e attached) to this tree at ‘/‘, others can be mounted
manually using GUI interface(if available) or using mount command. mount command is
used to mount the filesystem found on a device to big tree structure (Linux filesystem)
rooted at ‘/‘. Conversely, another command umount can be used to detach these devices
from the Tree.
Syntax:
• mount -t type device dir
• mount [-l|-h|-V]
• mount -a [-fFnrsvw] [-t fstype] [-O optlist]
• mount [-fnrsvw] [-o options] device|dir
• mount [-fnrsvw] [-t fstype] [-o options] device dir
This command tells the Kernel to attach the filesystem found at device to the dir.
If you leave the dir part of syntax it looks for a mount point in /etc/fstab.
You can use –source or –target to avoid ambivalent interpretation.
• mount --target /mountpoint
/etc/fstab usually contains information about which device is need to be mounted
where.
Most of the devices are indicated by files like /dev/sda4, etc. But it can be different
for certain filesystems. Please refer below for more information.
• man mount
It is important to note that we are only discussing the standard form
of mount command given as syntax. Different forms are somewhat discussed because it
has certain limitations on different kernels.

Option Description
l Lists all the file systems mounted yet.
h Displays options for command.
V Displays the version information
a Mounts all devices described at /etc/fstab
t Type of filesystem device uses.
T Describes an alternative fstab file.
r Read-only mode mounted.

Concept of Demounting a File Systems

1. umount Command
The umount command detaches the file system(s) mentioned from the file hierarchy.
A file system is specified by giving the directory where it has been mounted. Giving the
special device on which the file system lives may also work, but is obsolete, mainly
because it will fail in case this device was mounted on more than one directory.
• umount [-hV]
• umount -a [-dflnrv] [-t vfstype] [-O options]

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• umount [-dflnrv] dir | device [...]

that a file system cannot be unmounted when it is ‘busy’ - for example, when there are
open files on it, or when some process has its working directory there, or when a swap
file on it is in use. The offending process could even be umount itself - it opens libc, and
libc in its turn may open for example locale files.
Tag Description
-V Print version and exit.
-h Print help message and exit.
-v Verbose mode.
-n Unmount without writing in /etc/mtab.
-r In case unmounting fails, try to remount read-only.
-d In case the unmounted device was a loop device, also free this loop device.
-i Don’t call the /sbin/umount.<filesystem> helper even if it exists. By
default /sbin/umount.<filesystem> helper is called if one exists.
-a All of the file systems described in /etc/mtab are unmounted.
(With umount version 2.7 and later: the proc filesystem is not
unmounted.)
-t Indicate that the actions should only be taken on file systems of the
vfstype specified type. More than one type may be specified in a comma separated
list. The list of file system types can be prefixed with no to specify the file
system types on which no action should be taken.
-O Indicate that the actions should only be taken on file systems with the
options specified options in /etc/fstab. More than one option type may be
specified in a comma separated list. Each option can be prefixed with no to
specify options for which no action should be taken.
-f Force unmount (in case of an unreachable NFS system). (Requires kernel
2.1.116 or later.)
-l Lazy unmount. Detach the filesystem from the filesystem hierarchy now,
and cleanup all references to the filesystem as soon as it is not busy
anymore. (Requires kernel 2.4.11 or later.)

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UNIT – 4
Text Editing with VI Editor
Introduction
There are many ways to edit files in UNIX and for me one of the best ways is using
screen-oriented text editor VI. This editor enables you to edit lines in context with other
lines in the file. Now a day you would find an improved version of VI editor which is
called VIM. Here VIM stands for Vi Improved.
The VI is generally considered the de facto standard in UNIX editors because:
• It's usually available on all the flavors of UNIX system.
• Its implementations are very similar across the board.
• It requires very few resources.
• It is more user friendly than any other editors like ed or ex.
You can use VI editor to edit an existing file or to create a new file from scratch.
You can also use this editor to just read a text file.
Starting the vi Editor:
There are following way you can start using vi editor:
Command Description
vi filename Creates a new file if it already does not exist, otherwise opens
existing file.
vi -R filename Opens an existing file in read only mode.
view filename Opens an existing file in read only mode.
The example ‘vi testfile’ to create a new file testfile if it already does not exist in
the current working directory: As a result you would see a screen something like as
follows:

You will notice a tilde (~) on each line following the cursor. A tilde represents an
unused line. If a line does not begin with a tilde and appears to be blank, there is a space,
tab, newline, or some other non-viewable character present.
So now you have opened one file to start with. Before proceeding further let us
understanding few minor but important concepts explained below.
Operation Modes:
While working with VI editor you would come across following two modes:
• Command mode: This mode enables you to perform administrative tasks such as
saving files, executing commands, moving the cursor, cutting (yanking) and pasting
lines or words, and finding and replacing. In this mode, whatever you type is
interpreted as a command.

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• Insert mode: This mode enables you to insert text into the file. Everything that's
typed in this mode is interpreted as input and finally it is put in the file.
The VI always starts in command mode. To enter text, you must be in insert mode.
To come in insert mode, you simply type ‘i’. To get out of insert mode, press the Esc key,
which will put you back into command mode.
If you are not sure which mode, you are in, press the Esc key twice, and then you'll
be in command mode. You open a file using VI editor and start type some characters and
then come in command mode to understand the difference.
Getting Out of VI:
• The command to quit out of vi is :q. Once in command mode, type colon, and 'q',
followed by return (Enter key).
• If your file has been modified in any way, the editor will warn you of this, and not let
you quit. To ignore this message, the command to quit out of vi without saving is : q!.
This lets you exit vi without saving any of the changes.
• The command to save the contents of the editor is :w. You can combine the above
command with the quit command, or :wq and return.
• The easiest way to save your changes and exit out of vi is the ZZ command. When you
are in command mode, type ZZ and it will do the equivalent of: wq.
• You can specify a different file name to save to by specifying the name after the:w. For
example, if you wanted to save the file you were working as another filename called
filename2, you would type :w filename2 and return. Try it once.
Moving within a File:
To move around within a file without affecting your text, you must be in command
mode (press Esc twice). Here are some of the commands you can use to move around one
character at a time:
Command Description
k Moves the cursor up one line.
j Moves the cursor down one line.
h Moves the cursor to the left one character position.
l Moves the cursor to the right one character position.
There are following two important points to be noted:
• The vi is case-sensitive, so you need to pay special attention to capitalization when
using commands.
• Most commands in vi can be prefaced by the number of times you want the action
to occur.
• For example, 2j moves cursor two lines down the cursor location. There are many
other ways to move within a file in vi.
Remember that you must be in command mode (press Esc twice). Here are some
more commands you can use to move around the file:
Command Description
0 or | Positions cursor at beginning of line.
$ Positions cursor at end of line.
w Positions cursor to the next word.
b Positions cursor to previous word.
( Positions cursor to beginning of current sentence.
) Positions cursor to beginning of next sentence.

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E Move to the end of Blank delimited word

1G Move to the first line of the file
G Move to the last line of the file
nG Move to nth line of the file
:n Move to nth line of the file
H Move to top of screen
nH Moves to nth line from the top of the screen
M Move to middle of screen
L Move to botton of screen
nL Moves to nth line from the bottom of the screen

Editing Files:
To edit the file, you need to be in the insert mode. There are many ways to enter
insert mode from the command mode:
Command Description
i Inserts text before current cursor location.
I Inserts text at beginning of current line.
a Inserts text after current cursor location.
A Inserts text at end of current line.
o Creates a new line for text entry below cursor location.
O Creates a new line for text entry above cursor location.
~ Change case of individual character
Deleting Characters:
Here is the list of important commands which can be used to delete characters and
lines in an opened file:
Command Description
x Deletes the character under the cursor location.
X Deletes the character before the cursor location.
dw Deletes from the current cursor location to the next word.
4dw Delete 4 words
d^ Deletes from current cursor position to the beginning of the line.
d$ Deletes from current cursor position to the end of the line.
D Deletes from the cursor position to the end of the current line.
dd Deletes the line the cursor is on.
3dd Delete 3 lines.
C Delete contents of a line after the cursor and insert new text. Press ESC
key to end insertion.
• As mentioned above, most commands in VI can be prefaced by the number of
times you want the action to occur.
• For example, 2x deletes two characters under the cursor location and 2dd deletes
two lines the cursor is on.
• I would highly recommend exercising all the above commands properly before
proceeding further.

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Change Commands:
You also have the capability to change characters, words, or lines in vi without
deleting them. Here are the relevant commands:
Command Description
cc Removes contents of the line, leaving you in insert mode.
cw Changes the word the cursor is on from the cursor to the lowercase w end of
the word.
r Replaces the character under the cursor. vi returns to command mode after
the replacement is entered.
R Overwrites multiple characters beginning with the character currently
under the cursor. You must use Esc to stop the overwriting.
s Replaces the current character with the character you type. Afterward, you
are left in insert mode.
S Deletes the line the cursor is on and replaces with new text. After the new
text is entered, vi remains in insert mode.
u Undo last change
U Undo all changes to the entire line

Copy and Past Commands:

You can copy lines or words from one place and then you can past them at another
place using following commands:
Command Description
yy Copies the current line.
yw Copies the current word from the character the lowercase w cursor is on
until the end of the word.
p Puts the copied text after the cursor.
P Puts the yanked text before the cursor.

Saving and Closing the file

You should be in the command mode to exit the editor and save changes to the file.
Command Description
Shift+zz Save the file and quit
:w Save the file but keep it open
:q Quit without saving
:wq Save the file and quit
ESC Terminate insert mode
IMPORTANT
• You must be in command mode to use commands. (Press Esc twice at any time to
ensure that you are in command mode.)
• You must be careful to use the proper case (capitalization) for all commands.
• You must be in insert mode to enter text.

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Introduction of nano editor

Nano is a user-friendly, simple and WYSIWYG (What You See Is What You Get)
text editor, which improves the features and user-friendliness of UW Pico text editor.
Unlike vim editor or any other command-line editor, it doesn’t have any mode. It has an
easy GUI (Graphical User Interface) which allows users to interact directly with the text
in spite of switching between the modes as in vim editor.

Installing Nano Text Editor

Nano is generally by default available in many Linux distributions but in case, it
is not installed you may install the same using the following commands.
$sudo apt update
In case of Debian/Ubuntu
$sudo apt install nano
In case of CentOS/Fedora
$yum install nano
Working with Nano Text Editor
1. To create and open a new file.: $nano new_filename
The above command will open a new file with new_filename as
shown in the output. In case the file already exists, it will open the same
and in case the file is not there in the current directory it will create a
new one. At the bottom of the window, there is a list of shortcut keys for
nano.

2. To save a file: press Ctrl+o

It will ask you for the filename. In case, you want to save the changes to
a new file or want to create a new file then change the name else keep
the name same.
As soon as you will press enter key, then In case, you have
changed the name of the file then it will save the file with a new name
and if not then it will save the changes to the current file.

3. To cut paste in a file. Ctrl+o is used to cut and Ctrl+u is used to paste
the text.
• To cut and paste a whole line. Move to the line which you want to
cut then press Ctrl+k. Now the line is moved to clipboard, To paste
it, go to the position where you want to paste and then press Ctrl+u

• To cut and paste the selected text. Select the text which you want to
cut then press Ctrl+k. Now the text is moved to clipboard. To paste
it, go to the position where you want to paste and then press Ctrl+u.

4. To search a word in a file. Ctrl+w is used.

Press Ctrl+w
It will ask for a word to search for.
Enter the word
It will search for the word and will place the cursor in the first
letter of the first occurrence of the word.

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5. To enable spell check in nano. First, install the spell check package.
$sudo apt install spell
It will then ask for the password then enter the password. Then press y and then
press enter.
• To do spell check first press Ctrl+t
• Now it will ask you to replace the incorrect words
• Enter the word to replace with there
• As soon as you will press the enter key

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UNIT – 4
Shell Programming
Shell Keywords
Keywords are the words whose meaning has already been explained to the shell.
The keywords cannot be used as variable names because of it are reserved words with
containing reserved meaning.
echo read set unset
readonly shift export if
fi else while do
done for until case
esac break continue exit
return trap wait eval
exec ulimit umask

What is a Variable?
In computer science, a variable is a location for storing a value which can be
a filename, text, number or any other data. It is usually referred to with its Symbolic
name which is given to it while creation. The value thus stored can be displayed, deleted,
edited and re-saved.
Variables play an important role in computer programming because they enable
programmers to write flexible programs. As they are related to the Operating system that
we work on, it is important to know some of them and how we can influence them.

Variable Types
When a shell is running, three main types of variables are present −
• Environment/System Variables − An environment variable is a variable that is
available to any child process of the shell. Some programs need environment
variables in order to function correctly. Usually a shell script defines only those
environment variables that are needed by the programs that it runs.
• Shell Variables − A shell variable is a special variable that is set by the shell and is
required by the shell in order to function correctly. Some of these variables are
environment variables whereas others are local variables.
• Local Variables − A local variable is a variable that is present within the current
instance of the shell. It is not available to programs that are started by the shell.
They are set at command prompt.

Shell Variables
The following table shows a number of special variables that you can use in your
shell scripts
Variable Description
$0 The filename of the current script.
$n These variables correspond to the arguments with which a script was
invoked. Here n is a positive decimal number corresponding to the
position of an argument (the first argument is $1, the second argument
is $2, and so on).

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$# The number of arguments supplied to a script.

$* All the arguments are double quoted. If a script receives two arguments,
$* is equivalent to $1 $2.
$@ All the arguments are individually double quoted. If a script receives two
arguments, $@ is equivalent to $1 $2.
$? The exit status of the last command executed.
$$ The process number of the current shell. For shell scripts, this is the
process ID under which they are executing.
$! The process number of the last background command.

What are Environment / System variables?

