Basic Electronics Course

1. Basic concepts of electricity and electronics

2. Ohm's Law
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7. Transistors
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CHAPTER 1

Basic Concepts of Electricity and Electronics

1.1 Definition of electric current:

We understand electric current as the flow of electrons that circulates through an electrical conductor.

The circulation of these electrons is determined by the properties of the medium through which they move.

The current is divided into two main branches: alternating and direct.

Alternating current is the one that changes polarity and amplitude over time.

Direct current is the one that remains with constant polarity and amplitude.

1.2 Atomic structure of conductors and insulators:

Elements have conductive properties or not according to their atomic structure.

The degree of conductivity of an element is given by the number of electrons in the outermost shell of the atom.

Copper is a conductor. The copper atom has 29 protons in the nucleus and 29 planetary electrons that revolve in
orbits within four shells around the nucleus. The first shell contains 2 electrons, the second 8, the third 18 and
the fourth, or outermost layer, 1 electron.

The maximum allowed number in the fourth layer is 2 x 42, that is, 32. So, this single electron in the outermost shell
The external is not linked to the core with force. It can be easily moved.

An atom of an insulator has two or more orbits, each of which is filled with the share of electrons. For
For example, if an atom has a nucleus of 10 protons, it will have 10 electrons. In the first shell, it will have 2 electrons, and the
The second 8. Since the second orbit is complete, it is very difficult to dislodge an electron from the atom.

The important difference between conductors and insulators is that in a conductor there is one or two electrons in the shell.
external, therefore they are not strongly bound to the nucleus, while insulators have their last complete orbit or
almost complete.

Semiconductors are manufactured elements that are not found in nature.

The flow of electric current leaves a series of physical phenomena in its wake, which have been studied and in some ...
cases were used for other purposes, such as magnetism.

Let's briefly review the main phenomena associated with the circulation of electrons.

Temperatura:

In every device there is heating due to operation. This is because there are no perfect conductors.
Every conductor has an intrinsic resistance, which, although very low, produces an extra energy consumption, which
not being utilized by the team, it is dissipated into the environment in the form of heat.

Magnetic field around a conductor:

When current flows through a conductor, electromagnetic fields are induced around it. This
the principle is the one used for electric motors, in which the field generated by the wire windings
of copper, are combined with other fields to produce efforts that make the rotor of the motor spin. The generators
they apply the same principle, but for energy generation.

It can also introduce interference, like when we bring a 220V AC cable close to a cable that
transmits an audio signal.

Imantation:

If a metal is introduced into an electromagnetic field produced by high-intensity direct current, it

It manages to organize the metal molecules, making it take on magnetic properties. This does not happen with
alternating current, since by constantly changing the direction of the field, no magnetizing effect is achieved.

Back electromotive force:

It is a force that occurs in all windings. It is due to the fact that all electric charge tends to oppose the cause.
that originated it. Inductive loads like relays, coils, speakers, etc. can generate very high current spikes.
big.

Tension

It is the potential difference between two points of an electrical circuit. Its unit of measurement is the Volt.

Current:

It is the amount of electrons that flow through a conductor in the span of 1 second. Its unit of measurement is the
Ampere.

Resistance

It is the degree of opposition that a material generates to the flow of electric current. Its unit of measurement is the Ohm.

Impedance:

It's the same as resistance. The difference is that the first refers to direct current, and the second to
alternating current.

Inductance:

Phenomenon produced in the coils, which present higher impedance the higher the frequency of the.
applied current. Its unit is the Henry.

Capacitance:

Phenomenon produced in capacitors, which present lower impedance the higher the frequency of
the applied current. Its unit is the Farad.

Conductancia:

It is the inverse of resistance. Its unit is the Siemens.

 Ohm's Law

2.1 Ohm's Law:

It is a law published by a German scientist of that surname, which postulates the following:

The current intensity flowing through a given circuit is directly proportional to the applied voltage and
inversely proportional to its resistance.

This law governs the behavior of electric charges within circuits.

