TOPIC 4
• The scientific study of rocks is Petrology.
• Petrologist classify rocks based on how they were formed.
• The three categories based on how the rocks form: igneous, sedimentary and
metamorphic rock.
IGNEOUS ROCK
• Igneous- formed from hardening and crystallization of magma or molten material
that originates deep within the earth.
• Igneous is from the Latin word “IGNIS” means fire.
• The parent material of an igneous rock is usually magma.
IGNEOUS ROCK
• Two types of igneous rock:
A. Extrusive/Volcanic rock - forms when magma makes its way to Earth’s surface as lava
and then cools.
The crystals are very small (fine grained) since the cooling process is fast.
B. Intrusive/Plutonic - It cools slowly beneath the Earth surface and are created by magma.
The intrusive igneous rocks have very large crystals (coarse grained).
IGNEOUS ROCK
Igneous rocks are classified based on
1. Composition
• FELSIC - light in color; feldspar and silicates
• MAFIC - dark in color; made up of magnesium and iron
• INTERMEDIATE – between mafic and felsic
• ULTRAMAFIC - very dark color
• Igneous rocks are classified based on
2. Texture- overall appearance of rock
• a. Aphanitic - fine grained
• b. Phaneritic- coarse grained
• c. Porphyritic- large crystals with small crystals
• [Link]- non-ordered solid from rapid quenching
• e. Pyroclastic- composite of ejected fragments
• f. Vesicular-a volcanic rock texture characterized by a rock being pitted with many
cavities (known as vesicles) at its surface and inside
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Sedimentary rocks provide information about surface conditions that existed in the
Earth’s past.
• Made up of sediments.
Particles of sand, shells, pebbles, and other fragments of materials called sediments,
accumulate in layers and over long period of time harden into rocks
Three types of sedimentary rocks
a. Clastic Sedimentary rock - formed from accumulation of clasts: little pieces of
broken rocks and shells. Examples: conglomerate, breccia, sandstone, shale
b. b. Chemical - formed when dissolved minerals precipitate from a solution.
Example: Halite - formed when a body of seawater becomes closed off and
evaporates.
[Link] - rocks formed from the accumulation of animal debris
Example: Coal - composed of organic matter in the form of plants fragments.
HOW SEDIMENTARY ROCK FORM
1. Weathering: Involves breaking of more giant rocks into smaller ones due to wind and
water. Weathering can transform boulders and even mountains into sediments such as
sand and mud. Dissolution is a chemical weathering process where partially acidic water
wears away solid rocks.
2. Erosion: The weathered materials are worn away and transported by natural forces
such as wind, water, ice, or gravity. Erosion starts the transportation process.
3. Transportation: The actual movement of eroded materials from their original position
to different places. Transportation occurs due to natural forces such as wind, water, ice, or
gravity.
4. Deposition: Next, the sediments, soil, or rocks are added to the preexisting landform
or landmass. Deposition occurs when the energy of the transportation medium becomes
too low to transport sediment.
5. Precipitation: The deposited sediments then form rocks and minerals from chemicals
that precipitate from water. As the water dries up, it leaves behind mineral deposits.
6. Lithification (Diagenesis): Clay, sand, and other sediments on the bottom of the
water bodies become sedimentary rock when slowly compacted into rocks from the weight
of overlying sediments. Lithification releases moisture, thus reducing the pore space of the
sediments, making the sedimentary rock compact. This process is also called
compaction
7. Cementation: Finally, salt crystals glue the layers together to form a compact
sedimentary rock.
METAMORPHIC ROCKS
Metamorphic - forms from pre-existing rocks: either metamorphic, igneous, sedimentary
(process: metamorphism).
The word "Metamorphism" comes from the Greek: meta = after, morph = form, so
metamorphism means the after form.
(protolith/parent material).
Metamorphism - transformation of one rock type into another.
2 types of metamorphism (HOW METAMORPHIC ROCK FORMED)
1. Regional-due to changes in pressure and temperature over large region of the
crust
2. Contact-mainly by heat due to contact with magma
Classification:
Foliation - any planar arrangement of mineral grains or structural features within the
rock.
a. foliated - appeared banded or layered, contains crystals Example: mica
b. Non foliated - made up of only few minerals
ROCK CYCLE
TOPIC 5
MINERALS AND MINING
TYPES OF UNDERGROUND MINING
[Link] AND PILLAR MINING Room and pillar mining is the activity of extracting minerals
from openings called rooms caved into ore seams. This method includes excavating
enclaves or rooms within the ore seam while leaving pillars in between to hold the roof.
The majority of the mineral extraction takes place in these rooms. Pillars could also be
excavated either towards the end of the mine’s lifecycle or as extraction moves to a
different level
2. BLOCK CAVING MINING Block caving mining includes drilling holes underground,
beneath the ore body, and using planned blasts to break down the ore and the rocks. Then
the mixture of rocks and ore fall with the help of gravity to be transported for processing.
Block caving mining often takes place once the production through open-pit mining
becomes uneconomical
3. LONGWALL MINING Longwall mining is the activity of extracting minerals using a large
shearer, often mounted on a conveyor. The shearer moves through the ore seam as it
extracts minerals. Longwall mining is best suited for ore deposits that are horizontally
distributed and where there is continuity of the deposits. Coal production often takes place
with the use of longwall mining
TYPES OF SURFACE MINING
[Link] MINING Strip mining is the activity of removing a layer of earth to access the minerals
that are in shallow deposits and continuing to do the same in adjacent areas without digging
deeper vertically. Strip mining is best suited for shallow and horizontally located deposits. Strip
mining activities often impacts a broader surface area. This is because the excavation activity
continues to move on the surface as shallow deposits are extracted.
2. OPEN-PIT MINING Open-pit mining is the activity of removing the earth to access the mineral
deposits and continuing to do it vertically in an open-pit. This method is best suited for mineral
deposits that are close to the surface of the earth but are not accumulated in a horizontal
manner. Open-pit mining often impacts a narrower surface area. This is because the excavation
activity continues deeper into earth, not horizontally on the surface, like strip mining
3. MOUNTAINTOP REMOVAL MINING Simply put, this method is the activity of removing the top of
a mountain or a hill to access the minerals deposited beneath it. The overburden then is used to
fill the nearby valleys. One could argue about the overlap between open-pit mining and
mountaintop removal mining methods. For example, consider open-pit mines in Chile that are on
top of a mountain range
Panning is a form of placer mining that uses a pan where large amounts of water and
a few handfuls of gold-bearing soil or gravel are placed. The contents of the pan are
swirled together, causing the lighter material to be washed over the side and leave the gold and
gravel behind. It’s one of the most ancient methods of extracting gold, and yet it’s still widely
practiced today because of its low cost and simplicity
There are plenty of advantages to using in-situ mining. It’s the most environmentally way to
mine ores, and involves minimal to no risk for both the workers and the communities
surrounding the site. The reduced noise, dust, and greenhouse gas effects are what make
insitu mining an advantageous mining method, both in terms of its economic and environmental
impacts.