Environment variables are dynamic values which affect the processes or programs on
a computer. They exist in every operating system, but types may vary. Environment
variables can be created, edited, saved, and deleted and give information about the
system behavior.
Environment variables can change the way a software/programs behave E.g. $LANG
environment variable stores the value of the language that the user understands. This
value is read by an application such that a Chinese user is shown a Mandarin interface
while an American user is shown an English interface.
Let's study some common environment variables

Variable Description
PS2 PS2 (Prompt String 2) is one of the prompts available in
Linux/Unix. The other prompts are PS1, PS3 and PS4. This is
very much useful for entering a large command in multiple lines
and when you execute incomplete command, this prompt will
come into picture.
Check what your default PS2 prompt by executing below
command:
echo $PS2
Output: >
If you see the prompt changed from ‘>’ to”-->’. This will be
very handy and more informative when dealing with a command
which spreads on multiple lines.
PS2=”--->”
Set the above PS2 prompt and check it yourself with following
data
echo $PS2
Output: -->
PATH

This variable contains a colon (:)-separated list of directories in

which your system looks for executable files.
When you enter a command on terminal, the shell looks
for the command in different directories mentioned in the

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$PATH variable. If the command is found, it executes. Otherwise,

it returns with an error 'command not found'.
HOME Indicates the home
directory of the current
user: the default argument
for the cd built-
in command.
LOGNAME/ USER Contains your username. It's set automatically when you log
in.
TERM Default terminal emulator
SHELL Shell being used by the user
IFS The Internal Field Separator to separate input on the command
line. By default, this is a space.
MAIL The path to the current user's mailbox.
MAILCHECK The MAILCHECK environment variable contains the minimum
number of seconds that must elapse before dbx checks for
incoming mail. The check is performed just before printing the
prompt, if $MAILCHECK seconds have elapsed since the last
check. If $MAILCHECK is null or is zero, the check is performed
before each prompt. If $MAILCHECK is unset, or is set to a non-
numeric value, checking for mail is disabled. The default is 600
seconds
Accessing Variable values
In order to determine value of a
variable, use the command Variables are-
Case Sensitive. Make sure that you type the
variable name in the right letter case
otherwise you may not get the desired
results.

The 'env' command displays all the

environment variables.

USER VARIABLE
1. SET
The set command assigns a value to a variable (or multiple values to multiple
variables). Without any options, all set variables are shown.
If a value has spaces in it, it should be contained in quotes. If a list of values is
desired, parentheses () should be used for the assignment, while individual access is done
via square brackets [].
A single set command can be used to set many variables, but such a use is not
recommended.

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Examples:
set value = 7
echo $value
set new_val = "some number, like seven"
echo $new_val

2. UNSET
The unset command to remove a variable from your shell environment.
Examples:
set value = 7
echo $value
unset value
echo $value

3. ECHO
The echo command is used to displays the given text/message on the screen/
terminal window. This is often used to show the user what is happening or to prompt for
a response.
Examples:
echo “BCA SEM 4 Semester”
POSITIONAL PARAMETERS
A positional parameter is a variable within a shell program; its value is set from an
argument specified on the command line that invokes the program. Positional parameters
are numbered and are referred to with a proceeding ``$'': $1, $2, $3, and so on
Positional Returns true (0) if:
Parameter Name
$0 The name of the script
$1 The first argument to the script
$2 The second argument to the script
$n The n-th argument to the script
$# The number of arguments to the script
$@ A list of all arguments to the script
$* A list of all arguments to the script
${#N} The length of the value of positional parameter N (Korn
shell only)
NOTE:
$@ and $* have the same meaning. This is true if they are not enclosed in double
quotes”“.
Examples:
echo "The total no of args are: $#" [[Link]-PC] ➤
echo "The script name is : $0" sh [Link] a b c d e f g h i j
echo "The first argument is : $1"
echo "The second argument is: $2" The total no of args are: 10
echo "The All arg is : $*" The script name is : [Link]
The first argument is : a
The second argument is: b
The All arg is : a b c d e f g h i j

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Interactive shell script using read and echo

1. echo
echo command in Linux is used to display line of text/string that are passed as an
argument . This is a built in command that is mostly used in shell scripts and batch files to
output status text to the screen or a file
Syntax: echo [option] [string]

Tag Description
-n Do not output a trailing newline.
-e Enable interpretation of backslash escape sequences (see below for a
list of these).
-E Disable interpretation of backslash escape sequences (this is the
default).
--help Display a help message and exit.
--version Output version information and exit.
\\ A literal backslash character ("\").
\a An alert (The BELL character).
\b Backspace
\c Produce no further output after this.
\e The escape character; equivalent to pressing the escape key.
\f A form feed.
\n A newline.
\r A carriage return
\t A horizontal tab.
\v A vertical tab.
\0NNN byte with octal value NNN (which can be 1 to 3 digits).
\xHH byte with hexadecimal value HH (which can be either 1 or 2 digits)
2. read
read is a built in command of the Bash shell, which reads a line of text from
standard input and splits it into words. These words can then be used as the input for
other commands.
Syntax: read [-ers] [-a array] [-d delim] [-i text] [-n nchars] [-N nchars][-p prompt]
[-t timeout] [-u fd] [name ...] [name2 ...]

Option Description
-a array Store the words in an indexed array named array. Numbering of array
elements starts at zero.
-d delim Set the delimiter character to delim. This character will signal the end of
the line. If -d is not used, the default line delimiter is a newline.
-e Get a line of input from an interactive shell. The user manually inputs
characters until the line delimiter is reached.
-i text When used in conjunction with -e (and only if -s is not used), text is
inserted as the initial text of the input line. The user is permitted to
edit text on the input line.
- Stop reading after an integer number nchars characters have been read, if
n nchars the line delimiter has not been reached.

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- Ignore the line delimiter. Stop reading only after nchars characters have
N nchars been read, EOF is reached, or read times out (see -t).
- Print the string prompt, without a newline, before beginning to read.
p prompt
-r Use "raw input". Specifically, this option causes read to interpret
backslashes literally, rather than interpreting them as escape characters.
-s Do not echo keystrokes when read is taking input from the terminal.
- Time out, and return failure, if a complete line of input is not read
t timeout within timeout seconds. If the timeout value is zero, read will not read
any data, but will return success if input was available to read.
If timeout is not specified, the value of the shell variable TMOUT is used
instead, if it exists. The value of timeout can be a fractional number,
e.g., 3.5.
-u fd Read from the file descriptor fd instead of standard input. The file
descriptor should be a small integer. For information about opening a
custom file descriptor,

Shell Basic Operators

There are various operators supported by each shell. We will discuss in detail about
Bourne shell (default shell). We will now discuss the following operators

• Arithmetic Operators
• Relational Operators
• Boolean Operators
• String Operators
• File Test Operators

Arithmetic Operators
The following arithmetic operators are supported by Bourne Shell. Assume
variable a holds 10 and variable b holds 20 then
Operator Description Example
+ (Addition) Adds values on either side of the operator `expr $a + $b` will give
30
- (Subtraction) Subtracts right hand operand from left hand `expr $a - $b` will give -
operand 10
* Multiplies values on either side of the `expr $a \* $b` will give
(Multiplication) operator 200
/ (Division) Divides left hand operand by right hand `expr $b / $a` will give
operand 2
% (Modulus) Divides left hand operand by right hand `expr $b % $a` will give
operand and returns remainder 0
= (Assignment) Assigns right operand in left operand a = $b would assign
value of b into a
== (Equality) Compares two numbers, if both are same [ $a == $b ] would
then returns true. return false.
!= (Not Compares two numbers, if both are [ $a != $b ] would
Equality) different then returns true. return true.

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It is very important to understand that all the conditional expressions should be

inside square braces with spaces around them, for example [ $a == $b ]is correct whereas,
[$a==$b] is incorrect. All the arithmetical calculations are done using long integers
Relational Operators
Bourne Shell supports the following relational operators that are specific to
numeric values. These operators do not work for string values unless their value is
numeric.
For example, following operators will work to check a relation between 10 and 20
as well as in between "10" and "20" but not in between "ten" and "twenty".
Assume variable a holds 10 and variable b holds 20 then −
Operator Description Example
-eq Checks if the value of two operands is equal or not; if yes, [ $a -eq $b ]
then the condition becomes true. is not true.
-ne Checks if the value of two operands is equal or not; if values [ $a -ne $b ]
are not equal, then the condition becomes true. is true.
-gt Checks if the value of left operand is greater than the value [ $a -gt $b ]
of right operand; if yes, then the condition becomes true. is not true.
-lt Checks if the value of left operand is less than the value of [ $a -lt $b ]
right operand; if yes, then the condition becomes true. is true.
-ge Checks if the value of left operand is greater than or equal [ $a -ge $b ]
to the value of right operand; if yes, then the condition is not true.
becomes true.
-le Checks if the value of left operand is less than or equal to [ $a -le $b ]
the value of right operand; if yes, then the condition is true.
becomes true.
It is very important to understand that all the conditional expressions should be
placed inside square braces with spaces around them. For example, [ $a <= $b ] is correct
whereas, [$a <= $b] is incorrect.
Boolean Operators
The following Boolean operators are supported by the Bourne Shell. Assume
variable a holds 10 and variable b holds 20 then −
Operator Description Example
! This is logical negation. This inverts a true [ ! false ] is true.
condition into false and vice versa.
-o This is logical OR. If one of the operands is true, [ $a -lt 20 -o $b -gt 100 ]
then the condition becomes true. is true.
-a This is logical AND. If both the operands are true, [ $a -lt 20 -a $b -gt 100 ]
then the condition becomes true otherwise false. is false.

String Operators
The following string operators are supported by Bourne Shell. Assume
variable a holds "abc" and variable b holds "efg"
Operator Description Example
= Checks if the value of two operands is equal [ $a = $b ] is not true.
or not; if yes, then the condition becomes
true.

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!= Checks if the value of two operands is equal [ $a != $b ] is true.

or not; if values are not equal then the
condition becomes true.
-z Checks if the given string operand size is [ -z $a ] is not true.
zero; if it is zero length, then it returns true.
-n Checks if the given string operand size is [ -n $a ] is not false.
non-zero; if it is nonzero length, then it
returns true.
str Checks if str is not the empty string; if it is [ $a ] is not false.
empty, then it returns false.
Decision Statement
We will understand shell decision-making in Unix. While writing a shell script, there
may be a situation when you need to adopt one path out of the given two paths. So you
need to make use of conditional statements that allow your program to make correct
decisions and perform the right actions.
Unix Shell supports conditional statements which are used to perform different
actions based on different conditions. We will now understand two decision-making
statements here
• The if...else statement
• The case... esac statement

The if...else statements

If else statements are useful decision-making statements which can be used to
select an option from a given set of options.
Unix Shell supports following forms of if…else statement
• if...fi statement
• if...else...fi statement
• if...elif...else...fi statement
• if..then..else..if..then..fi..fi..(Nested if)
Most of the if statements check relations using relational operators discussed in
the previous chapter.
if… fi statement (Simple if)
Simple if is used for decision making in shell script. if the given condition is true
then it will execute the set of code that you have allocated to that block.
Syntax Example
if [ condition ] echo "Enter Number:-"
then read no
Execute the statements if [ $no -eq 1]
fi then
echo "Number 1 "
fi
if...else...fi statement
if.. else .. fi statement is used for decision making in shell script where the given
condition is true then it will execute the set of code that you have allocated to that block
otherwise you can execute the rest of code for the false condition.

Syntax Example

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if [ condition ] #Check Number is Positive or Not

then echo "Enter Number:"
Execute Statement if read no
Condition is True if [ $no -gt 0 ]
elif then
Execute Statement if echo "Number is Positive"
Condition is False elif
fi echo "Number is Negative"
fi
if...elif...else...fi statement
it is possible to create compound conditional statements by using one or more
else if(elif) clause. if the 1st condition is false, then subsequent elif statements are
checked. when an elif condition is found to be true, the statements following that
associated parts are executed.
Syntax Example
if [ condition - 1 ] echo "Enter Student Mark:-"
then read mark
Execute Statement if Condition 1 if [ $mark -gt 70]
elif [ condition -2 ] then
Execute Statement if Condition 2 echo "Distinction"
elif [ condition -3 ] elif [ $mark -gt 60]
Execute Statement if Condition 3 then
elif echo "First Class"
Else Condition elif [ $mark -gt 50]
fi then
echo "Second Class"
elif [ $mark -gt 40]
then
echo "Pass Class"
elif
echo "Fail"
fi
if..then..else..if..then..fi..fi..(Nested if)
if statement and else statement can be nested in bash shell programming the
keyword "fi" indicates the end of the inner if statement and all if statement should end
with "fi".

Syntax Example
if [ condition ] #Nested if Example
then echo "Enter Your number :"
if [ condition ] read no
then if [$no –ne 0]
Execute Statement then
elif if [$no -gt 0]
Execute Statement then
fi echo "Positive Value"
elif elif

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Execute Statement echo "Negative Value"

fi fi
elif
echo "Zero Value"
fi

The case...esac Statement

You can use multiple if...elif statements to perform a multi-way branch. However,
this is not always the best solution, especially when all of the branches depend on the
value of a single variable.
Unix Shell supports case...esac statement which handles exactly this situation, and
it does so more efficiently than repeated if...elif statements.
There is only one form of case...esac statement which has been described in detail
here
• case...esac statement
The case...esac statement in the UNIX shell is very similar to the switch...case
statement we have in other programming languages like C or C++ etc.

Syntax Example
case $[ variable_name ] in #Case Statement Example
value1) echo "Enter Number:"
Statement 1 ;; read no
value2) case $no in
Statement 2 ;; 1) echo "ONE" ;;
value3) 2) echo "TWO ;;
Statement 3 ;; 3) echo "Three" ;;
value4) default
Statement 4 ;; echo “input between 1 to 3”
valueN) esac
Statement N ;; *)
Default
Statement ;;
esac

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Test Command
The test command checks for various properties of files, strings and integers. It
produces no output (except error messages) but returns the result of the test as the exit
status
The command line includes a Boolean expression. The test command can test for
various conditions, and then returns 0 for true and 1 for false. Usually, test is used in
if...then or while loops.
Syntax: test expression test [ expression ] test [[ expression ]]

Example
Sandip@Sandip-PC ~$ a=10
Sandip@Sandip-PC ~$ b=20
Sandip@Sandip-PC ~$ test $a -le $b
Sandip@Sandip-PC ~$ echo $?
0
Sandip@Sandip-PC ~$ test $a -eq $b
Sandip@Sandip-PC ~$ echo $?
1
Looping Statement
A loop is a powerful programming tool that enables you to execute a set of
commands repeatedly we will examine the following types of loops available to shell
programmers
• The while loop
• The for loop
• The until loop
While Loop
The while loop enables you to execute a set of commands repeatedly until some
condition occurs. It is usually used when you need to manipulate the value of a variable
repeatedly.
Syntax Example Output
while command clear 1
do i=1 2
while [ $i -le 5 ]
Statement(s) to be do
3
executed if command echo $i 4
is true i=$(( i+1 )) 5
done done
Here the Shell command is evaluated. If the resulting value is true, given
statement(s) are executed. If command is false then no statement will be executed and
the program will jump to the next line after the done statement.

FOR Loop

The for loop operates on lists of items. It repeats a set of commands for every item
in a list.

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Syntax Example Output

for i in {1..5} 1
for var in word1 word2 ... wordN do 2
do echo $i 3
Statement(s) to be executed done 4
for every word. for var in 1 2 3 4 5 5
done do
echo $var
done
for FILE in $HOME/.bash* /root/.bash_history
do /root/.bash_logout
echo $FILE /root/.bash_profile
done /root/.bashrc

Here var is the name of a variable and word1 to wordN are sequences of
characters separated by spaces (words). Each time the for loop executes, the value of the
variable var is set to the next word in the list of words, word1 to wordN. And also display
all the files starting with .bash and available in your home. We will execute this script
from my root

UNTILL Loop
The while loop is perfect for a situation where you need to execute a set of
commands while some condition is true. Sometimes you need to execute a set of
commands until a condition is true.