The basic formulas are detailed below:

V= tensión I= corriente R= resistencia W= potencia

V=I x R

I=V/R

R=V/I

W=VxI

W=I2 x R

W=V2/ R

Making changes to the terms of the equations W

V=W/I

I2= W / R

V2= W x R

For the voltage drops across the resistors

Vc = Va - (I x R)

2.2 Exercises:

It is recommended to practice the following exercises to correctly assimilate Ohm's law, as it will be of constant help.
utility in study.

a. In a circuit, the resistive load is 150 ohms, and the applied voltage is 25 volts. Calculate the current.
circulating and dissipated power.
b. A circuit delivers a power of 50 watts over a load of 4 ohms. Calculate the circulating current and the
applied tension.
c. Calculate the necessary resistance to cause a voltage drop of 5 volts, with an applied voltage of 15.
volts. Also calculate the power dissipated over the resistance.
d. Calculate the voltage drop across a 5 ohm resistor with a current of 0.58 amps flowing.
e. Calculate the power dissipated from a resistor of 25 ohms, with an applied voltage of 30 volts.
Find out the circulating current as well.
 Resistances

3.1 Definition:

Electrical resistance is the opposition that an element offers to the flow of electrons through it.

This property is determined by the atomic structure of the element. If the outermost shell of an atom is complete.
or almost complete with the maximum number of electrons it can hold, there will be a binding force that will make the
electrons cannot be easily removed from the atom.

3.2 Types of resistances:

The resistors that are commercially used are pressurized carbon, metal film, and wire.

The pressed carbon resistors are made with pressed carbon granules, which provide resistance to the flow of
the electric current.

They are common in low dissipation applications. They are typically manufactured to support dissipations of ¼, ½, 1, and 2.
watts. However, these latter ones are no longer so common due to their relatively large size. Moreover, they are quite
variables with temperature and the passage of time.

Metal film resistors are used for applications where dissipation is required.
high and great stability against temperature changes and the passage of time itself.

They are made with a microscopic film of metal, which is wound onto a ceramic substrate.

Wire resistors are used to work with high dissipations. They are made with high wire.
winding resistivity on a ceramic substrate. In many cases, they are vitrified to operate at high
temperatures.

The most common dissipations are 5, 10, 15, and 20 watts.

Due to its dissipation, it is not uncommon to find resistors of this type that operate at temperatures of up to 100º C.

There are so-called variable resistors, which can change their resistance through a slider that moves.
3.3 Series and parallel association:

When non-commercial resistance values need to be formed, or to achieve lower power dissipation.
in each one, associations are used.

Resistances can be connected in series, parallel, and combinations of both.

We will study each case, to move on at the end of this chapter to practical exercises.

Series Association:

In this type, the resistors are placed one after the other. The total resistance is the sum of all of them.
Each resistor produces a voltage drop. The current that flows through each of them is always the same.
Total voltage drop is the sum of all the individual ones.

Vo = Vcc - (I x R1) - (I x R2) - ... - (I x Rn)

The power dissipated by each resistor is the ratio between the circulating current and the voltage drop it causes. The
Total power is the sum of the individual ones.

Pt=(VR12/ R1) + (VR22/ R2) + … + (VRn2/ Rn)

Parallel association:

In this type, the resistors are placed all together, connecting their ends. The total resistance is the following

For two resistances Rt=(R1 x R2) / (R1 + R2)

For more than two resistors Rt = 1 / ( (1 / R1) + (1 / R2) + … + (1 / Rn) )

La caída de tensión producida es determinada por la resistencia resultante de la asociación.

Vo=Vcc – Rt

The total current that flows is distributed among the resistances, depending on the individual value of each one of them.

It = (VR1 / R1) + (VR2 / R2) + … + (VRn / Rn)

The power dissipated by each of the resistors is equal to the current flowing through each of them and to its
individual resistance.

Pt=(IR12x R1) + (IR22x R2) + ... + (IRn2x Rn)

3.4 Resistance check:

To check the status of a resistor, you need to have the essential tool for the
electronics. The Multimeter.
In this example, the first digit is a 2, the second is also a 2, and the third is the multiplier, in this case it is
103, that is, 1000.

The fourth color is tolerance, that is, the variation that the resistance can have in relation to the value indicated in its
code.

To avoid complications, multiples are used for large resistance values.

Kilo ohm: Kohm=1000 Mega ohm: Mohm=1000000

COLOR CODE FOR RESISTORS

Color Value Multiplier Tolerance
Black 0 1

Brown 1 10

Red 2 100

Orange 3 1000

Yellow 4 10000

Green 5 100000

Blue 6 1,000,000

Violet 7

Gray 8

White 9

Golden 0.1 5%

Silver 0.01 10%

Without color

If the value has a tolerance of plus or minus 10%, we can consider it functional for general applications. If its
The value differs greatly from the printed colors, we need to replace it with a new one.

3.5 Variation of resistance with time and temperature:

Every resistor has a coefficient of variation due to aging, as well as due to thermal variation.

Carbon resistors are the least stable, as they have a significant variation in both directions.

Metal film resistors are much more stable than the latter.