Syntax Example Output

until command i=0 1
do until [ ! $i -lt 5 ] 2
Statement(s) to be executed do 3
until command is true echo $a 4
done i=$(( i+1 )) 5
done
Here the Shell command is evaluated. If the resulting value is false, given
statement(s) are executed. If the command is true then no statement will be executed and
the program jumps to the next line after the done statement.
Break Statement
The break statement is used to terminate the execution of the entire loop, after
completing the execution of all of the lines of code up to the break statement. It then steps
down to the code following the end of the loop.
The break command can also be used to exit from a nested loop using this format
Here n specifies the nth enclosing loop to the exit from.
Syntax Example Output
break a=0 0
or while [ $a -lt 10 ] 1
break n do 2
echo $a 3
if [ $a -eq 5 ] 4

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then 5
break
fi
a=$(( $a + 1 ))
done

Continue statement
Continue is a command which is used to skip the current iteration in for, while and
until loop. It takes one more parameter [N], if N is mentioned then it continues from the
nth enclosing loop.
Syntax Example Output
continue a=0 0
or while [ $a -lt 10 ] 1
continue [N] do 2
echo $a 3
if [ $a -eq 5 ] 4
then 6
continue 7
fi 8
a=$(( $a + 1 )) 9
done

Array
A shell variable is capable enough to hold a single value. These variables are called
scalar variables.
Shell supports a different type of variable called an array variable. This can hold
multiple values at the same time. Arrays provide a method of grouping a set of variables.
Instead of creating a new name for each variable that is required, you can use a single
array variable that stores all the other [Link] the naming rules discussed
Arrays in Shell Scripting
An array is a structured arrangement of similar data elements. Within shell
scripting, an array is a variable that holds multiple values, whether they are of the same
type or different types. It’s important to note that in shell scripting, everything is treated
as a string. Arrays adhere to a zero-based index, which signifies that indexing initiates
from 0.
How to Declare Array in Shell Scripting?
Arrays can be declared in a shell script using various approaches:
1. Indirect Declaration
In this method, you assign a value to a specific index of the array variable. There’s
no need to declare the array beforehand.
ARRAYNAME[INDEXNR]=value
2. Explicit Declaration
With explicit declaration, you first declare the array and then assign values to it.
declare -a ARRAYNAME
3. Compound Assignment
This method involves declaring the array along with its initial set of values. You can later
add additional values to the array.

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ARRAYNAME=(value1 value2 .... valueN)

Alternatively, you can use index numbers to assign values explicitly:
ARRAYNAME=([1]=10 [2]=20 [3]=30)
Printing Array Values in Shell Script:
To display array elements, you have several options:
Here is a `array_test.sh`script explaining multiple options. (You can create script with any
name)
#!/bin/bash
# To declare a static Array
arr= (“BCA” “COMPUTER” “BBA” “MANAGMENT” “BCOM” “ACCOUNT”)
echo “All elements of the array:” # To print all elements of the array
echo “${arr[@]}”
echo “${arr[*]}”

# To print the first element

echo “The first element:”
echo “${arr[0]}”

# To print a selected index element

selected_index=3
echo “Selected index element at index $selected_index:”
echo “${arr[$selected_index]}”

# To print elements from a particular index

echo “Elements from a particular index:”
echo “${arr[@]:2}” # Prints elements starting from index 2
echo “${arr[*]:2}” # Prints elements starting from index 2

# To print elements in a range

echo “Elements in a range:”
echo “${arr[@]:1:3}” # Prints elements from index 1 to 3
echo “${arr[*]:1:3}” # Prints elements from index 1 to 3

Explanation:
1. Array Declaration: An array named arr is declared, containing six elements. These
elements are strings: “BCA”, “COMPUTER”, “BBA”, “MANAGMENT”, “BCOM”, and
“ACCOUNT”.
2. Printing All Elements:
• echo "All elements of the array:": A message is printed to indicate that all elements
of the array are being displayed.
• ${arr [@]}: This syntax is used to print each element of the array separately. It
displays all elements in the array.
• ${arr [*]}: Similar to the previous line, this syntax prints all elements of the array
as a single string.
3. Printing the First Element:
• echo "The first element:": A message is printed to indicate that the first element of
the array is being displayed.

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• ${arr [0]}: This syntax retrieves and displays the first element of the array. In
Bash, array indexing starts at 0.
4. Printing a Selected Index Element:
• selected_index=3: A variable named selected_index is assigned the value 3. This
variable represents the desired index in the array.
• echo "Selected index element at index $selected_index:": A message is printed to
indicate the selected index.
• ${arr[$selected_index]}: Using the value stored in selected_index, this syntax
retrieves and displays the element at the specified index (index 3 in this case).
5. Printing Elements from a Particular Index:
• echo "Elements from a particular index:": A message is printed to indicate that
elements from a specific index are being displayed.
• ${arr [@]:2}: This syntax extracts and displays all elements starting from index 2
in the array. It prints each element separately.
• ${arr [*]:2}: Similar to the previous line, this syntax displays the elements as a
single string, starting from index 2.
6. Printing Elements in a Range:
• echo "Elements in a range:": A message is printed to indicate that elements within
a specified range are being displayed.
• ${arr[@]:1:3}: This syntax extracts and displays elements starting from index 1 up
to index 3 (inclusive). It prints each element separately.
• ${arr[*]:1:3}: Similar to the previous line, this syntax displays the extracted
elements as a single string.

Function
A shell is a command-line interpreter, and shell scripts commonly execute file
manipulation, program execution, and text output. In this article, we are going to read
about functions and their types in shell scripting.
Definition
A function is a collection of statements that execute a specified task. Its main goal
is to break down a complicated procedure into simpler subroutines that can subsequently
be used to accomplish the more complex routine.
Function syntax
function functionName()
{
# some code goes here...
}
Where functionName is the name of the function. After the name we have the
opening and closing parenthesis (). The body of the function starts from { and ends
at }. Inside the opening and closing curly brackets {} we have the body of the function.
Another way of creating a function is given below.
functionName()
{
# body of the function
}
Function name:-We follow the given rules when naming functions.
• Name must start with letters (a-z or A-Z) or underscore _

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• After that we can use letters (a-z and A-Z), underscore _ and digits (0-9)
• Don't put space in the function name
• Don't use special keywords like echo, printf etc to name your function
Example #01: Write a Shell Script to print "Hello World" using function
In the following example we are creating greetings function.
CODE Output
#!/bin/sh $ sh [Link]
# create a function Hello World
function greetings()
{
echo "Hello World"
}
# call the function
greetings
Passing argument to a function
We can also pass arguments to a function in shell script and access them using
variables like $1, $2, $3... where, $1 points at the first argument, $2 points at the second
argument and so on.
Example #02: Write a Shell Script to create a function that accepts user name and
displays a greetings message
In the following example we are creating greeting’s function which accepts an
argument and prints a greetings message.

CODE Output:
#!/bin/sh $ sh [Link]
# create a function Hello Smt. JJKCC
greetings() {
echo "Hello $1"
}
# call the function
greetings "Smt. JJKCC"
Example #03: Write a Shell Script to print greetings message using the name
entered by the user
In this example we will first take the name from the user and save it in
variable name.
CODE Output:
#!/bin/sh $ sh [Link]
# function Enter your name: Smt. JJKCC
greetings() { Hello Smt. JJKCC
echo "Hello $1"
}
# take user name
printf "Enter your name: "
read name
# call the function
greetings "$name"

Return Code: We use the return command to return value from a function.

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Example #04: Write a Shell Script to create a function that takes a number as
argument and finds the square. On success it returns 0 otherwise, 1
For this we will create square function which will take a number as argument.
CODE Output:
#!/bin/sh $ sh [Link]
# function Enter a number: 5
square() { Square of 5 = 25
# if argument missing
if [ -z "$1" ]
then $ sh [Link]
return 1 # return error code Enter a number:
fi Error Code: 1 Error: Number missing!
# assign argument to variable n
n="$1"
# find square
result=`expr "$n * $n" | bc -l`
return 0 # return success code
}
# take user input
printf "Enter a number: "
read num
# call the function
square "$num"
# save the returned code from the above
function call
returnCode=$?

if [ $returnCode -eq 0 ]
then
# display the result
printf "Square of %d = %d\n" "$num"
"$result"
elif [ $returnCode -eq 1 ]
then
printf "Error Code: $returnCode Error:
Number missing!\n"
else
printf "Error Code: $returnCode Error:
Unknown!\n"
fi

Value returned by the function is accessed using $? so, we use it to save the
returned value in variable $returnCode. So, result variable is like a global variable even
though it is inside the square function. This is different from what we know from other
programming languages like C, C++, Java etc. were a variable defined inside a function
can't be accessed from outside directly.

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Example #05: Write a Shell Script to compute Simple Interest based on user input
CODE Output:
#!/bin/sh Output:
# simple interest function $ sh [Link]
simpleInterest () { Enter Principal: 100
p="$1" Enter Rate [0-100]: 10
r="$2" Enter Time [in years]: 2
t="$3" Simple Interest: 20.000
si=`expr "($p * $r * $t)/100" | bc -l`
}
# take user input
printf "Enter Principal: "
read pr
printf "Enter Rate [0-100]: "
read rt
printf "Enter Time [in years]: "
read tm
# call function
simpleInterest $pr $rt $tm
printf "Simple Interest: %.3f\n" "$si"

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UNIT –5
Getting Started With Linux
History of Linux
Linux is the first truly free Unix-like operating system. The underlying GNU Project
was launched in 1983 by Richard Stallman originally to develop a Unix-compatible
operating system called GNU, intended to be entirely free software. Many programs and
utilities were contributed by developers around the world, and by 1991 most of the
components of the system were ready. Still missing was the kernel.
Linus Torvalds invented Linux itself. In 1991, To rivals was a student at the
University of Helsinki in Finland where he had been using Minix, a non-free Unix-like
system, and began writing his own kernel. He started by developing device drivers and
hard-drive access, and by September had a basic design that he called Version 0.01. This
kernel, which is called Linux, was afterwards combined with the GNU system to produce a
complete free operating system.
On October 5th, 1991, Torvalds sent a posting to the comp. OS minix newsgroup
announcing the release of Version 0.02, a basic version that still needed Minix to operate,
but which attracted considerable interest nevertheless. The kernel was then rapidly
improved by Torvalds and a growing number of volunteers communicating over
the Internet, and by December 19th a functional, stand-alone Unix-like Linux system was
released as Version 0.11.
On January 5, 1992, Linux Version 0.12 was released, an improved, stable kernel.
The next release was called Version 0.95, to reflect the fact that it was becoming a full-
featured system. After that Linux became an underground phenomenon, with a growing
group of distributed programmers that continue to debug, develop, and enhance the
source code baseline to this day.
Torvalds released Version 0.11 under a freeware license of his own devising, but
then released Version 0.12 under the well established GNU General Public License. More
and more free software was created for Linux over the next several years.
Linux continued to be improved through the 1990's, and started to be used in
large-scale applications like web hosting, networking, and database serving, proving
ready for production use. Version 2.2, a major update to the Linux kernel, was officially
released in January 1999. By the year 2000, most computer companies supported Linux
in one way or another, recognizing a common standard that could finally reunify the
fractured world of the Unix Wars. The next major release was V2.4 in January 2001,
providing (among other improvements) compatibility with the upcoming generations of
Intel's 64-bit Itanium computer processors.
Although Torvalds continued to function as the Linux kernel release manager, he
avoided work at any of the many companies involved with Linux in order to avoid
showing favoritism to any particular organization, and instead went to work for a
company called Transmeta and helped develop mobile computing solutions, and made his
home at the Open Source Development Labs (OSDL), which merged into The Linux
Foundation.
Concept of GNU
The GNU Linux project was created for the development of a Unix-like operating
system that comes with source code that can be copied, modified, and redistributed.

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Richard Stallman announced the GNU Linux project in 1983 and, with others, formed
the Free Software Foundation in 1985.
According to the GNU Linux project, there is no independent GNU operating
system. Furthermore, they claim that there is no independent Linux operating system
either. The OS known as Linux is based on the Linux kernel but all other components are
GNU. As such, many believe that the OS should be known as GNU/Linux or GNU Linux.
Concept of GPL
General Public License, the license that accompanies some open source software
that details how the software and its accompany source code can be freely copied,
distributed and modified. The most widespread use of GPL is in reference to the GNU GPL,
which is commonly abbreviated simply as GPL when it is understood that the term refers
to the GNU GPL. One of the basic tenets of the GPL is that anyone who acquires the
material must make it available to anyone else under the same licensing agreement.
The GPL does not cover activities other than the copying, distributing and
modifying of the source code.
Open Source & Freeware
Open Source
Open-source software (OSS) is computer software with its source code made
available with a license in which the copyright holder provides the rights to study,
change, and distribute the software to anyone and for any purpose. Open-source software
may be developed in a collaborative public manner. According to scientists who studied
it, open-source software is a prominent example of open collaboration.
The open-source software development, or collaborative development from
multiple independent sources, generates an increasingly more diverse scope of design
perspective than any one company is capable of developing and sustaining long term.

Freeware
Freeware is proprietary software that is available for use at no monetary cost. In
other words, freeware may be used without payment but may usually not be modified, re
-distributed or reverse-engineered without the author's permission. Two historic
examples of freeware include Skype and Adobe Acrobat Reader.
Freeware, although itself free of charge, may be intended to benefit its owner, e.g.
by encouraging sales of a more capable version ("Freemium" or Shareware business
model). The source code of freeware is typically not available, unlike free software and
open source software which are also often distributed free of charge.

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Features
• Portable – Portability means software’s can works on different types of hardware in
same way. Linux kernel and application programs support their installation on any
kind of hardware platform.
• Open Source – Linux source code is freely available and it is community based
development project. Multiple teams works in collaboration to enhance the
capability of Linux operating system and it is continuously evolving.
• Multi-User – Linux is a multiuser system means multiple users can access system
resources like memory/ ram/ application programs at same time.
• Multiprogramming – Linux is a multiprogramming system means multiple
applications can run at same time.
• Hierarchical File System – Linux provides a standard file structure in which
system files/ user files are arranged.
• Shell – Linux provides a special interpreter program which can be used to execute
commands of the operating system. It can be used to do various types of operations,
call application programs etc.
• Security – Linux provides user security using authentication features like password
protection/ controlled access to specific files/ encryption of data.
• Demand loads executables: Linux only reads from disk those parts of a program
that are actually used.
➢ Shared copy-on-write pages among executables. This means that multiple
processes can use the same memory to run in. When one tries to write to that
memory, that page (4KB piece of memory) is copied somewhere else. Copy-on-
write has two benefits: increasing speed and decreasing memory use.
➢ Virtual memory using paging (not swapping whole processes) to disk: to a
separate partition or a file in the file system, or both, with the possibility of
adding more swapping areas during runtime (yes, they're still called swapping
areas). A total of 16 of these 128 MB (2GB in recent kernels) swapping areas
can be used at the same time, for a theoretical total of 2 GB of useable swap
space. It is simple to increase this if necessary, by changing a few lines of
source code.
➢ A unified memory pool for user programs and disk cache, so that all free
memory can be used for caching, and the cache can be reduced when running
large programs.
➢ All source code is available, including the whole kernel and all drivers, the
development tools and all user programs; also, all of it is freely distributable.
Plenty of commercial programs are being provided for Linux without source,
but everything that has been free, including the entire base operating system,
is still free.
➢ Multiple virtual consoles: several independent login sessions through the
console, you switch by pressing a hot-key combination (not dependent on
video hardware). These are dynamically allocated; you can use up to 64.
➢ Supports several common file systems, including minix, Xenix, and all the
common system V file systems, and has an advanced file system of its own,
which offers file systems of up to 4 TB, and names up to 255 characters long.
➢ Many networking protocols: the base protocols available in the latest
development kernels include TCP, IPv4, IPv6, AX.25, X.25, IPX, DDP

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(AppleTalk), Netrom, and others. Stable network protocols included in the

stable kernels currently include TCP, IPv4, IPX, DDP, and AX.25.

Installation Of Ubuntu
If your computer doesn’t automatically do so, you might need to press the F12
key to bring up the boot menu, but be careful not to hold it down - that can cause an error
message.

Prepare to install Ubuntu

o We recommend you plug your computer into a power source
o You should also make sure you have enough space on your computer to install
Ubuntu
o We advise you to select Download updates while installing and Install this third-
party software now
o You should also stay connected to the internet so you can get the latest updates
while you install Ubuntu
o If you are not connected to the internet, you will be asked to select a wireless
network, if available. We advise you to connect during the installation so we can
ensure your machine is up to date

Allocate drive space

Use the checkboxes to choose whether you’d like to Install Ubuntu alongside
another operating system, delete your existing operating system and replace it with
Ubuntu, or — if you’re an advanced user — choose the ’Something else’ option

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Begin the installation

Depending on your previous selections, you can now verify that you have chosen
the way in which you would like to install Ubuntu. The installation process will begin
when you click the Install Now button. Ubuntu needs about 4.5 GB to install, so add a few
extra GB to allow for your files.

Select your location

If you are connected to the internet, this should be done automatically. Check your
location is correct and click ’Forward’ to proceed. If you’re unsure of your time zone, type
the name of the town you’re in or click on the map and we’ll help you find it.

Select
your
preferred keyboard layout
Click on the language option you need. If you’re not sure, click the ’Detect
Keyboard Layout’ button for help.

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Enter your login and password details

Learn more about Ubuntu while the system installs…

…or make a cup of tea!

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Startup, Shutdown and Boot Loaders of Linux

Startup and shutdown scripts are used to manually start up or shut down Couch
base Server. On Linux, Couch base Server is installed as a standalone application with
support for running as a background (daemon) process during start-up through the use
of a standard control script, which is located in /etc/init.d/couchbase-server .
The startup script is automatically installed during installation from one of the
Linux packaged releases (Debian / Ubuntu or Red Hat/CentOS). By default, Couch base
Server is configured to be started automatically at run levels 2, 3, 4, and 5, and explicitly
shut down at run levels 0, 1 and 6.

To manually start Couch base Server using the startup/shutdown script:

>> sudo /etc/init.d/couchbase-server start
To manually stop Couch base Server using the startup/shutdown script:
>> sudo /etc/init.d/couchbase-server stop

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UNIT – 5
Linux Booting
Linux Booting Process

1. BIOS
• When we power on BIOS performs a Power-On Self-Test (POST) for all of the
different hardware components in the system to make sure everything is working
properly
• Also it checks for whether the computer is being started from an off position (cold
boot) or from a restart (warm boot) is stored at this location.
• Retrieves information from CMOS (Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor) a
battery-operated memory chip on the motherboard that stores time, date, and
critical system information.
• Once BIOS sees everything is fine it will begin searching for an operating system
Boot Sector on a valid master boot sector on all available drives like hard disks CD-
ROM drive etc.
• Once BIOS finds a valid MBR it will give the instructions to boot and executes the
first 512-byte boot sector that is the first sector (“Sector 0”) of a partitioned data
storage device such as hard disk or CD-ROM etc
2. MBR
• Normally we use multi-level boot loader. Here MBR means I am referencing to
DOS MBR.
• Afer BIOS executes a valid DOS MBR, the DOS MBR will search for a valid primary
partition marked as bootable on the hard disk.
• if MBR finds a valid bootable primary partition then it executes the first 512-bytes
of that partition which is second level MBR.
• In linux we have two types of the above mentioned second level MBR known as
LILO and GRUB
3. GRUB/ LILO
❖ LILO
• LILO is a Linux boot loader which is too big to fit into single sector of 512-
bytes.
• So it is divided into two parts: an installer and a runtime module.
• The installer module places the runtime module on MBR. The runtime module
has the info about all operating systems installed.
• When the runtime module is executed, it selects the operating system to load
and transfers the control to kernel.

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•LILO does not understand file systems and boot images to be loaded and treats
them as raw disk offsets
❖ GRUB
• GRUB MBR consists of 446 bytes of primary boot loader code and 64 bytes of
the partition table.
• GRUB locates all the operating systems installed and gives a GUI to select the
operating system need to be loaded.
• Once user selects the operating system GRUB will pass control to the karnel of
that operating system.
4. Kernel
• Once GRUB or LILO transfers the control to Kernel, the Kernels does the
following tasks
• Initializes devices and loads initrd module mounts root file system
5. Init
• The kernel, once it is loaded, finds init in sbin(/sbin/init) and executes it.
• Hence the first process which is started in linux is init process.
• This init process reads /etc/inittab file and sets the path, starts swapping,
checks the file systems, and so on.
• It runs all the boot scripts(/etc/rc.d/*,/etc/[Link]/*)
• starts the system on specified run level in the file /etc/inittab
6. Runlevel
• There are 7 run levels in which the linux OS runs and different run levels
serves for different purpose. The descriptions are given below.
0 – halt
1 – Single user mode
2 – Multiuser, without NFS (The same as 3, if you don’t have networking)
3 – Full multiuser mode
4 – Unused
5 – X11
6 – Reboot
• We can set in which run-level we want to run our operating system by defining
it on /etc/inittab file.
• Now as per our setting in /etc/inittab the Operating System the operating
system boots up and finishes the boot-up process.
• Below are given some few important differences about LILO and GRUB

LILO GRUB
LILO has no interactive command interface GRUB has interactive command
interface
LILO does not support booting from a GRUB does support booting from a
network network
If you change your LILO config file, you have GRUB automatically detects any change
to rewrite the LILO stage one boot loader to in config file and auto loads the OS
the MBR
LILO supports only linux operating system GRUB supports large number of OS

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What is LILO?
LILO is Linux Loader is a boot loader for Linux. It is used to load Linux into the
memory and start the Operating system. LILO can be configured to boot other operating
systems as well. LILO is customizable, which means that if the default configuration is not
correct, it can be changed. Config file for LILO is [Link].

LILO Configuration
LILO (LInux LOader) is a boot loader for Linux and was the default boot loader for
most Linux distributions in the years after the popularity of loading. Today, many
distributions use GRUB as the default boot loader, but LILO and its variant ELILO are still
in wide use. Further development of LILO was discontinued in December 2015 along with
a request by Joachim Weidorn for potential developers.
LILO does not depend on a specific file system, and can boot an operating system
(e.g. Linux kernel images) from floppy disks and hard disks. One of up to sixteen different
images can be selected at boot time. Various parameters, such as the root device, can be
set independently for each kernel. LILO can be placed in the master boot record (MBR) or
the boot sector of a partition. In the latter case, the MBR must contain code to load LILO.
At system start, only the BIOS drivers are available for LILO to access hard disks.
For this reason, a very old BIOS access area is limited to cylinders 0 to 1023 of the first
two hard disks. For later BIOS, LILO can use 32-bit "Logical Block Addressing" (LBA) to
access the entire capacity of the hard disks the BIOS has access to.

To Configure LILO File in /etc/[Link] File

As with many Linux utilities, LILO can be customized with a configuration file in
the /etc directory. The [Link] file has its own man page which is quite thorough. In fact,
it may be a little too thorough for simple configuration. So here’s the lowdown on your
basic [Link] file.
The sample [Link] file shown below is for a typical dual-boot configuration, with
Windows installed on the first partition and Linux on the second. You can probably use
this as-is, except for the image = line and possibly the root = line, depending on where
Linux was installed. Detailed explanation follows.
boot=/dev/hda
map=/boot/map
install=/boot/boot.b
prompt
timeout=50
message=/boot/message
lba32
default=linux
image=/boot/vmlinuz-2.4.0-0.43.6
label=linux
initrd=/boot/[Link]
read-only
root=/dev/hda5
other=/dev/hda1
label=dos

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• boot=/dev/hda - Instructs LILO to be installed on the first hard disk of the first IDE
controller.
• map=/boot/map - Locates the map file. In normal use, this should not be modified.
• install=/boot/boot.b - Instructs LILO to install the specified file as the new boot
sector. In normal use, this should not be altered. If the install line is missing, LILO
assumes a default of /boot/boot.b as the file to be used.
• prompt - Instructs LILO to show you whatever is referenced in the message line. While
it is not recommended that you remove the prompt line, if you do remove it, you can
still access a prompt by holding down the [Shift] key while your machine starts to
boot.
• timeout=50 - Sets the amount of time that LILO waits for user input before
proceeding with booting the default line entry. This is measured in tenths of a second,
with 50 as the default.
• message=/boot/message - Refers to the screen that LILO displays to let you select
the operating system or kernel to boot.
• lba32 - Describes the hard disk geometry to LILO. Another common entry here
is linear. You should not change this line unless you are very aware of what you are
doing. Otherwise, you could put your system in an unbootable state.
• default=linux - Refers to the default operating system for LILO to boot as seen in the
options listed below this line. The name linux refers to the label line below in each of
the boot options.
• image=/boot/vmlinuz-2.4.0-0.43.6 - Specifies which Linux kernel to boot with this
particular boot option.
• label=linux - Names the operating system option in the LILO screen. In this case, it is
also the name referred to by the default line.
• initrd=/boot/[Link] - Refers to the initial ram disk image that is
used at boot time to initialize and start the devices that makes booting the kernel
possible. The initial ram disk is a collection of machine-specific drivers necessary to
operate a SCSI card, hard drive, or any other device needed to load the kernel. You
should never try to share initial ram disks between machines.
• read-only - Specifies that the root partition (refer to the root line below) is read-only
and cannot be altered during the boot process.
• root=/dev/hda5 - Specifies which disk partition to use as the root partition.
• other=/dev/hda1 - Specifies the partition containing DOS.

GRUB Configuration
The configuration file (/boot/grub/[Link]), which is used to create the list of
operating systems to boot in GRUB's menu interface, essentially allows the user to select
a pre-set group of commands to execute. The commands given in GRUB Commands can
be used, as well as some special commands that are only available in the configuration
file.
Configuration File Structure
The GRUB menu interface configuration file is /boot/grub/[Link]. The
commands to set the global preferences for the menu interface are placed at the top of the
file, followed by stanzas for each operating kernel or operating system listed in the menu.
The following is a very basic GRUB menu configuration file designed to boot either
Red Hat Enterprise Linux:

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default=0
timeout=10
splashimage=(hd0,0)/grub/[Link]

# section to load Linux

title Red Hat Enterprise Linux ([Link])
root (hd0,0)
kernel /vmlinuz-2.4.21-1 ro root=/dev/sda2
initrd /[Link]

# section to load Windows

title Windows
rootnoverify (hd0,0)
chainloader +1
This file configures GRUB to build a menu with Red Hat Enterprise Linux as the
default operating system and sets it to auto-boot after 10 seconds. Two sections are
given, one for each operating system entry, with commands specific to the system disk
partition table.
Configuring a GRUB menu configuration file to boot multiple operating systems is
beyond the scope of this chapter. Consult Additional Resources for a list of additional
resources.

Configuration File Directives

The following are directives commonly used in the GRUB menu configuration file:
• hainloader </path/to/file> — Loads the specified file as a chain loader.
Replace </path/to/file> with the absolute path to the chain loader. If the file is located
on the first sector of the specified partition, use the blocklist notation, +1.
• color <normal-color> <selected-color> — Allows specific colors to be used in the
menu, where two colors are configured as the foreground and background. Use simple
color names such as red/black.
For example: color red/black green/blue
• default=<integer> — Replace <integer> with the default entry title number to be
loaded if the menu interface times out.
• fallback=<integer> — Replace <integer> with the entry title number to try if the first
attempt fails.
• hiddenmenu — Prevents the GRUB menu interface from being displayed, loading
the default entry when the timeout period expires. The user can see the standard
GRUB menu by pressing the [Esc] key.
• initrd </path/to/initrd> — Enables users to specify an initial RAM disk to use when
booting. Replace </path/to/initrd> with the absolute path to the initial RAM disk.
• kernel </path/to/kernel> <option-1> <option-N> — Specifies the kernel file to load
when booting the operating system. Replace </path/to/kernel> with an absolute path
from the partition specified by the root directive. Multiple options can be passed to
the kernel when it is loaded.
• password=<password> — Prevents a user who does not know the password from
editing the entries for this menu option.
Optionally, it is possible to specify an alternate menu configuration file after
the password=<password> directive. In this case, GRUB restarts the second stage boot

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loader and uses the specified alternate configuration file to build the menu. If an
alternate menu configuration file is left out of the command, a user who knows the
password is allowed to edit the current configuration file.
• root (<device-type><device-number>,<partition>) — Configures the root partition
for GRUB, such as (hd0,0), and mounts the partition.
• rootnoverify (<device-type><device-number>,<partition>) — Configures the root
partition for GRUB, just like the root command, but does not mount the partition.
• timeout=<integer> — Specifies the interval, in seconds, that GRUB waits before
loading the entry designated in the default command.
• splashimage=<path-to-image> — Specifies the location of the splash screen image
to be used when GRUB boots.
• title group-title — Specifies a title to be used with a particular group of commands
used to load a kernel or operating system.