Wire resistors are also stable.

Carbon resistors have an average temperature drift coefficient of (6/10000) x ºC negative.

while demetal films have an average positive shift of (5/100000) x ºC.

By connecting a carbon resistor and a metal film resistor in series, a creep resistance can be obtained.
 a. Four resistors are connected in series: 100 ohms, 220 ohms, 1.5 Kohms, and 2.2 K ohms, with a
voltage of 56 volts and a current of 0.08 amperes (80 milliamperes). Calculate the equivalent series resistance.
total voltage drop and the individual for each resistor.
b. Three resistors are connected in series: 270 ohms, 4.7 Kohms, and 15 ohms, with a voltage of 15 volts.
a current of 0.05 amperes (50 milliamperes). Calculate the individual voltage drops for each
resistance, the power dissipated by each of them and the sum of them.
c. There are two resistors associated in parallel: 180 ohms and 220 ohms, with a current of 0.1 ampere (100
milliamperes). Calculate the equivalent parallel resistance and the current flowing through each branch of the parallel.
d. Three resistors are connected in parallel: 1 Kohm, 2.2 Kohms, and 2.2 Mohms, with a voltage of 60 volts.
Calculate the equivalent parallel resistance, the current through each branch of the parallel circuit, and the total voltage drop.
circuit.

CHAPTER 4

Capacitors

4.1 Definition:

The capacitor is a component that, as its name indicates, stores energy for a time, theoretically.
infinite, but in reality depends on the ESR (equivalent series resistance), a type of loss resistance that
presents all capacitor.

The capacitor behaves like an open circuit for direct current, but in alternating current, its reactance decreases to
measure that increases frequency.

There are capacitors of various types. Here we will focus on the most common ones.

4.2 Types of capacitors:

Ceramics: They are very cheap capacitors, but they have the disadvantage of being very variable over time and the
temperature. Furthermore, its capacity is low in relation to its size. They are generally used as couplers in
audio.

Polyester: They are very large capacitors depending on their capacity, but they are very stable over time and the
temperature. They allow for very high insulation (commercially available up to 630 volts). Generally, they
they are used as a time base in oscillators that require high stability. In audio matters, they exhibit better
sound that the ceramics.

Electrolytic: They are capacitors that achieve large capacities in small sizes. This is because it has a
construction with a chemical substance as a dielectric, instead of polyester or ceramic like the previous ones. That
It produces that this type of capacitor has polarity. Its disadvantage is that they are extremely variable over time and
the temperature, and its cost is relatively high at high capacities or high insulation. Its use generally focuses on
in source filters and audio output of amplifiers.

Tantalum: It is similar to the previous one in that it allows for high capacities in small sizes, but they are
more stable than the previous ones with respect to temperature and the passage of time. They also exhibit polarity.
They are mainly used in audio.

Variables: They have the characteristic of being able to vary their capacity by changing the surface area of the capacitor plates.
or the distance between them.
In this type, the capacitors are placed one after the other. The total capacitance is as follows

For two capacitors Ct=(C1 x C2) / (C1 + C2)

For more than two capacitors Ct = 1 / ( (1 / C1) + (1 / C2) + … + (1 / Cn) )

Parallel Association:

In this type, the capacitors are placed all together, connecting their ends. The total capacitance is the following

Ct=C1 + C2 + … + Cn

4.4 Capacitor checking:

To check a capacitor, we will need an analog multimeter (with a needle, not with a display), or a
capacitor tester, although the latter is a quite expensive instrument.

As in practice the unit of the Farad is very large, submultiples are used.

Micro Faradio: µF=C/1000000 nano Faradio: nF=µF/1000 pico Faradio: pF=nF/1000

With an analog multimeter set to the ohms scale, we will proceed to check its condition. To do this,
we will select the corresponding scale, which is shown in the following table:

SCALE TABLE FOR CAPACITOR MEASUREMENT

< 1 µF R x 10000
1 – 10 µF R x 1000
10 –47 µF R x 100
47 – 470 µF R x 10
470 µF Rx1

The values are approximate

a. We select an intermediate scale, for example Rx10.

b. We measure the terminals of the capacitor.
c. We took the measurement by reversing the legs, that is, turning the capacitor and measuring it upside down compared to the step.
previous.
d. In the previous step, the multimeter needle should jump, and then go back to the beginning (infinite resistance).
e. If the needle does not jump, it is because the capacitor is broken. On the other hand, if the resistance does not get close to
infinite, it's because it has leaks. If the needle rises to resistance 0, the capacitor is short-circuited.