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UNIT – 5
Linux Admin (Ubuntu)
USER CONFIGURATION
ADD USER
User management is a critical part of maintaining a secure system. Ineffective user
and privilege management often lead many systems into being compromised. Therefore,
it is important that you understand how you can protect your server through simple and
effective user account management techniques.
Ubuntu developers made a conscientious decision to disable the administrative
root account by default in all Ubuntu installations. This does not mean that the root
account has been deleted or that it may not be accessed. It merely has been given a
password which matches no possible encrypted value, therefore may not log in directly
by itself.
Instead, users are encouraged to make use of a tool by the name of sudo to carry out
system administrative duties. Sudo allows an authorized user to temporarily elevate their
privileges using their own password instead of having to know the password belonging to
the root account. This simple yet effective methodology provides accountability for all
user actions, and gives the administrator granular control over which actions a user can
perform with said privileges.
1. If for some reason you wish to enable the root account, simply give it a password:
Configurations with root passwords are not supported.
• sudo passwd
Sudo will prompt you for your password, and then ask you to supply a new
password for root as shown below:
• [sudo] password for username: (enter your own password)
• Enter new UNIX password: (enter a new password for root)
• Retype new UNIX password: (repeat new password for root)
• passwd: password updated successfully
2. To disable the root account password, use the following passwd syntax:
• sudo passwd -l root
However, to disable the root account itself, use the following command:
• usermod --expiredate 1
3. You should read more on Sudo by reading the man page:
• man sudo
By default, the initial user created by the Ubuntu installer is a member of the
group "sudo" which is added to the file /etc/sudoers as an authorized sudo user. If you
wish to give any other account full root access through sudo, simply add them to
the sudo group
Adding and Deleting Users
The process for managing local users and groups is straightforward and differs very
little from most other GNU/Linux operating systems. Ubuntu and other Debian based
distributions encourage the use of the "adduser" package for account management.
1. To add a user account, use the following syntax, and follow the prompts to give the
account a password and identifiable characteristics, such as a full name, phone
number, etc.

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• sudo adduser username

2. To delete a user account and its primary group, use the following syntax:
• sudo deluser username
Deleting an account does not remove their respective home folder. It is up
to you whether or not you wish to delete the folder manually or keep it according
to your desired retention policies.
Remember, any user added later on with the same UID/GID as the previous
owner will now have access to this folder if you have not taken the necessary
precautions.
You may want to change these UID/GID values to something more
appropriate, such as the root account, and perhaps even relocate the folder to
avoid future conflicts:
• sudo chown -R root:root /home/username/
• sudo mkdir /home/archived_users/
• sudo mv /home/username /home/archived_users/
3. To temporarily lock or unlock a user account, use the following syntax, respectively:
• sudo passwd -l username
• sudo passwd -u username
4. To add or delete a personalized group, use the following syntax, respectively:
• sudo addgroup groupname
• sudo delgroup groupname
5. To add a user to a group, use the following syntax:
• sudo adduser username groupname
User Profile Security
When a new user is created, the adduser utility creates a brand new home
directory named /home/username. The default profile is modeled after the contents
found in the directory of /etc/skel, which includes all profile basics.
If your server will be home to multiple users, you should pay close attention to the
user home directory permissions to ensure confidentiality. By default, user home
directories in Ubuntu are created with world read/execute permissions. This means that
all users can browse and access the contents of other users home directories. This may
not be suitable for your environment.
1. To verify your current user home directory permissions, use the following syntax:
• ls -ld /home/username
The following output shows that the directory /home/username has world-
readable permissions:
• drwxr-xr-x 2 username username 4096 2007-10-02 20:03 username
2. You can remove the world readable-permissions using the following syntax:
• sudo chmod 0750 /home/username
Some people tend to use the recursive option (-R) indiscriminately which
modifies all child folders and files, but this is not necessary, and may yield other
undesirable results. The parent directory alone is sufficient for preventing
unauthorized access to anything below the parent.
A much more efficient approach to the matter would be to modify the
adduser global default permissions when creating user home folders. Simply edit
the file /etc/[Link] and modify the DIR_MODE variable to something
appropriate, so that all new home directories will receive the correct permissions.

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• DIR_MODE=0750
3. After correcting the directory permissions using any of the previously mentioned
techniques, verify the results using the following syntax:
• ls -ld /home/username
4. The results below show that world-readable permissions have been removed:
• drwxr-x--- 2 username username 4096 2007-10-02 20:03 username
Password Policy
A strong password policy is one of the most important aspects of your security
posture. Many successful security breaches involve simple brute force and dictionary
attacks against weak passwords. If you intend to offer any form of remote access
involving your local password system, make sure you adequately address minimum
password complexity requirements, maximum password lifetimes, and frequent audits of
your authentication systems.
By default, Ubuntu requires a minimum password length of 6 characters, as well as
some basic entropy checks. These values are controlled in the file /etc/pam.d/common-
password, which is outlined below.
• password [success=1 default=ignore] pam_unix.so obscure sha512
If you would like to adjust the minimum length to 8 characters, change the appropriate
variable to min=8. The modification is outlined below.
• password [success=1 default=ignore] pam_unix.so obscure sha512
minlen=8

Creating a User Account and Password

When you first started your Linux system after installation, you were given the
opportunity to create one or more user accounts using the Setup Agent. If you did not
create at least one account (not including the root account) you should do so now. You
should avoid working in the root account for daily tasks.
There are two ways to create new and/or additional user accounts: using the
graphical User Manager application or from a shell prompt.
To create a user account graphically using the User Manager:
1. Select Applications (the main menu on the panel) => System Settings => Users &
Groups from the panel.
You can also start the User Manager by
typing redhat-config-users at a shell prompt.
2. If you are not logged in as root, you will be
prompted for your root password.
3. The window shown in Figure will appear.
Click Add User.
4. In the Create New User dialog box, enter a
username (this can be an abbreviation or
nickname), the full name of the user for whom
this account is being created, and a password
(which you will enter a second time for verification). The name of this user's home
directory and the name of the login shell should appear by default. For most users,
you can accept the defaults for the other configuration options. Refer to the Linux
System Administration Guide for details about additional options.
5. Click OK. The new user will appear in the user list, signaling that the user account
creation is complete.

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To create a user account from a shell prompt:

1. Open a shell prompt.
2. If you are not logged in as root, type the command su - and enter the root
password.
3. Type useradd followed by a space and the username for the new account you are
creating at the command line (for example, useradd jjkcc). Press [Enter]. Often,
usernames are variations on the user's name, such as jjkcc User account names
can be anything from the user's name, initials, or birthplace to something more
creative.
4. Type passwd followed by a space and the username again (for example, passwd
jjkcc).
5. At the New password: prompt enter a password for the new user and press
[Enter].
6. At the Retype new password: prompt, enter the same password to confirm your
selection.

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Step by Step
1. Click the icon at the far right of the menu bar and select System Settings.
2. Open User Accounts.
3. You need administrator privileges to add user accounts. Click Unlock in the top
right corner and type your password.
4. In the list of accounts on the left, click the + button to add a new user account.
5. If you want the new user to have administrative access to the computer, select
Administrator for the account type. Administrators can do things like add and
delete users, install software and drivers, and change the date and time.
6. Enter the new user's full name. The username will be filled in automatically based
on the full name. The default is probably OK, but you can change it if you like.
7. Click Create.
8. The account is initially disabled until you choose what to do about the user's
password. Under Login Options click Account disabled next to Password. Select
Set a password now from the Action drop-down list, and have the user type their
password in the New password and Confirm password fields.
9. You can also click the button next to the New password field to select a randomly
generated secure password. These passwords are hard for others to guess, but
they can be hard to remember, so be careful.
10. Click
Installing and Managing Samba server
Samba is a software package which helps to share files between linux and
windows, This post explains, how to share files between ubuntu and windows using
samba. This is a very basic guide only for beginners.
Samba installation on ubuntu
Open terminal ( CTRL + ALT + t ) and follow the steps.
Step 1 » Update the respository .
krizna@leela:~$ sudo apt-get update
Step 2 » Install samba by typing the below command.
krizna@leela:~$ sudo apt-get install samba samba-common
Step 3 » Install GUI admin tool and it’s dependencies.
krizna@leela:~$ sudo apt-get install python-glade2 system-config-sambanow
installation is over.
Samba configuration on ubuntu
Step 4 » Create a user with restricted shell access.
krizna@leela:~$ sudo useradd -s /bin/false myshare
Here myshare is the username.
Step 5 » create samba password for the user myshare.
krizna@leela:~$ sudo smbpasswd -a myshare
New SMB password:
Retype new SMB password:
Step 6 » Create a folder for sharing .
krizna@leela:~$ sudo mkdir /shareyou
can also create in the user home directory .
Step 7 » Modify ownership of the share folder .
( Not required if the folder is created in home directory ).
krizna@leela:~$ sudo chown -R myshare /share

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Step 8 » Now open the GUI Samba admin tool

Step 9 » Click Add new share and enter the share details under basic tab like below
image.

Step 10 » Add the username ( myshare ) for your share

under access tab and click ok.

Step 11 » Now you can able to access you share from windows machines using ip
address.

STEP -1

STEP -2

STEP -3

Step
12 » From ubuntu

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Installing and Managing Apache Server

The Apache HTTP server is the most widely-used web server in the world. It
provides many powerful features including dynamically loadable modules, robust media
support, and extensive integration with other popular software. Here, we'll explain how
to install an Apache web server on your Ubuntu server.
Before you begin this guide, you should have a regular, non-root user with sudo
privileges configured on your server. Additionally, you will need to enable a basic firewall
to block non-essential ports. You can learn how to configure a regular user account and
set up a firewall for your server by following our initial server setup guide for Ubuntu.
When you have an account available, log in as your non-root user to begin.
Step 1 - Installing Apache
Apache is available within Ubuntu's default software repositories, making it
possible to install it using conventional package management tools.
Let's begin by updating the local package index to reflect the latest upstream
changes:
• sudo apt update
Then, install the apache2 package:
• sudo apt install apache2
After confirming the installation, apt will install Apache and all required
dependencies.
Step 2 - Adjusting the Firewall
Before testing Apache, it's necessary to modify the firewall settings to allow
outside access to the default web ports. Assuming that you followed the instructions in
the prerequisites, you should have a UFW firewall configured to restrict access to your
server.
During installation, Apache registers itself with UFW to provide a few application
profiles that can be used to enable or disable access to Apache through the firewall.
List the ufw application profiles by typing:
sudo ufw app list
You will see a list of the application profiles:
Output
Available applications:
Apache
Apache Full
Apache Secure
OpenSSH
As you can see, there are three profiles available for Apache:
• Apache: This profile opens only port 80 (normal, unencrypted web traffic)
• Apache Full: This profile opens both port 80 (normal, unencrypted web traffic)
and port 443 (TLS/SSL encrypted traffic)
• Apache Secure: This profile opens only port 443 (TLS/SSL encrypted traffic)
It is recommended that you enable the most restrictive profile that will still allow the
traffic you've configured. Since we haven't configured SSL for our server yet in this guide,
we will only need to allow traffic on port 80:
sudo ufw allow 'Apache'
You can verify the change by typing:
sudo ufw status

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You should see HTTP traffic allowed in the displayed output:

Output
Status: active
To Action From
-- ------ ----
OpenSSH ALLOW Anywhere
Apache ALLOW Anywhere
OpenSSH (v6) ALLOW Anywhere (v6)
Apache (v6) ALLOW Anywhere (v6)
As you can see, the profile has been activated to allow access to the web server.
Step 3 - Checking your Web Server
At the end of the installation process, Ubuntu starts Apache. The web server should
already be up and running.
Check with the systemd init system to make sure the service is running by typing:
sudo systemctl status apache2
Output
[Link] - The Apache HTTP Server
Loaded: loaded (/lib/systemd/system/[Link]; enabled; vendor preset:
enabled)
Drop-In: /lib/systemd/system/[Link].d
└─[Link]
Active: active (running) since Tue 2018-04-24 20:14:39 UTC; 9min ago
Main PID: 2583 (apache2)
Tasks: 55 (limit: 1153)
CGroup: /[Link]/[Link]
├─2583 /usr/sbin/apache2 -k start
├─2585 /usr/sbin/apache2 -k start
└─2586 /usr/sbin/apache2 -k start
As you can see from this output, the service appears to have started successfully.
However, the best way to test this is to request a page from Apache.
You can access the default Apache landing page to confirm that the software is
running properly through your IP address. If you do not know your server's IP address,
you can get it a few different ways from the command line. Try typing this at your
server's command prompt:
hostname -I
You will get back a few addresses separated by spaces. You can try each in your
web browser to see if they work.
An alternative is typing this, which should give you your public IP address as seen
from another location on the internet:
curl -4 [Link]
When you have your server's IP address, enter it into your browser's address
bar:[Link] You should see the default Ubuntu Apache web page:

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This page indicates that Apache is working correctly. It also includes some basic
information about important Apache files and directory locations.
Step 4 - Managing the Apache Process
Now that you have your web server up and running, let's go over some basic management
commands.
To stop your web server, type:
sudo systemctl stop apache2
To start the web server when it is stopped, type:
sudo systemctl start apache2
To stop and then start the service again, type:
sudo systemctl restart apache2
If you are simply making configuration changes, Apache can often reload without
dropping connections. To do this, use this command:
sudo systemctl reload apache2
By default, Apache is configured to start automatically when the server boots. If
this is not what you want, disable this behavior by typing:
sudo systemctl disable apache2
To re-enable the service to start up at boot, type:
sudo systemctl enable apache2
Apache should now start automatically when the server boots again.
Step 5 - Setting Up Virtual Hosts (Recommended)
When using the Apache web server, you can use virtual hosts (similar to server
blocks in Nginx) to encapsulate configuration details and host more than one domain
from a single server. We will set up a domain called [Link], but you
should replace this with your own domain name. To learn more about setting up a
domain name with DigitalOcean,
Apache on Ubuntu has one server block enabled by default that is configured to
serve documents from the /var/www/html directory. While this works well for a single
site, it can become unwieldy if you are hosting multiple sites. Instead of
modifying /var/www/html, let's create a directory structure within /var/www for
our [Link] site, leaving /var/www/html in place as the default directory to be
served if a client request doesn't match any other sites.
Create the directory for [Link] as follows, using the -p flag to create any
necessary parent directories:
sudo mkdir -p /var/www/[Link]/html
Next, assign ownership of the directory with the $USER environmental variable:
sudo chown -R $USER:$USER /var/www/[Link]/html
The permissions of your web roots should be correct if you haven't modified
your unmask value, but you can make sure by typing:
sudo chmod -R 755 /var/www/[Link]
Next, create a sample [Link] page using nano or your favorite editor:
nano /var/www/[Link]/html/[Link]
Inside, add the following sample HTML:
/var/www/[Link]/html/[Link]
<html>
<head>
<title>Welcome to [Link]!</title>
</head>

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<body>
<h1>Success! The [Link] server block is working!</h1>
</body>
</html>
Save and close the file when you are finished.

In order for Apache to serve this content, it's necessary to create a virtual host file
with the correct directives. Instead of modifying the default configuration file located
at /etc/apache2/sites-available/[Link] directly, let's make a new one at
/etc/apache2/sites-available/[Link]:
sudo nano /etc/apache2/sites-available/[Link]
Paste in the following configuration block, which is similar to the default, but
updated for our new directory and domain name:
/etc/apache2/sites-available/[Link]
<VirtualHost *:80>
ServerAdmin admin@[Link]
ServerName [Link]
ServerAlias [Link]
DocumentRoot /var/www/[Link]/html
ErrorLog ${APACHE_LOG_DIR}/[Link]
CustomLog ${APACHE_LOG_DIR}/[Link] combined
</VirtualHost>

The <VirtualHost> directive is used to group the settings used by apache for a
specific virtual host. The first thing we saw defined in it, is the *:80 instruction. This
indicates the ip address and port used by the virtual host.
Multiple virtual hosts can be defined in the same file or by following the "one
virtual host definition per file" scheme. In both cases the first definition is considered to
be the default, if no other virtual host is matched by the client request.
The ServerAdmin directive is optional, and it is used to specify the contact
address that the web server will show in case of error messages. Normally we want to
provide a valid email address as the argument of this directive, since the web server will
use mailto: on it, to make contacting the administrator easier.
DocumentRoot is mandatory and it's essential for the virtual host configuration.
The argument to this instruction must be a valid file-system path. The directory provided
will be considered the root directory of the virtual host, and must not contain a trailing
'/'. In this case, the document root directory its /var/www/html. If we take a look at its
content, we see that it contains the [Link] page used as the server welcome page we
saw before.
The last two instructions is provided in this virtual-host are Error-Log and
CustomLog. By using the first one, we set the file to which the server will log the
occurring errors. The second instead is used to log the requests sent to the server in the
specified format.
Notice that we've updated the DocumentRoot to our new directory and ServerAdmin to
an email that the [Link] site administrator can access. We've also added two
directives: ServerName, which establishes the base domain that should match for this
virtual host definition, and ServerAlias, which defines further names that should match as if
they were the base name.

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Save and close the file when you are finished.

Let's enable the file with the a2ensite tool:
sudo a2ensite [Link]
Disable the default site defined in [Link]:
sudo a2dissite [Link]
Next, let's test for configuration errors:
sudo apache2ctl configtest
You should see the following output:
Output
Syntax OK
Restart Apache to implement your changes:
sudo systemctl restart apache2
Apache should now be serving your domain name. You can test this by navigating
to [Link] where you should see something like this:

Step 6 – Getting Familiar with Important Apache Files and Directories

Now that you know how to manage the Apache service itself, you should take a few
minutes to familiarize yourself with a few important directories and files.
Content
• /var/www/html: The actual web content, which by default only consists of the
default Apache page you saw earlier, is served out of the
/var/www/html directory. This can be changed by altering Apache configuration
files.
Server Configuration
• /etc/apache2: The Apache configuration directory. All of the Apache configuration
files reside here.
• /etc/apache2/[Link]: The main Apache configuration file. This can be
modified to make changes to the Apache global configuration. This file is
responsible for loading many of the other files in the configuration directory.
• /etc/apache2/[Link]: This file specifies the ports that Apache will listen on. By
default, Apache listens on port 80 and additionally listens on port 443 when a
module providing SSL capabilities is enabled.
• /etc/apache2/sites-available/: The directory where per-site virtual hosts can be
stored. Apache will not use the configuration files found in this directory unless
they are linked to the sites-enabled directory. Typically, all server block
configuration is done in this directory, and then enabled by linking to the other
directory with the a2ensite command.
• /etc/apache2/sites-enabled/: The directory where enabled per-site virtual hosts
are stored. Typically, these are created by linking to configuration files found in
the sites-available directory with the a2ensite. Apache reads the configuration files
and links found in this directory when it starts or reloads to compile a complete
configuration.
• /etc/apache2/conf-available/, /etc/apache2/conf-enabled/: These directories
have the same relationship as the sites-available and sites-enabled directories, but
are used to store configuration fragments that do not belong in a virtual host. Files
in the conf-available directory can be enabled with the a2enconf command and
disabled with the a2disconf command.

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• /etc/apache2/mods-available/, /etc/apache2/mods-enabled/: These directories

contain the available and enabled modules, respectively. Files in ending
in .load contain fragments to load specific modules, while files ending
in .conf contain the configuration for those modules. Modules can be enabled and
disabled using the a2enmod and a2dismod command.
Server Logs
• /var/log/apache2/[Link]: By default, every request to your web server is
recorded in this log file unless Apache is configured to do otherwise.
• /var/log/apache2/[Link]: By default, all errors are recorded in this file.
The LogLeveldirective in the Apache configuration specifies how much detail the
error logs will contain.

What is LDAP?
Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP) is a network protocol for accessing
and manipulating information stored in a directory.
Services built on the LDAP protocol are used to serve a wide range of information.
The protocol is well-suited to serving information that must be highly available and
accessible, but does not change frequently. Common applications include:
1. Centralization of user and group information as part of Single Sign On (SSO).
2. Authenticate users in a web application.
3. Create a shared address directory for mail agents.
4. Authenticate users locally

Before starting this tutorial, you should have an Ubuntu server set up with Apache
and PHP. You can follow our tutorial How To Install Linux, Apache, MySQL, PHP (LAMP)
stack on Ubuntu, skipping Step 2 as we will not need the MySQL database server.
Additionally, since we will be entering passwords into the web interface, we should
secure Apache with SSL encryption. Read How To Secure Apache with Let's Encrypt on
Ubuntu to download and configure free SSL certificates. You will need a domain name to
complete this step. We will use these same certificates to provide secure LDAP
connections as well.

Steps to Setup Open LDAP

1. Download Open LDAP version 2.4.40 from its official website by following command:
• wget ftp: // [Link] /pub / OpenLDAP / openldap-release /
[Link]
2. Unzip downloaded file
• tar zxf [Link]
3. Configure Open LDAP
Now Navigate to your unzipped openldap directory by executing “cd openldap”
and then Run “ ./configure ”
command in terminal. Most probably you will get an error as “configure: error :
BDB/HDB: BerkeleyDB not available” .
To fix this we need to install BerkeleyDB. To install Berkeley DB follow command
below:
• sudo apt-get install libdb-dev

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4. Re-run ./configure command after successful installation of Berkeley DB as follows :

• ./configure
• Then execute command as follows:
▪ make depend
▪ make
5. Now install software by following command :
• sudo make install
6. Create Directory for your base dn which will be used to keep BDB files and indices for
your domain.
• sudo mkdir /usr/local/var/openldap-data/[Link]
7. OpenLDAP with a BDB backend requires a DB_CONFIG file for configuration and
tuning of database. This file exists in / usr / local / etc / openldap /
DB_CONFIG.example. Copy this file to your base directory and rename it as
DB_CONFIG as follows.
• sudo cp /usr/local/etc/openldap/DB_CONFIG.example / usr / local / var
/ openldap-data / [Link]/
• sudo mv /usr/local/var/openldap-data/[Link] /
DB_CONFIG.example /usr/local/var/openldap-data/[Link] /
DB_CONFIG
NOTE : You can also change configuration of DB_CONFIG file for optimum performance and
tuning of database.
In our set up, we have kept default configuration in DB_CONFIG file.
8. Execute “sudo nano /usr/local/etc/openldap/[Link]” and Edit [Link] file to
specify connection information of your LDAP as follows :
• # Specify your LDAP connection information here
• suffix "dc=your-domain,dc=com"
• rootdn "cn=Manager,dc=your-domain,dc=com"
• rootpw secret
Then change following line to specify the base directory of your LDAP where the
BDB files containing the database and associated indices live. In our setup, our base
directory is /usr/local/var/openldap-data/[Link]
• directory /usr/local/var/openldap-data/[Link]
9. Start LDAP
• Goto /usr/local/libexec directory, and execute following
o sudo ./slapd
10. Check slapd is running or not by following command:
• ldapsearch -x -b '' -s base '(objectclass=*)' namingContexts
This command should return your base dn as follows:
• dn : namingContexts: dc=your-domain,dc=com
11. Open [Link] file by executing
“sudo nano /usr/local/etc/openldap/[Link]” and add following lines in it to add
required schema in LDAP :
• include /usr/local/etc/openldap/schema/[Link]
• include /usr/local/etc/openldap/schema/[Link]
12. Then Restart slapd as follows:
• To stop LDAP use following command :
o sudo kill -INT `cat /usr/local/var/run/[Link]`

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• Then to start LDAP, Goto /usr/local/libexec directory, and execute following

o sudo ./slapd
13. Now you are able to create Entries in LDAP from Apache Directory Studio.
• Open Apache directory studio and click on new connection. Enter
Hostname=<your-host-name>, port = 389 & click Next.
• Enter Bind DN or user and Bind password as per your configuration in
[Link]. file.
• In our example, it is cn=Manager, dc= [Link], dc=com and secret
respectively.
• Click on Finish.

Add Slapd as System Service

• If LDAP is installed by util commands then init script for slapd is automatically
created at time of installation. But if you have installed slapd by downloading zip file,
then you have to to add slapd as system service manually.
• To Manually add slapd as system service do as follows:
1. First create slapd service file as follows:
▪ sudo touch /etc/init.d/slapd
▪ cd /etc/init.d
▪ sudo nano slapd
2. Download slapd service file attached at the end of this post. Copy contents of that file
and paste it in your service file.
3. Open slapd service file and check if following paths are properly set or not for your
LDAP.
• SLAPD=/usr/local/libexec/slapd
• SLAPD_CONF=/usr/local/etc/openldap/[Link]
4. Now give necessary permission to service file as follows:
▪ sudo chmod +x /etc/init.d/slapd
5. Configure the service in init levels as follows:
• sudo ln -s /etc/init.d/slapd /etc/rc3.d/S90slapd
• sudo ln -s /etc/init.d/slapd /etc/rc4.d/S90slapd
• sudo ln -s /etc/init.d/slapd /etc/rc5.d/S90slapd
• sudo ln -s /etc/init.d/slapd /etc/rc0.d/K10slapd
• sudo ln -s /etc/init.d/slapd /etc/rc6.d/K10slapd
6. To enable System Startup links run following command:
• sudo update-rc.d slapd defaults
7. Restart slapd as follows:
• sudo service slapd restart
8. Now LDAP is setup as your system service, so use following commands to start and
stop and restart LDAP Server.
• sudo service slapd start
• sudo service slapd stop
• sudo service slapd restart

Enable Separate Logging for Open LDAP

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1. Execute “sudo nano /etc/rsyslog.d/[Link]” and edit following line as

follows to enable Open LDAP logging. :
*.*;auth,authpriv,[Link] -/var/log/syslog
Add following line there to enable generation of Open LDAP logs in separate file:
local4.* -/var/log/openldap/openldap
2. Create configuration file to manage Open LDAP log rotation by executing “sudo touch
/ etc / logrotate. d /openldap” and add following configuration in it . You can change
this configuration as per your requirements :
/var/log/openldap/openldap
{
# Add extension of date with name of log file
dateext
# Specify format of date appended with name of the log file
dateformat -%Y-%m-%[Link]
# Keep 365 days worth of backlogs
rotate 365
# Rotate log files daily
daily
# If the log file is missing, go on to the next one without issuing an
error message.
missingok
# Postpone compression of the previous log file until next rotation of
logs. This only works when used in combination with
# compress
delaycompress
# Compress old log files
compress
# Lines between postrotate and endscript are executed after the log
file is rotated. Following line stands for gracefully restart
# of rsyslog service after log rotation.
postrotate
invoke-rc.d rsyslog reload > /dev/null
endscript
}

3. Open /etc/[Link] file and uncomment following line to enable compression

of all log files generated by rsyslog service :
▪ compress
4. Then restart “rsyslog” and “slapd” service with following commands respectively :
▪ sudo service rsyslog restart
▪ sudo service slapd restart

What is DNS?
Here is an easy way to understand the DNS and how it works. If we need to access
[Link] in browser, the system will look for [Link]. Here at the end of
the .comthere will be a (.) so what is this ?.
The (.) represent the namespace Root server, there are total 13 root servers
globally available. While we accessing [Link] it will ask to name server as per

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operating system configuration. In Ubuntu, we used to configure the name-server

in /etc/[Link], while accessing [Link] my browser will ask to root name-
servers, if the root name-server don’t have my requested domain information it will
cache my requested information and forward my request to (TLD) Top Level
Domain name-server, even in TLD name-server my request is not available it will be
cached and forwarded to Authoritative name-server.
While the domain registration, our domain registered will define which
authoritative name-server should our domain use. So, authoritative name servers have
our domain information’s, while our request reach ANS it will reply for the query
that [Link] have [Link] at the same time it will be cached in Authoritative
name-server and send the request back to browser. Every above step is done within
milliseconds.
Hope you got what is DNS now, and how it works. Now let us set up a Caching DNS
Server in Ubuntu Server LTS.
Step 1: Installing DNS Server
First, take a look at the my local DNS server information such as static IP address
and hostname, which is used to for this article purpose.
IP Address: [Link]
Hostname: [Link]
To verify that the above settings are correct, we can use ‘hostnamectl‘ and
‘ifconfig‘ commands.
$ hostnamectl
$ ifconfig eth0 | grep inet

Verify System Hostname Next, we update the default repositories and do a system
upgrade, before setting-up DNS cache server.
$ sudo apt-get update && sudo apt-get upgrade –y

Upgrade Ubuntu
Now, install the DNS Packages bind and dnsutils using the following command.
$ sudo apt-get install bind9 dnsutils -y

Install DNS Serve

Once, dns installed, move to the bind
configuration directory, under /etc/bind.
$ /etc/bind/
$ ls -l

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Bind Configuration
Step 2: Setting DNS Cache Server
First of all, we setup and configure caching
server here. Open and edit the file
[Link] using vim editor.
$ sudo vim [Link]
Now, here the word ‘forwarders‘ is used to
cache domain name requests. So, here we are going
to use my router as the forwarder. Uncomment
the // in-front of the line’s as shown in the picture.
forwarders {
[Link];
};
Named Configuration
Save and exit the file using wq!. Now its time to start the bind server for a small testing.
$ sudo /etc/init.d/bind9 start

Start DNS Server

If we need to test whether caching works, we can use dig command and check
whether the cache working or not.
For example purpose, we going to dig [Link] now, at first, it will won’t be
cache, so it may may take some milliseconds, once it cached it will be in lightning speed.
$ dig @[Link] [Link]

Query DNS Lookups

Here, we can see in the above image at
first dig it took 1965 milliseconds for my query
and shows which ipaddress is binded
to [Link]. Let us try for one more dig and
see the Query time.
DNS Query Time
In the second try we got the query
within 5 milliseconds. Hope you know what is
caching server now. The above image shows that total 13 root servers are caching
[Link], because millions of peoples already accessed Ubuntu official site.
Step 3: Setting Master DNS Server

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Create a MASTER DNS Server, Here I’m defining the

domain name as [Link], edit the
file [Link] using vim editor.
$ sudo vim /etc/bind/[Link]
Enter the DNS-Master entry as shown below.
zone "[Link]" {
type master;
file "/etc/bind/[Link]";
};
zone: Hosts details in Domain
type: Master DNS.
file: Location to store zone information.