4.5 Ejercicios:

a) Three capacitors of 220µF are connected in parallel. Calculate the equivalent capacitance.

b) There are two 100nF capacitors connected in series, and these two in parallel with a 220nF capacitor. Calculate the
equivalent capacitance of the series, and then the equivalent with the parallel.

c) Three 22µF capacitors are connected in series. Calculate the equivalent capacitance.
5.1 Definition:

The coil is a winding of copper wire on a core, which can be air (without a core), ferrite, or iron.
silicon, etc.

With direct current it acts like a conductor, opposing a resistance that depends on the total resistance of the
wound wire.

In alternating current, on the other hand, it has the property of increasing its reactance as the frequency increases. It is at the
inverse of the capacitor.

Combined with the capacitor, resonant circuits can be obtained, in which resonance occurs when
the cutoff frequencies of both elements coincide.

5.2 Types of coils:

The most common coils are detailed below.

With iron core: This type is made with a winding of copper wire on a base of soft iron. This
With laminated core: This core is made up of thin sheets of silicon that intertwine to form a core.
compact. It allows handling high powers, and reduces losses and heating.

A typical application of coils is the transformer. It is a device that basically consists of a winding.
primary, to which an alternating voltage is applied, and a secondary, from which another voltage is extracted by induction
Magnetic core. This voltage depends on the turns ratio between the windings.
This type of device "does not work with direct current", as the action of an alternating current is necessary to
achieve magnetic induction.

Depending on their application, the cores can also be made of ferrite or air, for high frequencies.

Coils are measured in Henry, but since in practice it is a very large unit, submultiples are used:

Mili Henry: mHy=L/1000 Micro Henry: µF=µF/1000000

CHAPTER 6

Diodes

6.1 Definition:

Diodes are solid-state semiconductor devices, usually made of silicon, to which are added
impurities to achieve its characteristics.

They have two terminals, called anode and cathode.

Basically, a diode is used to rectify electric current. Its main characteristic is that it allows
current flow in one direction. Due to its construction, the silicon diode has direct polarization
(current flow from anode to cathode) a voltage drop of about 0.6 to 0.7 volts, and in reverse.
(blocking) has a practically negligible leakage current.

There are special use diodes, such as Zener, Schottky, Signal, etc. We will describe them below.
6.2 Types of diodes:

General purpose diodes: These are primarily used as rectifiers or as protection in battery-operated devices.
preventing their deterioration by connecting them with the reverse polarity to the one used. Generally, they are not used in alternating current for
frequencies above 100 cycles (100 Hertz).

This problem is called "recovery time," and it is the time it takes for the diode to absorb the change in polarity.
para bloquear la circulación de corriente. Si se hace trabajar un diodo a una frecuencia más alta que la estimada por el
Manufacturer, the diode will begin to overheat until thermal embrittlement occurs, resulting in the burning of the
same.

Zener diodes: These diodes behave like a regular diode in the forward direction, but in reverse, they possess what is called
"tensión de Zener". Llegando a una determinada tensión inversa, el diodo comienza a conducir, y si se sigue
increasing the voltage, the Zener will keep it at a constant value, which is its reverse voltage. Exceeding a limit, the
diode is destroyed.

Schottky diodes: These diodes are designed to perform the same function as general-purpose ones, but at high
frequencies. They are used, for example, in computer power supplies, where the frequency of the current
Alternating current can reach 100KHz (100,000 cycles per second).

Signal Diodes: They are diodes designed for use at high frequency, but generally with low power.

LED diodes: They are a type of diodes known as 'Light Emitting Diodes' (LED for its acronym in English). It has the
property of emitting light when a direct current is applied. There are many types, colors, and even
sparkling and of various colors.

Power diodes: They are diodes with a metal casing, generally of large dimensions. They are used for
example, in battery chargers and automotive alternators.

6.3 Diode Testing:

The diodes are checked with the multimeter, using the R x 1 scale or, if the model has it, the position of the scale.
what has the symbol of the diode.

In the first case, the multimeter (analog or digital) should show a low resistance value (between 20 and 500) in direct mode.
ohms, depending on the diode), and in reverse a value tending to infinity.

In case the direct reading shows a value that is too low or infinite, the diode is damaged. If the
Reverse reading has low resistance, indicating that it has leaks and needs to be replaced with a good one.
In the case of having the position with the diode symbol, a healthy diode will have a forward voltage value between 500 and 800.
(depending on the type of diode), while in reverse it should measure infinity. Otherwise, the diode is damaged.