Create Zone in DNS

Create the zone file [Link] (Forward look-ups) from making a copy
from [Link].
$ sudo cp [Link] [Link]
Now open and edit the copied zone file using vim editor.
$ sudo vim [Link]

Copy Zone Files

Next, add the following example entry, which I have used for tutorial purpose. I
use the same for other virtual machine setups too. Modify the below entry as per your
requirement.
;
; BIND data file for local loopback interface
;`
$TTL 604800
@ IN SOA [Link]. [Link]. (
2014082801 ; Serial
604800 ; Refresh
86400 ; Retry
2419200 ; Expire
604800 ) ; Negative Cache TTL
;
@ IN NS [Link].
ns IN A [Link]
clt1 IN A [Link]
ldap IN A [Link]
ldapc IN A [Link]
mail IN CNAME [Link].
Save and exit the file using wq!..

Create Forward DNS Zone

Finally, restart the bind DNS service using below
command.
$ sudo service bind9 restart

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Start DNS Service

We need to confirm, whether our above zone
setup works. Let us check using dig command. Run the
command as follows from localhost query.
$ dig @[Link] [Link]

Verify DNS Zone

Let’s ping and test the [Link],
before that we need to change the dns-server entry to localhost in our dns server
machine and restart the network to get [Link] and edit the Network interface
settings and enter the DNS entry.
$ sudo vim /etc/network/interfaces
Change the DNS entry in the interface as below.
auto lo
iface lo inet loopback
auto eth0
iface eth0 inet static
address [Link]
netmask [Link]
gateway [Link]
network [Link]
broadcast [Link]
dns-nameservers [Link]
dns-search [Link]

Add DNS Entry

After adding entry, restart the Network using following
command.
$ sudo ifdown eth0 && sudo ifup eth0
If restarting network does not take effect, We must need
a restart. Now Let’s ping and check
the [Link], while its replying, we need to
get the ip address what we defined for host-name clt1.
$ ping [Link] -c 3

Ping Domain Setting Reverse DNS Lookups

Again open and edit the file [Link].
$ sudo vim /etc/bind/[Link]
Now add the following reverse dns lookup entry as
shown.
zone "[Link]" {
type master;
notify no;
file "/etc/bind/db.tecmintlocal192";

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};
Create Reverse DNS
Save and exit the file using wq!. Now create a db.tecmintlocal192 file, as I have
mentioned in the master file above for reverse look-up, copy the db.127 to
db.tecmintlocal192 using following command.
$ sudo cp db.127 db.tecmintlocal192
Now, open and edit a file db.tecmintlocal192 for setup the reverse look-up.
$ sudo vim db.tecmintlocal192
Enter the following entry as below, modify the below entry as per your requirement.
;
; BIND reverse data file for local loopback interface
;
$TTL 604800
@ IN SOA [Link]. [Link]. (
2014082802 ; Serial
604800 ; Refresh
86400 ; Retry
2419200 ; Expire
604800 ) ; Negative Cache TTL
;
@ IN NS ns.
100 IN PTR [Link].
111 IN PTR [Link].
200 IN PTR [Link].
211 IN PTR [Link].

Reverse DNS Entry

Restart the bind service using.
Now, verify the reserve look-up entry.
$ host [Link]
While we do a reverse look-up using an ip address as
shown above, it want to reply with a name as above
image shows.
Let’s do a check using dig command too.
$ dig [Link]

Reverse DNS Lookup

Here, we can see the Answer for our Query in Answer
Section as domain-name [Link] has the ip
address [Link].
Step 4: Setting Client Machine
Just change the ip address and dns entry in client
machine to Our local dns server [Link], if so our client
machine will get assigned host-name from local DNS-server.
Let us check the host-name of our client using following series
of commands.

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$ ifconfig eth0 | grep inet

$ hostname
$ dig -x [Link]

Verify Local DNS

Understanding zone file entry in dns, This image will
give you a small explanation what we have defined in zone
file entry.

OPTIMIZING FTP SERVICES

FTP, short for File Transfer Protocol, is a network protocol that was once widely
used for moving files between a client and server. It has since been replaced by faster,
more secure, and more convenient ways of delivering files. Many casual Internet users
expect to download directly from their web browser with https, and command-line users
are more likely to use secure protocols such as the scp or sFTP.
FTP is still used to support legacy applications and workflows with very specific
needs. If you have a choice of what protocol to use, consider exploring the more modern
options. When you do need FTP, however, vsftpd is an excellent choice. Optimized for
security, performance, and stability, vsftpd offers strong protection against many security
problems found in other FTP servers and is the default for many Linux distributions.
we'll show you how to configure vsftpd to allow a user to upload files to his or her
home directory using FTP with login credentials secured by SSL/TLS.
To follow along with this tutorial you will need: Once you have an Ubuntu server in place,
you're ready to begin.
Step 1 - Installing vsftpd
We'll start by updating our package list and installing the vsftpd daemon:
• sudo apt-get update
• sudo apt-get install vsftpd
When the installation is complete, we'll copy the configuration file so we can start
with a blank configuration, saving the original as a backup.
• sudo cp /etc/[Link] /etc/[Link]
With a backup of the configuration in place, we're ready to configure the firewall.
Step 2 - Opening the Firewall
We'll check the firewall status to see if it’s enabled. If so, we’ll ensure that FTP
traffic is permitted so you won’t run into firewall rules blocking you when it comes time
to test.
• sudo ufw status
In this case, only SSH is allowed through:
Output
Status: active
To Action From
-- ------ ----
OpenSSH ALLOW Anywhere
OpenSSH (v6) ALLOW Anywhere (v6)
You may have other rules in place or no firewall rules at all. Since only ssh traffic is
permitted in this case, we’ll need to add rules for FTP traffic.

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We'll need to open ports 20 and 21 for FTP, port 990 for later when we enable
TLS, and ports 40000-50000 for the range of passive ports we plan to set in the
configuration file:
• sudo ufw allow 20/tcp
• sudo ufw allow 21/tcp
• sudo ufw allow 990/tcp
• sudo ufw allow 40000:50000/tcp
• sudo ufw status
Now our firewall rules looks like:
Output
Status: active
To Action From
- ------ ----
OpenSSH ALLOW Anywhere
990/tcp ALLOW Anywhere
20/tcp ALLOW Anywhere
21/tcp ALLOW Anywhere
40000:50000/tcp ALLOW Anywhere
OpenSSH (v6) ALLOW Anywhere (v6)
20/tcp (v6) ALLOW Anywhere (v6)
21/tcp (v6) ALLOW Anywhere (v6)
990/tcp (v6) ALLOW Anywhere (v6)
40000:50000/tcp (v6) ALLOW Anywhere (v6)

With vsftpd installed and the necessary ports open, we're ready to proceed to the
next step.
Step 3 - Preparing the User Directory
we're going to create a user, but you may already have a user in need of FTP
access. We'll take care to preserve an existing user’s access to their data in the
instructions that follow. Even so, we recommend you start with a new user until you've
configured and tested your setup.
First, we’ll add a test user:
• sudo adduser sammy
Assign a password when prompted and feel free to press "ENTER" through the
other prompts.
FTP is generally more secure when users are restricted to a specific
[Link] accomplishes this with chroot jails. When chroot is enabled for local
users, they are restricted to their home directory by default. However, because of the
way vsftpd secures the directory, it must not be writable by the user. This is fine for a
new user who should only connect via FTP, but an existing user may need to write to
their home folder if they also shell access.
In this example, rather than removing write privileges from the home directory,
we're will create an ftp directory to serve as the chroot and a writable files directory to
hold the actual files.
Create the ftp folder, set its ownership, and be sure to remove write permissions
with the following commands:
• sudo mkdir /home/sammy/ftp
• sudo chown nobody:nogroup /home/sammy/ftp

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• sudo chmod a-w /home/sammy/ftp

Let's verify the permissions:
• sudo ls -la /home/sammy/ftp

Output
total 8
4 dr-xr-xr-x 2 nobody nogroup 4096 Aug 24 21:29 .
4 drwxr-xr-x 3 sammy sammy 4096 Aug 24 21:29 ..
Next, we'll create the directory where files can be uploaded and assign
ownership to the user:
• sudo mkdir /home/sammy/ftp/files
• sudo chown sammy:sammy /home/sammy/ftp/files
A permissions check on the files directory should return the following:
• sudo ls -la /home/sammy/ftp

Output
total 12
dr-xr-xr-x 3 nobody nogroup 4096 Aug 26 14:01 .
drwxr-xr-x 3 sammy sammy 4096 Aug 26 13:59 ..
drwxr-xr-x 2 sammy sammy 4096 Aug 26 14:01 files

Finally, we'll add a [Link] file to use when we test later on:
• echo "vsftpd test file" | sudo tee /home/sammy/ftp/files/[Link]

Now that we've secured the ftp directory and allowed the user access to the files
directory, we'll turn our attention to configuration.

Step 4 - Configuring FTP Access

We're planning to allow a single user with a local shell account to connect with
FTP. The two key settings for this are already set in [Link]. Start by opening the
config file to verify that the settings in your configuration match those below:
• sudo nano /etc/[Link]
• /etc/[Link]
...
# Allow anonymous FTP? (Disabled by default).
anonymous_enable=NO
#
# Uncomment this to allow local users to log in.
local_enable=YES
...
Next we'll need to change some values in the file. In order to allow the user to
upload files, we’ll uncomment the write_enable setting so that we have:
/etc/[Link]
...
write_enable=YES
...

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We’ll also uncomment the chroot to prevent the FTP-connected user from
accessing any files or commands outside the directory tree.
/etc/[Link]
...
chroot_local_user=YES
...
We’ll add a user_sub_token in order to insert the username in our local_root
directory path so our configuration will work for this user and any future users that
might be added.
/etc/[Link]
user_sub_token=$USER
local_root=/home/$USER/ftp
We'll limit the range of ports that can be used for passive FTP to make sure enough
connections are available:
/etc/[Link]
pasv_min_port=40000
pasv_max_port=50000
Note: We pre-opened the ports that we set here for the passive port range. If you
change the values, be sure to update your firewall settings.
Since we’re only planning to allow FTP access on a case-by-case basis, we’ll set up
the configuration so that access is given to a user only when they are explicitly added to a
list rather than by default:
/etc/[Link]
userlist_enable=YES
userlist_file=/etc/[Link]
userlist_deny=NO
userlist_deny toggles the logic. When it is set to "YES", users on the list are denied
FTP access. When it is set to "NO", only users on the list are allowed access. When you're
done making the change, save and exit the file.
Finally, we’ll create and add our user to the file. We'll use the -a flag to append to file:
• echo "sammy" | sudo tee -a /etc/[Link]
Double-check that it was added as you expected:
• cat /etc/[Link]
Output
sammy
Restart the daemon to load the configuration changes:
sudo systemctl restart vsftpd
Now we're ready for testing.
Step 5 - Testing FTP Access
We've configured the server to allow only the user sammy to connect via FTP.
Let's make sure that's the case.
Anonymous users should fail to connect: We disabled anonymous access. Here we'll
test that by trying to connect anonymously. If we've done it properly, anonymous users
should be denied permission:
• ftp -p [Link]
Output
Connected to [Link].
220 (vsFTPd 3.0.3)

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Name ([Link]:default): anonymous

530 Permission denied.
ftp: Login failed.
ftp>
Close the connection:
bye
Users other than sammy should fail to connect: Next, we'll try connecting as
our sudo user. They, too, should be denied access, and it should happen before they're
allowed to enter their password.
• ftp -p [Link]
Output
Connected to [Link].
220 (vsFTPd 3.0.3)
Name ([Link]:default): sudo_user
530 Permission denied.
ftp: Login failed.
ftp>
Close the connection:
bye

sammy should be able to connect, as well as read and write files: Here, we'll make
sure that our designated user canconnect:
• ftp -p [Link]

Output
Connected to [Link].
220 (vsFTPd 3.0.3)
Name ([Link]:default): sammy
331 Please specify the password.
Password: your_user's_password
230 Login successful.
Remote system type is UNIX.
Using binary mode to transfer files.
ftp>
We'll change into the files directory, then use the get command to transfer the test
file we created earlier to our local machine:
• cd files
• get [Link]
Output
227 Entering Passive Mode (203,0,113,0,169,12).
150 Opening BINARY mode data connection for [Link] (16 bytes).
226 Transfer complete.
16 bytes received in 0.0101 seconds (1588 bytes/s)
ftp>
We'll turn right back around and try to upload the file with a new name to test
write permissions:
• put [Link] [Link]
Output

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227 Entering Passive Mode (203,0,113,0,164,71).

150 Ok to send data.
226 Transfer complete.
16 bytes sent in 0.000894 seconds (17897 bytes/s)
Close the connection:
bye
Now that we've tested our configuration, we'll take steps to further secure our server.
Step 6 - Securing Transactions
Since FTP does not encrypt any data in transit, including user credentials, we'll
enable TTL/SSL to provide that encryption. The first step is to create the SSL certificates
for use with vsftpd.
We'll use openssl to create a new certificate and use the -days flag to make it valid
for one year. In the same command, we'll add a private 2048-bit RSA key. Then by setting
both the -keyout and -out flags to the same value, the private key and the certificate will
be located in the same file.
We'll do this with the following command:
• sudo openssl req -x509 -nodes -days 365 -newkey rsa:2048 -keyout
/etc/ssl/private/[Link] -out /etc/ssl/private/[Link]

You'll be prompted to provide address information for your certificate. Substitute

your own information for the questions below:
Output
Generating a 2048 bit RSA private key
............................................................................+++
...........+++
writing new private key to '/etc/ssl/private/[Link]'
-----
You are about to be asked to enter information that will be incorporated into
your certificate request.
What you are about to enter is what is called a Distinguished Name or a DN.
There are quite a few fields but you can leave some blank For some fields there will be a
default value,
If you enter '.', the field will be left blank.
-----
Country Name (2 letter code) [AU]:US
State or Province Name (full name) [Some-State]:NY
Locality Name (eg, city) []:New York City
Organization Name (eg, company) [Internet Widgits Pty Ltd]:DigitalOcean
Organizational Unit Name (eg, section) []:
Common Name (e.g. server FQDN or YOUR name) []: your_IP_address
Email Address []:

Once you've created the certificates, open the vsftpd configuration file again:
• sudo nano /etc/[Link]
Toward the bottom of the file, you should two lines that begin with rsa_. Comment
them out so they look like:
• /etc/[Link]
• # rsa_cert_file=/etc/ssl/certs/[Link]

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• # rsa_private_key_file=/etc/ssl/private/[Link]
Below them, add the following lines which point to the certificate and private key
we just created:
• /etc/[Link]
• rsa_cert_file=/etc/ssl/private/[Link]
• rsa_private_key_file=/etc/ssl/private/[Link]
After that, we will force the use of SSL, which will prevent clients that can't deal
with TLS from connecting. This is necessary in order to ensure all traffic is encrypted but
may force your FTP user to change clients. Change ssl_enable to YES:
• /etc/[Link]
• ssl_enable=YES
After that, add the following lines to explicitly deny anonymous connections over
SSL and to require SSL for both data transfer and logins:
• /etc/[Link]
• allow_anon_ssl=NO
• force_local_data_ssl=YES
• force_local_logins_ssl=YES
After this we'll configure the server to use TLS, the preferred successor to SSL by
adding the following lines:
• /etc/[Link]
• ssl_tlsv1=YES
• ssl_sslv2=NO
• ssl_sslv3=NO
Finally, we will add two more options. First, we will not require SSL reuse because
it can break many FTP clients. We will require "high" encryption cipher suites, which
currently means key lengths equal to or greater than 128 bits:
• /etc/[Link]
• require_ssl_reuse=NO
• ssl_ciphers=HIGH
When you're done, save and close the file.
Now, we need to restart the server for the changes to take effect:
• sudo systemctl restart vsftpd
At this point, we will no longer be able to connect with an insecure command-line
client. If we tried, we'd see something like:
• ftp -p [Link]
• Connected to [Link].
• 220 (vsFTPd 3.0.3)
• Name ([Link]:default): sammy
• 530 Non-anonymous sessions must use encryption.
• ftp: Login failed.
• 421 Service not available, remote server has closed connection
• ftp>
Next, we'll verify that we can connect using a client that supports TLS.
Step 7 - Testing TLS with FileZilla
Most modern FTP clients can be configured to use TLS encryption. We will
demonstrate how to connect using FileZilla because of its cross platform support. Consult
the documentation for other clients.

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When you first open FileZilla, find the Site Manager icon just below the word File,
the left-most icon on the top row. Click it:

A new window will open. Click the "New Site" button in the bottom right corner:

Under "My Sites" a new icon with the words "New site" will appear. You can name
it now or return later and use the Rename button.
You must fill out the "Host" field with the name or IP address. Under the
"Encryption" drop down menu, select "Require explicit FTP over TLS".
For "Logon Type", select "Ask for password". Fill in the FTP user you created in the
"User" field:

Click "Connect" at the bottom of the interface. You will be

asked for the user's password:

Click "OK" to connect. You should now be connected with your server with
TLS/SSL encryption.

When you’ve accepted the certificate, double-click the files folder and drag
[Link] to the left to confirm that you’re able to download files.

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When you’ve done that, right-click on the local copy, rename it to [Link]`
and drag it back to the server to confirm that you can upload files.

You’ve now confirmed that you can securely and successfully transfer files with
SSL/TLS enabled.
Step 8 - Disabling Shell Access (Optional)
If you're unable to use TLS because of client requirements, you can gain some
security by disabling the FTP user's ability to log in any other way. One relatively
straightforward way to prevent it is by creating a custom shell. This will not provide any
encryption, but it will limit the access of a compromised account to files accessible by
FTP. First, open a file called ftponly in the bin directory:
• sudo nano /bin/ftponly
We'll add a message telling the user why they are unable to log in. Paste in the
following:
• #!/bin/sh
• echo "This account is limited to FTP access only."
• Change the permissions to make the file executable:
• sudo chmod a+x /bin/ftponly
Open the list of valid shells:
• sudo nano /etc/shells
At the bottom, add:
• /etc/shells
• ...
• /bin/ftponly
Update the user's shell with the following command:
• sudo usermod sammy -s /bin/ftponly
Now try logging in as sammy:
• ssh sammy@[Link]
You should see something like:
Output
This account is limited to FTP access only.
Connection to [Link] closed.

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Configure Ubuntu Firewall (UFW)

Security is crucial when you run your own server. You want to make sure that only
authorized users can access your server, configuration, and services.
In Ubuntu, there is a firewall that comes preloaded. It's called UFW (Ubuntu-
Firewall). Although UFW is a pretty basic firewall, it is user friendly, excels at filtering
traffic, and has good documentation. Some basic Linux knowledge should be enough to
configure this firewall on your own.
1. Install UFW
UFW is installed by default in Ubuntu, but you can verify this: which ufw You
should receive the following output:
• /usr/sbin/ufw
If you don't receive output, that means that UFW is not installed. You can install it
yourself if this is the case:
• sudo apt-get install ufw
2. Allow connections
If you are running a web server, you want the world to be able to access your
website(s). Therefore, you need to make sure that the default TCP ports for web are open.
• sudo ufw allow 80/tcp
• sudo ufw allow 443/tcp
In general, you can allow any port you need by using the following format:
• sudo ufw allow <port>/<optional: protocol>
3. Deny connections
If you need to deny access to a certain port, use the deny command:
• sudo ufw deny <port>/<optional: protocol>
For example, you can deny access to your default MySQL port:
• sudo ufw deny 3306
UFW also supports a simplified syntax for the most common service ports:
• root@ubuntu:~$ sudo ufw deny mysql
• Rule updated
• Rule updated (v6)
It is highly recommended that you restrict access to your SSH port, (by default, this is
port 22), from anywhere except your trusted IP addresses.
4. Allow access from a trusted IP address
Typically, you would need to allow access only to publicly open ports, such as
port 80. Access to all other ports should be restricted or limited. You can whitelist your
home or office IP address, (preferably a static IP), to be able to access your server through
SSH or FTP:
• sudo ufw allow from [Link] to any port 22
You can also allow access to the MySQL port:
• sudo ufw allow from [Link] to any port 3306
5. Enable UFW
Before enabling (or restarting) UFW, you need to make sure that the SSH port is
allowed to receive connections from your IP address. To start/enable your UFW firewall,
use the following command:
• sudo ufw enable

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You will see the following output:

• root@ubuntu:~$ sudo ufw enable
• Command may disrupt existing ssh connections. Proceed with operation
(y|n)?
Press Y, then press ENTER to enable the firewall:
• Firewall is active and enabled on system startup
6. Check UFW status
Print the UFW rule list:
• sudo ufw status
You will see output similar to the following:
• Status: active
To Action From
-- ------ ----
80/tcp DENY Anywhere
443/tcp DENY Anywhere
3306 DENY Anywhere
22 ALLOW [Link]
3306 ALLOW [Link]
80/tcp (v6) DENY Anywhere (v6)
443/tcp (v6) DENY Anywhere (v6)
3306 (v6) DENY Anywhere (v6)
Use the verbose parameter to see a more detailed status report:
• sudo ufw status verbose
That output will resemble the following:
• Status: active
• Logging: on (low)
• Default: deny (incoming), allow (outgoing), disabled (routed)
• New profiles: skip
To Action From
-- ------ ----
80/tcp DENY IN Anywhere
443/tcp DENY IN Anywhere
3306 DENY IN Anywhere
22 ALLOW IN [Link]
3306 ALLOW IN [Link]
80/tcp (v6) DENY IN Anywhere (v6)
443/tcp (v6) DENY IN Anywhere (v6)
3306 (v6) DENY IN Anywhere (v6)
7. Disable/reload/restart UFW
If you need to reload the firewall rules run the following:
• sudo ufw reload
To disable, or stop UFW:
• sudo ufw disable
In order to restart UFW, you will need to disable it first, and then enable it again:
• sudo ufw disable
• sudo ufw enable

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 Smt. J. J. Kundalia Commerce College, Rajkot
(Computer Science Department)

Note: Before enabling UFW, make sure that the SSH port is allowed for your IP address.
8. Removing rules
To manage your UFW rules, you need to list them. You can do that by checking UFW
status with the parameter numbered:
• sudo ufw status numbered
You will see output similar to the following:
• Status: active
To Action From
-- ------ ----
[ 1] 80/tcp DENY IN Anywhere
[ 2] 443/tcp DENY IN Anywhere
[ 3] 3306 DENY IN Anywhere
[ 4] 22 ALLOW IN [Link]
[ 5] 3306 ALLOW IN [Link]
[ 6] 80/tcp (v6) DENY IN Anywhere (v6)
[ 7] 443/tcp (v6) DENY IN Anywhere (v6)
[ 8] 3306 (v6) DENY IN Anywhere (v6)
Now, to remove any of these rules, you will need to use these numbers in the square
brackets:
• sudo ufw delete [number]
To remove the HTTP rule, (80), use the following command:
• sudo ufw delete 1
9. Enabling IPv6 support
If you use IPv6 on your VPS, you need to ensure that IPv6 support is enabled in
UFW. To do so, open the config file in a text editor:
• sudo vi /etc/default/ufw
Once opened, make sure that IPV6 is set to "yes":
• IPV6=yes
After making this change, save the file. Then, restart UFW by disabling and re-
enabling it:
• sudo ufw disable
• sudo ufw enable
10. Back to default settings
If you need to go back to default settings, simply type in the following command. This
will revert any of your changes:
• sudo ufw reset
Congratulations, you've just set up some basic firewall rules.

What is Wine?
Wine (originally an acronym for "Wine Is Not an Emulator") is a compatibility
layer capable of running Windows applications on several POSIX-compliant operating
systems, such as Linux, macOS, & BSD. Instead of simulating internal Windows logic like a
virtual machine or emulator, Wine translates Windows API calls into POSIX calls on-the-
fly, eliminating the performance and memory penalties of other methods and allowing
you to cleanly integrate Windows applications into your desktop.
Installing Wine
169 | CS-22 : Operating System Concepts With UNIX / LINUX
 Smt. J. J. Kundalia Commerce College, Rajkot
(Computer Science Department)

Ubuntu versions of Wine (Recommended)

1. open the software center
2. Type wine and install 'wine'
Newer versions of Wine (Not Recommended)
If you are using 9.10 (Karmic) or 10.04 (Lucid), the Ubuntu Wine PPA provides the
newest development versions of Wine. Add the following to Software Sources:
• ppa:ubuntu-wine/ppa
Note, however, that these are development packages (ie beta software), and may
suffer from regressions and other problems not present in the stable version of Wine
included with Ubuntu. You should avoid using them unless the current stable version of
Wine does not support or is incompatible with the application you wish to use.
If you are using an older version of Wine and want support from WineHQ, you will
need to upgrade to the latest development version first. If you do this, however, please
file associated Wine bugs at winehq's Bugzilla Page rather than in Launch pad.
1. Initial Setup
Before using Wine, it is necessary to create the fake C: drive where your Windows
applications will be installed. To do this, enter the following command into the terminal:
You may find the terminal by going to Applications -> Accessories -> Terminal
• winecfg
You also have the option of configuring Wine via the Configure Wine option in the
Applications-> Wine menu.
This will create a hidden folder (.wine) in your home directory containing the fake
C: drive as well as registry files similar to those used in Windows. Once this directory is
created, the Wine Configuration Window will appear. This window will allow you to
customize a variety of settings for Wine, including which Windows Version that is
emulated, drive mappings, DLL overrides, as well as application specific settings. Click
the Ok button to close the window.

2. Installing Windows Applications With Wine

To install Windows applications using Wine, follow these instructions:
• Download the Windows application from any source (e.g. [Link]).
Download the .EXE (executable).
• Place it in a convenient directory (e.g. the desktop, or home folder).
• Open the terminal, and cd into the directory where the .EXE is located.
• Type wine [Link]
(e.g. wine realplayer_installer.exe).

This will start the .EXE using Wine. If it is an installer, it should then run as it
would in Windows. If the application asks for a directory to install the application to,
select put it under C:\Program Files.
3. To start/run Windows programs using Wine
After installing an application using the directions above, those applications can be
started and used by entering wine [Link] (e.g. wine [Link]). When
done, close the application as one would normally. You must run the installed executable,
which will by default be in the virtual Windows drive created by Wine, at ~/.wine/drive_c.
Generally programs will install themselves somewhere under Program Files inside the
virtual Windows drive, following Windows conventions.

170 | CS-22 : Operating System Concepts With UNIX / LINUX

 Smt. J. J. Kundalia Commerce College, Rajkot
(Computer Science Department)

You can also use the Wine file browser, by running winefile in a terminal. Clicking
the C:\ button in the toolbar will open a window where you can browse the virtual
Windows drive created in .wine. Double clicking an executable in the Wine file browser
will run it in Wine.
Instead of having to always enter the terminal or use the Wine file browser, you
may also create a desktop icon, and start a Wine application using that icon.
To do this, right click on the desktop and select "Create a launcher." If you wish,
select an icon from the list of available icons (or browse to an icon you would like to use),
fill out other information that is requested (Name, generic name, etc.). For the command,
type in wine [Link] (e.g. wine/home/john/
.wine/[Link]). The most important part of creating a launcher is the command,
the generic name is not as important. Just make sure you de-select "Run in terminal." This
completes the process.
In some cases the application requires to be running from a certain location. In
this case create launcher with command
• sh -c "cd /home/USER/.wine/drive_c/Program Files/Appdir/; wine
/home/USER/.wine/drive_c/Program Files/Appdir/[Link]"
Of course you will need to replace USER and Appdir with the proper data. If you
desire to have an icon on the panel, create a launcher on the panel of choice. Do this by
right-clicking the panel, selecting "Add to Panel," and selecting "Custom Application
Launcher." This will ask you for the same information as before.
Alternatively, to make life easier, you can set it so wine will automatically open
.exe files files for you - instead of using the Wine File to locate the file each time.
To do so, right click on the .exe file, select Properties, and then select the Open
With tab. Click the 'Add' button, and then click on 'Use a custom command'. In the line
that appears, type in wine, then click Add, and Close. Now all .exe files will be
automatically opened by Wine, so you can use Nautilus to browse and open them instead
of the Wine File.
4. Uninstalling Wine Applications
Open up a terminal window and type the command below.
• wine uninstaller
What this will do is open up a program similar to the Windows add/remove
programs control panel, allowing you to uninstall applications from a Wine installation.
Running uninstall programs directly via Wine should also work normally. Alternatively,
you could also simply delete the folder of the application. However, as when done in
Windows, this method will be unclean and will not remove the program's configuration
from the Wine registry like using an uninstaller will.

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