6.4 Example circuits:

a) Half-wave rectifier: In this circuit, the diode conducts during half of the alternating current cycle. Of this
Only a semicircle passes to the other side of the circuit.

b) Full-wave rectifier: In this circuit, the diodes are configured in a bridge to allow both
semicircles of the alternating current pass to the positive of the circuit.

c) Voltage regulator with Zener diode: In this circuit, the Zener diode forms a voltage regulator, which protects the
circuit of voltage variations coming from the power supply.
 CHAPTER 7

Transistors

7.1 Definition:

Transistors are solid-state semiconductor devices, typically made from silicon, to which
they add impurities.

Transistors have different denominations based on their type of construction. We will focus on the most
common.

The transistor is a three-terminal element that has the property of varying the current that flows through it.
through a very small polarization. That is, large currents can be managed through injection
appropriate for a very small control current. This is the principle by which transistors are widely used
as power amplifying elements.

7.2 Types of transistors:

Bipolar: It is one of the most used transistors. It consists of three blocks of semiconductor material, which can be
configured in NPN or PNP configuration, and with three terminals, Base, Collector, and Emitter.

The denominations NPN and PNP correspond to the type of material with which the silicon blocks are doped. These
blocks are actually one single one, the secret is that by adding impurities in precise places, zones are produced
inside the block, delimited by joints. This allows it to have semiconductor properties.

By applying the appropriate polarization to the transistor's base, it is possible to vary its gain, resulting in amplification.
from the signal applied to the base.

The current flow in one type of these transistors occurs in the opposite direction to that of the other type, and the
Polarizations are of opposite polarity.

There are bipolar transistors of many types and powers.

Unipolar: also called 'Field Effect' (FET for its initials in English), it allows controlling the flow of current.
electricity through an electric field.

By applying a reverse polarization to the gate, a "narrowing" of it occurs, which

They require very little gate current to operate, and they are extremely efficient.

7.3 Transistor Checking:

Before checking the transistors, one should refer to a component manual for their pin configuration, since
there are several existing combinations.

These graphs are prepared to check the status of the transistors, indicating how to measure a transistor.

The signs indicate the polarity of the multimeter probes when taking measurements.

To carry out these measurements, use the resistance scale on the R x 1 or R x 10 scale.

Any abnormal variation in the readings of the graphs will indicate a damaged transistor.
 b. Connect the negative tip to the drain or to the source.
c. In either case, the direct reading should measure a resistance of approximately 1Kohm, and
The inverse must be almost infinite.

If any of these readings is incorrect, the FET is defective.

For P-type FETs, the procedure is carried out with the tips reversed.

To measure a MOSFET, the resistance between the gate and either of the other two terminals must be nearly infinite.
A low resistance would indicate a failure in the gate's insulation, so the transistor must be replaced.
Between the drainage and source terminals, it should show an intermediate resistance value.

7.4 Example circuits:

In this example, we show a miniature amplifier using bipolar transistors. The output is of the type
"complementary", that is, one NPN transistor and another PNP.

CHAPTER 8

Integrated circuits

8.1 Definition:

An integrated circuit, as its name indicates, is a set of components concentrated within a single
semiconductor material tablet.

They are presented in plastic enclosures with spider leg-shaped terminals that come out of the side of the
encapsulated.

Depending on the type of packaging, they are known as SIP (Single In-line Package = In-line Package)
simple), or DIP (Dual In-line Package = Encapsulated in dual row).

There are other packages, but we will not cover them as they are more specific to certain types of integrated circuits.

Its variety is enormous, ranging from audio preamplifiers to complete TV processors.

The level of integration since its creation has been remarkable, reaching its peak with the processors.
para computadoras, donde cientos de millones de transistores son integrados dentro de una diminuta pastilla de material
semiconductor.
This integrated circuit contains an LED and a transistor inside, where the base is polarized by a light beam.
coming from the LED. This produces a variation in the collector-emitter resistance of the transistor. As the voltage increases
applied to the LED, decreases the collector-emitter resistance of the transistor.

RC 4558: Dual Operational Amplifier.

This high-performance dual operational amplifier is widely used in audio preamplifiers.

As shown in the figure on the right, each amplifier of the integrated circuit is formed by that circuit. Get an idea of the
level of integration of components.

Bibliography

Basic Electronics, U.S. Navy, Bureau of Naval Personnel, Training Publication Division

Repairing PC Power Supplies, Gastón Carlos Hillar, HASA Publishing

PC Assembly and Repair Manual, [Link].C.E. (Educational Cooperation Centers)

Silicon Semiconductors Manual, Texas Instruments

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